United States of America v. State Water Resources Control Board (182 Cal. App. 3d 82, 1986)

Opinion

RACANELLI, P. J.

This appeal raises a number of novel and complex questions concerning the interrelationship of the law of water quality and the law of water rights. The coordinated cases arise out of efforts by the State Water Resources Control Board (the Board) to set new water quality standards for the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta (Delta) in order to take account of the combined effects upon the Delta of the state’s two massive water projects: the Central Valley Project (CVP) and the State Water Project (SWP), operated by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (U.S. Bureau or Bureau) and the California Department of Water Resources (DWR), respectively.

The Delta serves as a conduit for the transfer of water by the statewide water projects. Both the CVP and the SWP divert water from the rivers that flow into the Delta and store the water in reservoirs. Quantities of this stored water are periodically released into the Delta. Pumps situated at the southern edge of the Delta eventually lift the water into canals for transport south to the farmers of the Central Valley and the municipalities of Southern California. Water which is neither stored nor exported south passes through the Delta where it is used by local farmers, industries and municipalities. The excess flows out into the San Francisco Bay.

The U.S. Bureau and the DWR hold a combined total of 34 permits for various units of the CVP and SWP to authorize diversion and use of the Delta’s waters. These permits were issued by the Board and its predecessors over a period of years extending through 1970.

In 1976 the Board convened a hearing for two declared purposes: to formulate a water quality control plan for the Delta and to determine whether the water-use permits held by the U.S. Bureau and the DWR should be amended to implement the plan. In August 1978, following an extensive evidentiary hearing over an 11-month period, the Board adopted the “Water Quality Control Plan for the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta and Suisun Marsh” (hereafter sometimes called the Plan) and “Water Right Decision 1485” (hereafter sometimes called the Decision or D 1485).

In the Plan the Board established new water quality standards for salinity control and for protection of fish and wildlife in the Delta and Suisun Marsh. In D 1485 the Board modified the permits held by the U.S. Bureau and the DWR, compelling the operators of the projects to adhere to the water quality standards as set out in the Plan. In this appeal we are requested to review the validity of those actions: namely, the Board’s establishment of water quality objectives in the Plan and its modification of the water-use permits in the Decision.

We will conclude, inter alia, that the modification of the projects’ permits in order to implement the water quality standards was a proper exercise of the Board’s water rights authority. We will also conclude that in establishing only such water quality standards as will protect Delta water users against the effects of project activities, the Board misconceived the scope of its water quality planning function. Finally, we will determine that the Board has the power and duty to provide water quality protection to the fish and wildlife that make up the delicate ecosystem within the Delta.

Background

The Water Projects

The history of California water development and distribution is a story of supply and demand. California’s critical water problem is not a lack of water but uneven distribution of water resources. The state is endowed with flowing rivers, countless lakes and streams and abundant winter rains and snowfall. But while over 70 percent of the stream flow lies north of Sacramento, nearly 80 percent of the demand for water supplies originates in the southern regions of the state. And because of the semiarid climate, rainfall is at a seasonal low during the summer and fall when the demand for water is greatest; conversely, rainfall and runoff from the northern snowpacks occur in late winter and early spring when user demand is lower. (See 1 Rogers & Nichols, Water for Cal. (1967) pp. 20, 26-33, 43-46 [hereafter Rogers & Nichols].) Largely to remedy such seasonal and geographic maldistribution, while simultaneously providing relief from devastating floods and droughts, the California water projects were ultimately conceived and formed.

In 1933 the California Legislature adopted a plan for transfer of surplus water from the Sacramento River and its northern tributaries to the water-deficient areas of the San Joaquin Valley through construction of a “Central Valley Project’ ’: Shasta Dam, the central feature, to store and regulate waters of the Sacramento River; Friant Dam, on the western edge of the Sierra, to divert water from the San Joaquin River to southern regions of the valley; and various other units designed to transfer water from the Sacramento River system to the San Joaquin Valley. (Wat. Code, § 11100 et seq.) However, due to the pervasive unfavorable economic conditions during the Great Depression, the state turned to the federal government to finance and construct the massive project.

Construction of the CVP began in 1937. It is now one of the world’s most extensive water transport systems. As noted, Shasta Dam on the upper Sacramento River is the focal point of the CVP. Shasta Dam was completed in 1945 but began storing water and generating electric power in 1944. The waters of the Sacramento River which flow past the Shasta Dam are augmented by additional water supplies brought through a tunnel from the Trinity River and from reservoirs formed by Folsom and Nimbus Dams on the American River. About 30 miles south of Sacramento, the Delta Cross Channel regulates the passage of Sacramento River water through the Delta to the Tracy Pumping Plant.

At Rock Slough, a portion of the water is pumped into the Contra Costa Canal for municipal uses in Contra Costa County. At the Tracy Pumping Plant, the water is lifted nearly 200 feet above sea level into the Delta Mendota Canal and flows 117 miles southward to the Mendota Pool. Here, the waters from the north replace the natural flow of the San Joaquin River. At Friant Dam, the flow of the San Joaquin River is impounded and diverted through the Friant-Kern Canal 152 miles south to the southern reaches of the San Joaquin Valley. (See generally Rogers & Nichols, op. cit., supra, pp. 42-62; Engle, Central Valley Project Documents (1956); see also Commentary, Craig, Cal. Water Law in Perspective, 68 West’s Ann. Wat. Code (1971 ed.) pp. LXXVII-LXXIX; U.S. v. Gerlach Live Stock Co. (1950) 339 U.S. 725, 728-730 [94 L.Ed. 1231, 1236-1237, 70 S.Ct. 955]; Ivanhoe Irrig. Dist. v. McCracken (1958) 357 U.S. 275, 280-283 [2 L.Ed.2d 1313, 1319-1321, 78 S.Ct. 1174].)

Following World War II, state authorities renewed their efforts to develop a comprehensive statewide water plan. In 1951 the Legislature authorized the Feather River and Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta Diversion Project. (§ 11260.) This project—referred to as the SWP—began operations in 1967 under management of the DWR. Water from the Feather River is stored behind Oroville Dam and is released into the Feather River and its eventual confluence with the Sacramento River. The water flow continues through the Delta to the Clifton Court Forebay where a portion of it enters the South Bay Aqueduct for delivery to the Santa Clara Valley. A much greater portion is lifted into the California Aqueduct for transport through the San Joaquin Valley and eventually again lifted by a series of pumping stations over the Tehachapi Mountains for delivery and use in the Southern California region. (See generally Rogers & Nichols, op. cit. supra, pp. 64-82.)

At least one authoritative treatise has noted the numerous legal questions presented by the formation of these water projects. “The statewide coordinated development of California’s water resources poses many complex legal problems. These problems are further complicated by: inadequacies and uncertainties of present state statutes generally: available procedures for acquisition of water rights; the nature and extent of vested rights in the use of surface and ground water: preferential rights of areas in which water originates: questions of the effectiveness of contract rights in assuring deficient areas of a dependable water supply; and questions of relations between the state and other agencies.” (Rogers & Nichols, op. cit. supra, pp. 114-115.) Virtually all of the problems catalogued by the authors are at issue in this appeal.

The Law of Water Rights

It is a fundamental principle of water law that one may not withdraw water from its source without first acquiring ‘ ‘ water rights .”(§§ 102,1052.) Conceptually, what is meant by a water right is the right to use the water—to divert it from its natural course. “‘It is laid down by our law writers, that the right of property in water is usufructuary, and consists not so much of the fluid itself as the advantage of its use.’ (Eddy v. Simpson (1853) 3 Cal. 249, 252.) Hence, the cases do not speak of the ownership of water, but only of the right to its use. (Rancho Santa Margarita v. Vail (1938) 11 Cal.2d 501, 554-555 [81 P.2d 533]; see generally Hutchins, The Cal. Law of Water Rights (1956) pp. 36-38; 1 Rogers & Nichols, Water for Cal. (1967) p. 191.) Accordingly, Water Code section 102 provides that ‘[a]ll water within the State is the property of the people of the State, but the right to the use of water may be acquired by appropriation in the manner provided by law.’” (National Audubon Society v. Superior Court (1983) 33 Cal.3d 419, 441 [189 Cal.Rptr. 346, 658 P.2d 709], cert. den., 464 U.S. 977 [78 L.Ed.2d 351, 104 S.Ct. 413]; see generally Rogers & Nichols, op. cit. supra, p. 191; Hutchins, The Cal. Law of Water Rights (1956) pp. 36-38, 120, 181-182.) It is equally axiomatic that once rights to use water are acquired, they become vested property rights. As such, they cannot be infringed by others or taken by governmental action without due process and just compensation. (Ivanhoe Irr. Dist. v. All Parties (1957) 47 Cal.2d 597, 623 [306 P.2d 824], revd. on other grounds in Ivanhoe Irrig. Dist. v. McCracken, supra, 357 U.S. 275; U.S. v. Gerlach Live Stock Co., supra, 339 U.S. 725, 752-754 [94 L.Ed. 1231, 1249-1251]; Rogers & Nichols, op. cit. supra, pp. 189-190, 496-497, 523-527; Hutchins, op. cit. supra, pp. 120-124, 183-186.)

California operates under a “dual” or hybrid system of water rights which recognizes both doctrines of riparian rights and appropriation rights. (People v. Shirokow (1980) 26 Cal.3d 301, 307 [162 Cal.Rptr. 30, 605 P.2d 859].) When California achieved statehood, the Legislature adopted the common law of England and thereby incorporated the riparian doctrine. (Lux v. Haggin (1886) 69 Cal. 255, 361-409 [10 P. 674].) The riparian doctrine confers upon the owner of land the right to divert the water flowing by his land for use upon his land, without regard to the extent of such use or priority in time. (Miller & Lux v. Enterprise C. etc. Co. (1915) 169 Cal. 415 [147 P. 567].) All riparians on a stream system are vested with a common ownership such that in times of water shortage all riparians must reduce their usage proportionately. (Prather v. Hoberg (1944) 24 Cal.2d 549, 559-560 [150 P.2d 405]; see generally Rogers & Nichols, op. cit. supra, pp. 216-251; Hutchins, op. cit. supra, pp. 40-41, 52-55, 218-230.)

Upon discovery of gold and the development of the California mining industry, water was often diverted from streams passing through government lands to be used on nonriparian lands. To accommodate this usage, the doctrine of appropriation originated and was incorporated in California water law. (Irwin v. Phillips (1855) 5 Cal. 140.) The appropriation doctrine confers upon one who actually diverts and uses water the right to do so provided that the water is used for reasonable and beneficial uses and is surplus to that used by riparians or earlier appropriators. Appropriators need not own land contiguous to the watercourse, but appropriation rights are subordinate to riparian rights so that in times of shortage riparians are entitled to fulfill their needs before appropriators are entitled to any use of the water. (Meridian, Ltd. v. San Francisco (1939) 13 Cal.2d 424, 445-447 [90 P.2d 537].) And, as between appropriators, the rule of priority is “first in time, first in right.” (See Irwin v. Phillips, supra, 5 Cal. at p. 147.) The senior appropriator is entitled to fulfill his needs before a junior appropriator is entitled to use any water. (See generally Rogers & Nichols, op. cit. supra, pp. 254-304, 472-480; Hutchins, op. cit. supra, pp. 40-51.)

Initially, rights to appropriate water were acquired by actual diversion and use of the water. Beginning in 1914, however, a statutory scheme has provided the exclusive method of acquiring appropriation rights. (People v. Shirokow, supra, 26 Cal.3d 301,308.) Thus, an application for appropriative rights must now be made to the Board for a permit authorizing construction of necessary water works and the taking and use of a specified quantity of water. (§ 1201 et seq.; see generally Hutchins, op. cit. supra, pp. 94-112.) Riparian rights, however, continue to be acquired through ownership of land contiguous to the watercourse.

Once an appropriative water right permit is issued, the permit holder has the right to take and use the water according to the terms of the permit. (§§ 1381, 1455.) Upon compliance with the permit terms, a license—the final document in the permit process—is issued and the appropriative rights become confirmed. (§§ 1600-1610.) Until the license is issued, the Board may reserve jurisdiction to amend the terms of the permit. (§ 1394.) If the permit holder or license holder violates any of the terms or conditions or fails to apply the water to a beneficial purpose, the Board may revoke the permit or license. (§§ 1410, 1611.) In 1980, the Board was given increased powers to enforce terms and conditions of an appropriation permit. (§ 1825 et seq. [authorizing cease and desist orders and actions for injunctive relief].)

In its role of issuing appropriation permits, the Board has two primary duties: 1) to determine if surplus water is available and 2) to protect the public interest.

Available Water Supply

Section 1375 declares the basic principle that: “As a prerequisite to the issuance of a permit to appropriate water. . . [t]here must be unappropriated water available to supply the applicant.” (Subd. (d).) Accordingly, in reviewing the permit application, the Board must first determine whether surplus water is available, a decision requiring an examination of prior riparian and appropriative rights. (Temescal Water Co. v. Dept. Public Works (1955) 44 Cal.2d 90 [280 P.2d 1].) In exercising its permit power, the Board’s first concern is recognition and protection of prior rights to beneficial use of the water stream. (Meridian, Ltd. v. San Francisco, supra, 13 Cal.2d 424, 450.) Yet, the Board’s estimate of available surplus water is in no way an adjudication of the rights of other water right holders (Temescal Water Co. v. Dept. Public Works, supra, 44 Cal.2d at p. 103); the rights of the riparians and senior appropriators remain unaffected by the issuance of an appropriation permit. (Duckworth v. Watsonville Water etc. Co. (1915) 170 Cal. 425, 431 [150 P. 58].)

Public Interest

When the water commission was first created in 1914 its duties were largely ministerial, its only task to determine whether there was surplus water available for appropriation by the applicant. (Tulare Water Co. v. State Water Com. (1921) 187 Cal. 533, 537-538 [202 P. 874].) However, the Board’s powers have been expanded to allow appropriation for beneficial purposes “under such terms and conditions as in its judgment will best develop, conserve, and utilize [the water] in the public interest . . . .” (§ 1253, italics added; see generally Bank of America v. State Water Resources Control Bd. (1974) 42 Cal.App.3d 198 [116 Cal.Rptr. 770]; Johnson Rancho County Water Dist. v. State Water Rights Board (1965) 235 Cal.App.2d 863 [45 Cal.Rptr. 589]).

The nature of the public interest to be served by the Board is reflected throughout the statutory scheme. As a matter of state policy, water resources are to be used “to the fullest extent. . . capable” (§ 100) with development undertaken “for the greatest public benefit” (§ 105). And in determining whether to grant or deny a permit application in the public interest, the Board is directed to consider “any general or co-ordinated plan . . . toward the control, protection, development . . . and conservation of [state] water resources . . .” (§ 1256), as well as the “relative benefits” of competing beneficial uses (§ 1257). Finally, the Board’s actions are to be guided by the legislative policy that the favored or “highest” use is domestic, and irrigation the next highest. (§ 1254.)

Nonconsumptive or “instream uses,” too, are expressly included within the category of beneficial uses to be protected in the public interest. Thus, the Board must likewise consider the amounts of water required “for recreation and preservation and enhancement of fish and wildlife resources” (§ 1243) and needed “to remain in the source for protection of beneficial uses, including any uses . . . protected in any relevant water quality control plan . . .” (§ 1243.5). Thus, when determining appropriative water rights, the Board is expressly empowered to protect water quality as a matter of statewide interest (§§ 1258,13000 et seq.) and major environmental concern (Pub. Resources Code, §§ 21000, 21001).

Yet notwithstanding its power to protect the public interest, the Board plays a limited role in resolving disputes and enforcing rights of water rights holders, a task mainly left to the courts. Because water rights possess indicia of property rights, water rights holders are entitled to judicial protection against infringement, e.g., actions for quiet title, nuisance, wrongful diversion or inverse condemnation. (See generally, Hutchins, op. cit. supra, pp. 262-282, 348-356; Rogers & Nichols, op. cit. supra, pp. 530-534, 545-547.) It bears reemphasis that the Board’s role in examining existing water rights to estimate the amount of surplus water available for appropriation does not involve adjudication of such rights. (Temescal Water Co. v. Dept. Public Works, supra, 44 Cal.2d 90, 103-106; Hutchins, op. cit. supra, pp. 98-99.)

Unlike real property rights, usufructuary water rights are limited and uncertain. The available supply of water is largely determined by natural forces.

Riparians have no rights to a specific amount of water. Rather they enjoy as an incident of common ownership with other riparians on the stream a correlative share of the natural flow. Thus, in times of water shortage, all riparians must curtail their usage in order that they share the available water. Similarly, all riparians may be required to share expenses or inconvenience for the common good to enable all riparians to use the water. (Rancho Santa Margarita v. Vail (1938) 11 Cal.2d 501, 560-562 [81 P.2d 533]; see People ex rel. State Water Resources Control Bd. v. Forni (1976) 54 Cal.App.3d 743 [126 Cal.Rptr. 851].)

In contrast, limitations on appropriators are more visible since appropriative rights are governed by the terms of the issued permit: the quantity of permitted water is specified together with other terms and conditions imposed by the Board. Moreover, appropriators are limited by priorities in time; their rights are subordinate to the rights of preexisting holders, i.e., riparians and senior appropriators.

Furthermore, superimposed on those basic principles defining water rights is the overriding constitutional limitation that the water be used as reasonably required for the beneficial use to be served. (Cal. Const., art. X, § 2.) Historically, appropriators, but not riparians, were limited to reasonable and beneficial uses of the water; riparians were subject only to the needs of other riparians on the same stream, frequently with wasteful results. This marked disparity between riparian and appropriation rights was dramatically illustrated in Herminghaus v. South. California Edison Co. (1926) 200 Cal. 81 [252 R 607], appeal dismissed 275 U.S. 486 [72 L.Ed. 387, 48 S.Ct. 27], where the court held that under the riparian doctrine the riparian owner was entitled to the full flow of the stream even though the water was used wastefully to flood her lands, thus depriving an upstream appropriator of needed water for a power plant.

In response to Herminghaus, a constitutional amendment was enacted in 1928 subjecting all water users—riparians and appropriators alike—to the universal limitation that water use must be reasonable and for a beneficial purpose. (Cal. Const., art. X, § 2.) This “rule of reasonable use” is now the cardinal principle of California’s water law. (§ 100; see generally Rogers & Nichols, op. cit. supra, pp. 497-500; Hutchins, op. cit. supra, pp. 12-20, 230-234.)

The courts have construed this rule as a valid exercise of the police power of the state to regulate the use and enjoyment of water rights for the public benefit. (People ex rel. State Water Resources Control Bd. v. Forni, supra, 54 Cal.App.3d 743, 753; see also Gin S. Chow v. City of Santa Barbara (1933) 217 Cal. 673, 701-703 [22 P.2d 5]; East Bay M. U. Dist. v. Dept. of P. Wks. (1934) 1 Cal.2d 476, 479-482 [35 P.2d 1027]; Joslin v. Marin Mun. Water Dist. (1967) 67 Cal.2d 132, 138 [60 Cal.Rptr. 377, 429 P.2d 889].) And this paramount limitation applies “to all water rights enjoyed or asserted in this state, whether the same be grounded on the riparian right or . . . the appropriative right.” (Peabody v. City of Vallejo (1935) 2 Cal.2d 351, 383 [40 P.2d 486].) Thus, no water rights are inviolable; all water rights are subject to governmental regulation. (Rogers & Nichols, op. cit. supra, pp. 501-509.)

More recently, in National Audubon Society v. Superior Court, supra, 33 Cal.3d 419, the California Supreme Court underscored a further significant limitation on water rights: the “public trust” doctrine. The court there held that the state’s navigable waters are subject to a public trust and that the state, as trustee, has a duty to preserve this trust property from harmful diversions by water rights holders. Thus, the court determined that no one has a vested right to use water in a manner harmful to the state’s waters. (Id., at pp. 445-448.)

The Projects’ Water Rights

Construction of the CVP, initially authorized in 1935 (49 Stat. 1028, 1038), was reauthorized in 1937 by the Secretary of the Interior and expressly made subject to the federal reclamation laws. (50 Stat. 844, 850.) Under section 8 of the Reclamation Act of 1902 (43 U.S.C. § 383), the U.S. Bureau is required to comply with state law and to acquire water rights for diversion and storage of water by the CVP.

For their initial operations in the Sacramento Valley and the Delta, federal authorities acquired appropriative rights. In 1927, the California Legislature had authorized the DWR’s predecessor agency to file applications to appropriate water for use in the contemplated CVP. (§§ 10500-10506.) Upon the federal government’s assumption of the project, the DWR assigned its applications to the U.S. Bureau. The CVP was actually completed and in operation before permits were issued: the first permits were issued to the U.S. Bureau in 1958 (Decision 893), and the principal permits were issued in 1961 (Decision 990).

The DWR, too, obtained appropriative rights for operation of the SWP through the permit process, the permits being issued by the Board in 1967 (Decisions 1275 and 1291).

One of the distinctive features of the statewide projects is the great distance between the point of storage and the point of diversion from the watercourse. On the San Joaquin River, the CVP’s diversion of water is made at the point of storage—the Friant Dam. In contrast, on the Sacramento River, the water is stored at the CVP’s Shasta Dam and on the Feather River, at the SWP’s Oroville Dam. This stored water, upon release, flows some 300 miles into the Delta where it is diverted for transport to the San Joaquin Valley and Southern California. Along that extended watercourse, a multitude of water users abound with individual rights to divert water. Thus, as a practical matter, the quantity of water available to the projects for export from the Delta largely depends upon the quantity diverted by the upstream users.

Water Quality in the Delta

The Delta generally describes a large lowland area with a labyrinth of natural channels in and around the confluence of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers. The combined river water passes through the Delta into Suisun Bay and then into San Francisco Bay. In 1959, the legal boundaries of the Delta were fixed by the Legislature. (§ 12220.) The bounded area is roughly triangular, with Sacramento at the north, Vernalis at the south and Pittsburg at the west.

The major factor affecting water quality in the Delta is saltwater intrusion. Delta lands, situated at or below sea level, are constantly subject to ocean tidal action. Salt water entering from San Francisco Bay extends well into the Delta, and intrusion of the saline tidal waters is checked only by the natural barrier formed by fresh water flowing out from the Delta.

But as fresh water was increasingly diverted from the Delta for agricultural, industrial and municipal development, salinity intrusion intensified, particularly during the dry summer months and in years of low precipitation and runoff into the river systems. One of the major purposes of the projects was containment of maximum salinity intrusion into the Delta. By storing waters during periods of heavy flow and releasing water during times of low flow, the freshwater barrier could be maintained at a constant level.

Water quality is controlled by both federal and state legislation. Until 1972, the Federal Water Pollution Control Act relied upon state-formulated ambient water quality standards as the means of ensuring water purity. (79 Stat. 907, as amended; formerly 33 U.S.C. § 1151 et seq.) This approach proved ineffective and difficult to enforce against individual polluters. Consequently, in 1972 Congress substantially amended the act, declaring the national objective of eliminating discharges of pollutants. (33 U.S.C. § 1251(a)(1); see generally EPA v. State Water Resources Control Board (1976) 426 U.S. 200, 204-206 [48 L.Ed.2d 578, 583-584, 96 S.Ct. 2022].)

Under the revised legislation now denominated the Clean Water Act, Congress made significant changes in the methods of controlling water pollution. First, the focus shiftéd from overall water quality measurement standards to “end-of-the-pipe” discharge restrictions whereby water quality is monitored through measurement of a particular discharge against prescribed effluent limitations. Second-, the amendments establish a permit system prohibiting any discharge of pollutants without first obtaining, and complying with, a permit issued by the state water pollution control agency. (33 U.S.C. §§ 1311, 1342.)

However, it does not appear that excess salinity due to tidal water intrusion falls within the federal regulatory scheme, which defines a “pollutant” essentially in terms of waste material, and the “discharge” thereof as “any addition of any pollutant to navigable waters from any point source, . . .” (33 U.S.C. § 1362(12).) The intrusion of salt water is neither a discharge from a point source nor a discharge of a pollutant. (See U.S. ex rel. TVA v. Tenn. Water Quality Control Bd. (6th Cir. 1983) 717 F.2d 992, cert. den., 446 U.S. 937 [80 L.Ed.2d 458, 104 S.Ct. 1909]; State of Mo. ex rel. Ashcroft v. Dept. of the Army (8th Cir. 1982) 672 F.2d 1297, 1304; National Wildlife Federation v. Gorsuch (D.C. Cir. 1982) 693 F.2d 156 [water quality changes from operation of dam were not discharges of pollutants].)

Significantly, water quality standards are retained under the Act as a supplement to the discharge limitations. (33 U.S.C. §§ 1311(b)(1)(C), 1313.) The federal statutes require each state to engage in “a continuing planning process” and to identify those waters within its boundaries for which discharge restrictions are inadequate to achieve the water quality standards. (33 U.S.C. § 1313(d)(1)(A), (e)(1).) Additionally, every state water pollution control agency must conduct a triennial review of its water quality standards and submit proposed revisions to the Environmental Protection Agency for approval. (33 U.S.C. § 1313(c)(1).)

A further aspect of each state’s “continuing planning process” is the identification of so-called nonpoint source pollution. (33 U.S.C. §§ 1281, 1288.) The act expressly recognizes saltwater intrusion as a form of non-point source pollution. (33 U.S.C. §§ 1288(b)(2)(I) [states must prepare plans for areawide waste treatment management, including identification of saltwater intrusion], 1314(f)(E) [EPA must issue information for controlling nonpoint source pollution, including saltwater intrusion].) And the term “pollution” is broadly defined to mean “man-made or man-induced alteration of the chemical, physical, biological, and radiological integrity of water.” (33 U.S.C. § 1362(19).)

Thus, the federal act mandates certain planning responsibilities including formulation of water quality standards to provide salinity control. But the act contains no provision for either implementation of water quality standards or regulation of nonpoint pollution sources, matters of enforcement relegated to the states.

In California, the Porter-Cologne Water Quality Control Act (§ 13000 et seq.) establishes a comprehensive statewide program for water quality control administered by nine regional boards and coordinated by the state Board. The regional boards are primarily responsible for formulation and adoption of water quality control plans covering the state’s 16 planning basins (§ 13240) subject to the Board’s review and approval (§ 13245). But the Board alone is responsible for setting statewide policy concerning water quality control (§§ 13140-13147).

And in its capacity as the designated state water pollution control agency for purposes of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (§ 13160), the Board is empowered to formulate its own water quality control plans which supersede conflicting regional basin plans. (§ 13170.) The Water Quality Control Plan under review in this appeal was adopted pursuant to that authority.

In formulating a water quality control plan, the Board is invested with wide authority “to attain the highest water quality which is reasonable, considering all demands being made and to be made on those waters and the total values involved, beneficial and detrimental, economic and social, tangible and intangible.” (§ 13000.) In fulfilling its statutory imperative, the Board is required to “establish such water quality objectives ... as in its judgment will ensure the reasonable protection of beneficial uses ...” (§ 13241), a conceptual classification far-reaching in scope. “‘Beneficial uses’ of the waters of the state that may be protected against quality degradation include, but are not necessarily limited to, domestic, municipal, agricultural and industrial supply; power generation; recreation; aesthetic enjoyment; navigation; and preservation and enhancement of fish, wildlife, and other aquatic resources or preserves. ” (§ 13050, subd.(f).) Thus, in carrying out its water quality planning function, the Board possesses broad powers and responsibilities in setting water quality standards. The formulation of salinity levels to protect the beneficial uses listed falls well within that authorized function.

Comprehensive water quality standards for the Delta—the so-called “Tracy standards”—were first formulated on November 19, 1965, through the combined efforts of the Sacramento River and Delta Water Association, the San Joaquin Water Rights Committee, the DWR, and the U.S. Bureau. In 1967 the Board issued Decision 1275 which approved the permits for operation of the SWP. In that decision the Board imposed as a condition of the permits compliance with the established water quality criteria. The U.S. Bureau voluntarily complies with the Tracy standards to meet its contractual obligations to water supply agencies who purchase water from the CVP.

Also in 1967, in compliance with the provisions of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, the Board submitted the adopted standards, which were eventually approved by the Secretary upon the condition that the Board consider imposition of more stringent Delta salinity controls. In 1971, the Board issued Decision 1379 establishing new water quality standards purportedly applicable to both the CVP and the SWP. The decision was stayed as a result of litigation challenging the Board’s authority to impose conditions on permits held by a federal agency.

At about the same time, the regional water quality control boards (see § 13240) formulated plans for the 16 “basins” of the state, including the Delta and the Suisun Marsh. The Basin 5B Plan, setting water quality standards for the Delta, and the Basin 2 Plan, setting standards for the San Francisco Bay Basin, were finally approved by the Board in 1975.

In approving the Basin 5B Plan, the Board indicated its intention to convene hearings no later than July 1, 1978, for the purpose of receiving further evidence relating to salinity control and protection of fish and wildlife. As earlier noted, the Board held an extended evidentiary hearing culminating in adoption of the 1978 Water Quality Control Plan for the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta and Suisun Marsh. The Plan is intended to remain in effect for 10 years with new hearings to be scheduled in 1986 to reevaluate the Delta standards.

In conducting the 1978 proceedings, the Board for the first time acted pursuant to its combined authority to determine water rights and to establish water quality standards. (§ 174.) In discharging its dual functions, the Board reconsidered existing water quality standards in light of current data concerning the effects on the Delta of the operations of the two water projects— the users with the greatest impact. The Board also undertook to modify the existing water rights permits of the projects—the water rights holders with the lowest seniority—in order to implement the enacted water quality standards.

The final product of the Board’s efforts was the Water Quality Control Plan for the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta and Suisun Marsh and Water Right Decision 1485. In the Plan, the Board set new water quality standards to protect fish and wildlife and to protect agricultural, industrial and municipal uses of Delta waters. In the Decision, the Board modified the permits held by the U.S. Bureau and the DWR to compel the projects to release enough water into the Delta or to reduce their exports from the Delta so as to maintain the water quality standards set in the Plan.

Trial Court Proceedings

No less than eight petitions for writ of mandate were filed by interested parties seeking to invalidate the water quality Plan and the water rights Decision. The petitions were “coordinated” and assigned to San Francisco Superior Court Judge Figone, who—in light of the voluminous administrative record—ordered the parties to brief certain “key legal issues” for decision. The core of the trial court’s written decision upholds the authority of the Board to impose the water quality standards upon the projects but rejects the standards as inadequate. The trial court issued a peremptory writ of mandate commanding the Board to set aside its Plan and Decision.

Virtually all the parties have appealed, challenging one or more aspects of the trial court’s decision. These consolidated appeals require us to determine the scope of the Board’s dual responsibility to regulate water quality and to supervise appropriation permits. Some parties, principally the U.S. Bureau and those who purchase exported water from the CVP, contend that the Board exceeded its authority in requiring the CVP to release more water into the Delta and to curtail exports, thus infringing vested appropriative water rights of the CVP.

Others, notably the Delta riparians, claim the Board’s actions were inadequate in failing to provide more stringent water quality standards to protect their existing rights to use the Delta waters.

Subsumed in these several arguments is a central dispute concerning who should bear the financial burden for the additional water needed to maintain the water quality standards. The Delta riparians contend they are entitled to the free use of water flowing by their land while the projects argue that the riparians who benefit from the enhanced water quality should pay the cost of the added water supply.

Standard of Review

The standard of review to be applied is complicated by two factors. First, the Board’s exercise of authority involved both quasi-legislative and quasi-judicial functions invoking different standards for review. Additionally, the trial court did not review the lengthy administrative record or make factual findings but rendered its decision upon what it perceived to be solely questions of law.

Dual Functions

As noted, the Board performed both adjudicatory and regulatory functions in allocating water rights and ensuring water quality. (§ 174.) The Board established water quality objectives in the Plan and at the same time implemented those objectives in the Decision by modifying the projects’ appropriation permits to compel the projects to maintain the established water quality standards. Although the two functions are merged under a single board, each has distinct attributes.

In performing its regulatory function of ensuring water quality by establishing water quality objectives, the Board acts in a legislative capacity. The Water Quality Control Plan itself is thus a quasi-legislative document. Accordingly, great deference must be given to the Board’s determination, and appellate review thereof is narrowly limited: “A reviewing court will ask three questions: first, did the agency act within the scope of its delegated authority; second, did the agency employ fair procedures; and third, was the agency action reasonable. Under the third inquiry, a reviewing court will not substitute its independent policy judgment for that of the agency on the basis of an independent trial de novo. A court will uphold the agency action unless the action is arbitrary, capricious, or lacking in evidentiary support. A court must ensure that an agency has adequately considered all relevant factors, and has demonstrated a rational connection between those factors, the choice made, and the purposes of the enabling statute.” (California Hotel & Motel Assn. v. Industrial Welfare Com. (1979) 25 Cal.3d 200, 212 [157 Cal.Rptr. 840, 599 P.2d 31].) Moreover, absent any indication of arbitrariness or evidentiary or procedural defect, “ ‘. . .in these technical matters requiring the assistance of experts and the collection and study of statistical data, courts let administrative boards and officers work out their problems with as little judicial interference as possible. ’ ” (Industrial Welfare Com. v. Superior Court (1980) 27 Cal.3d 690, 702 [166 Cal.Rptr. 331, 613 P.2d 579], cert. den. 449 U.S. 1029 [66 L.Ed.2d 492, 101 S.Ct. 602].)

In contrast, in undertaking to allocate water rights, the Board performs an adjudicatory function. (Temescal Water Co. v. Dept. Public Works, supra, 44 Cal.2d 90, 100-106.) Thus, D 1485, providing for modification of the permits of the projects, is a quasi-judicial document, and review is governed under the provisions of Code of Civil Procedure section 1094.5. (Id., at p. 100; Bank of America v. State Water Resources Control Bd., supra, 42 Cal.App.3d 198, 207.) Nevertheless, deferential latitude should be accorded to the Board’s judgment involving valuable water resources. Indeed, the Legislature has conferred broad discretion upon the Board to impose terms and conditions upon appropriation permits which “in its judgment will best develop, conserve, and utilize in the public interest the water sought to be appropriated.” (§ 1253, italics added.)

Our conclusion finds further support in the reasons advanced by the court in Ferrante v. Fish & Game Commission (1946) 29 Cal.2d 365, 374 [175 P.2d 222] [issuance of fishing permits by Fish and Game Commission]; “The Legislature has entrusted the supervision and protection of this valuable resource of the state to the respondent commission, not to the courts. The commission must be presumed to have a knowledge of the conditions which underlie and motivate its regulatory actions and unless it is demonstrated that those actions are not grounded upon any reasonable factual basis the courts should not interfere with the exercise of the discretion vested in it by the Legislature, nor lightly substitute their judgment for that of the commission.” (See also Bank of America v. State Water Resources Control Bd., supra, 42 Cal.App.3d at pp. 208, 212.) In the final analysis, the touchstone for the Board’s actions is the “public interest.” (Ibid.; Johnson Rancho County Water Dist. v. State Water Rights Board, supra, 235 Cal.App.2d 863.)

Mountain Defense League v. Board of Supervisors (1977) 65 Cal.App.3d 723 [135 Cal.Rptr. 588], cited by South Delta Water Agency, is procedurally distinguishable. There, the court held that where an administrative agency, acting in both capacities, reaches the required determination in a single decision, “review of that determination must be by the more stringent standard [for quasi-judicial acts].” (Id., at p. 729.) But in that case the agency rendered only one decision: an amendment of the general plan with the concomitant approval of a private development plan. Here, in contrast, the Board made two separate and distinct dispositions: adoption of the quasi-legislative Plan containing water quality objectives for the Delta and issuance of the quasi-judicial Decision determining specific water rights of the projects. The two documents, of course, serve entirely different functions: the Plan is concerned only with water quality standards while the Decision allocates water rights. As a consequence, the two administrative actions must be reviewed under differing standards.

Factual Review

As earlier discussed, the Plan is quasi-legislative in nature and thus entitled to great deference. Our review is limited to whether the Board’s actions are arbitrary, capricious, or lacking in evidentiary support, or otherwise in violation of procedures required by law.

However, since the trial court omitted review of the evidentiary administrative record, grounding its decision solely on matters of law, the only question before us with respect to the validity of the Plan is whether the Board acted in the manner required by law. The established procedures for quasi-legislative acts are few. There is no requirement that “the agency prepare findings in support of its quasi-legislative decision. [Citations.] It is only when an administrative agency renders an adjudicatory decision that findings are required in order ‘to bridge the analytic gap between the raw evidence and ultimate decision . . . .’ (Topanga Assn. for a Scenic Community v. County of Los Angeles (1974) 11 Cal.3d 506, 515 [113 Cal.Rptr. 836, 522 P.2d 12].)” (Stauffer Chemical Co. v. Air Resources Board (1982) 128 Cal.App.3d 789, 794 [180 Cal.Rptr. 550]; see also McKinny v. Board of Trustees (1982) 31 Cal.3d 79, 88 [181 Cal.Rptr. 549, 642 P.2d 460].)

The remaining issues on appeal are directly related to the Board’s adjudicatory decision imposing new conditions upon the appropriation permits of the projects in order to implement water quality standards contained in the Plan. In assessing the validity of permit conditions, courts ordinarily apply the conventional “substantial evidence” rule. (Bank of America v. State Water Resources Control Bd., supra, 42 Cal.App.3d 198, 212.) In the context of water rights issues, the rule has been interpreted to require a search of the record for a “reasonable factual basis” for the Board’s action. (Id., at p. 208.) Accordingly, in reviewing the challenged conditions, courts must determine whether the conditions are supported by “precise and specific reasons founded on tangible record evidence.” (Id., at p. 213; see also Johnson Rancho County Water Dist. v. State Water Rights Board, supra, 235 Cal.App.2d 863, 866, 876.) But again, since neither evidentiary review nor factual resolution was undertaken by the trial court, necessarily we confine our examination to the legal determination whether the Board properly acted within the scope of its authority.

In short, the scope of our review is essentially twofold: 1) with respect to D 1485, the only question before us is whether the Board acted within its jurisdiction in imposing the water quality standards upon the projects; 2) with respect to the Plan, the only question is whether the Board acted contrary to procedures required by law. From that perspective, we turn to the parties’ several contentions.

I.

Water Quality Standards for Consumptive Uses

A.

Use of “Without Project” Standards for the Central and Western Delta

The primary purpose underlying the revised water quality standards contained in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta Plan was salinity control in order to protect consumptive uses (agricultural, industrial and municipal) of the Delta waters. In adopting water quality standards designed to protect those uses, the Board employed a so-called “without project” level of protection: a water quality measurement utilizing the number of days in a year that water of suitable quality would be available at various points in the Delta based on calculated conditions that would (hypothetically) occur without the projects. The objectives, clearly, are to maintain the predicted levels of water quality in the Delta which would theoretically exist had the projects never been constructed.

The trial court concluded that the without project standards were invalid. While we reach a similar conclusion, our analysis focuses upon two erroneous assumptions made by the Board in establishing the qualitative standards.

First, the Board viewed “without project” as the measure of water flows necessary to protect the existing water rights in the Delta against impairment by the projects. The approach taken is fundamentally defective.

In its water quality role of setting the level of water quality protection, the Board’s task is not to protect water rights, but to protect “beneficial uses. ’ ’ The Board is obligated to adopt a water quality control plan consistent with the overall statewide interest in water quality (§ 13240) which will ensure “the reasonable protection of beneficial uses” (§ 13241, italics added). Its legislated mission is to protect the “quality of all the waters of the state ... for use and enjoyment by the people of the state.” (§ 13000, 1st par., italics added.)

The Board’s attachment to the concept of protecting “rights” rather than “beneficial uses” apparently stems from the assumption that protection of beneficial uses will require maintenance of constant flow levels in the Delta even during water shortages, whereas protection of water rights will permit some variations in water flow depending upon availability since riparians are entitled only to the natural flow. But such a view overlooks the Board’s statutory commitment to establish objectives assuring the “reasonable protection of beneficial uses.” (§ 13241; italics added.) We think this statutory charge grants the Board broad discretion to establish reasonable standards consistent with overall statewide interest. The Board’s obligation is to attain the highest reasonable water quality “considering all demands being made and to be made on those waters and the total values involved, beneficial and detrimental, economic and social, tangible and intangible.” (§ 13000, italics added.)

At common law, holders of water rights were entitled to the natural flow of the water undiminished in quality. (Meridian, Ltd. v. San Francisco, supra, 13 Cal.2d 424, 455 [riparians]; Phoenix Water Company v. Fletcher (1863) 23 Cal. 481, 487 [appropriators].) Accordingly, such holders could always maintain a nuisance action against upstream polluters. (Civ. Code, § 3479; Albaugh v. Mt. Shasta Power Corp. (1937) 9 Cal.2d 751, 770-772 [73 P.2d 217] [riparians]; Wright v. Best (1942) 19 Cal.2d 368, 378 [121 P.2d 702] [appropriators]; see generally Rogers & Nichols, op. cit. supra, pp. 506-508.) But while common law clearly affords water rights holders relief from pollution, it is debatable whether such protection included the right to require upstream subsequent appropriators to curtail their use of water solely to permit a sufficient flow to resist natural saltwater intrusion.

In the early case of Antioch v. Williams Irr. Dist. (1922) 188 Cal. 451, the court confronted the issue of saltwater intrusion in the context of appropriators’ rights. In that case, the City of Antioch sought to enjoin upstream diversions of the Sacramento River which depleted the freshwater barrier and allowed Bay salt water to flow into the San Joaquin River, rendering Antioch’s water supply unfit for domestic use. While recognizing the right of appropriators to water in its natural state free of pollution, the court distinguished the case before it from those granting relief from upstream polluters because “[n]othing has been placed in the stream above by the defendants that in the least affects the purity of the water flowing therein. . . . The pollution of the water complained of is caused by the fact that the depleted volume of the stream does not hold back the rising tide of salt water from the bay below as effectually as the natural volume might do.” (Id.., at p. 460.) To allow the freshwater appropriator below to enjoin upstream diversions to maintain a sufficient supply for a hydraulic barrier, the court continued, would be “extremely unreasonable and unjust [to upstream beneficial users] and highly detrimental to the public interests besides.” (Id., at p. 465.) The court ultimately concluded that the city’s appropriation rights did not include the right to insist that junior appropriators curtail their upstream use so that a sufficient flow remains to hold back tidal intrusion. (Ibid.)

Whatever final conclusion is to be drawn from Antioch regarding the nature and extent of common law riparian rights to salinity control, existing constitutional and legislative authorities encompass the Board’s obligation to protect the quality of the Delta waters from saltwater intrusion. As mentioned above, the water quality legislation unmistakably requires the Board to formulate water quality standards to provide salinity control to “ensure the reasonable protection of beneficial uses” (§ 13241), a statutory classification earlier noted as wide-ranging (§ 13050, subd. (f)). Though there can be no doubt concerning the Board’s authority to take action necessary to protect the consumptive uses (agricultural, industrial and municipal) in the Delta, its approach to that task was seriously flawed by equating its water quality planning function with protection of existing water rights.

The second aspect underlying the challenged standards was the Board’s perception of “without project” as the appropriate maximum level of protection in order to make the projects solely responsible for the adverse effects of project operations. That is, the without project standards were formulated to protect the quality of the Delta waters only from degradation by the projects; the Board made no effort to protect against water quality degradation by other users—namely, upstream diverters or polluters. As a consequence, the Board erroneously based its water quality objectives upon the unjustified premise that upstream users retained unlimited access to upstream waters, while the projects and Delta parties were entitled only to share the remaining water flows.

The effect of the Board’s failure to consider upstream users may be illustrated: If the upstream users left enough water in the stream flow to provide salinity control 300 days a year, then under the Board’s approach the objectives would be to maintain that same level of water quality. In contrast, if upstream diversions and pollution effectively reduced salinity control in the Delta to only 200 days a year, the without project standards would maintain that lower level of water quality. We believe such an approach is legally unsupportable.

In performing its dual role, including development of water quality objectives, the Board is directed to consider not only the availability of unappropriated water (§ 174) but also all competing demands for water in determining what is a reasonable level of water quality protection (§ 13000). In addition, the Board must consider “past, present, and probable future beneficial uses of water” (§ 13241, subd. (a)) as well as “[wjater quality conditions that could reasonably be achieved through the coordinated control of all factors which affect water quality in the area” (§ 13241, subd. (c), italics added). Unfortunately, the Board neglected to do so.

In formulating the without project standards, the Board considered only the water use of the Delta parties (denominated “vested water rights”) and the needs of the customers served by the projects (denominated “public interest”). No attention was given to water use by the upstream users.

We do not mean to suggest, as some apparently fear, that the Board must first define or quantify existing water rights before adopting a comprehensive water quality control plan; obviously, such an omnibus assessment would prove too cumbersome and impractical to accomplish the mandated periodic revisions of water quality control plans. (§ 13240; 33 U.S.C. § 1313(c)(1).) Rather, the Board need only take the larger view of the water resources in arriving at a reasonable estimate of all water uses, an activity well within its water rights function to determine the availability of unappropriated water. (Temescal Water Co. v. Dept. Public Works, supra, 44 Cal.2d 90.) We think a similar global perspective is essential to fulfill the Board’s water quality planning obligations.

A water quality control plan must contain three elements: (1) beneficial uses to be protected; (2) water quality objectives; and (3) a program of implementation. (§ 13050, subd. (j).) Once the Board establishes water quality objectives which ensure reasonable protection of beneficial uses (§ 13241), the Board has the added responsibility to complete the water quality control plan by preparing an implementation program to achieve the water quality objectives. (§§ 13240, 13050, subd. (j).) The program of implementation must include: “(a) A description of the nature of actions which are necessary to achieve the objectives, including recommendations for appropriate action by any entity, public or private. [11] (b) A time schedule for the actions to be taken. [11] (c) A description of surveillance to be undertaken to determine compliance with objectives.” (§ 13242.)

In the present proceeding, the Board sought to implement the objectives of the Plan through D 1485. That is, in reliance upon its combined water quality and water rights authority, the Board modified the appropriation permits held by the U.S. Bureau and by the DWR to require the projects to release more water into the Delta and to curtail their exports of water from the Delta as necessary to maintain the water quality standards required under the Plan. It seems obvious that the Board’s selection of without project standards was a necessary result of its election to exercise its combined functions in a single proceeding. Stated differently, the Board undertook its planning task under the assumption that implementation of the Delta water quality standards would require assertion of its water rights authority in modifying the water rights permits of the projects. Thus, the water quality standards were established only at a level which could be enforced against the projects.

We think the procedure followed—combining the water quality and water rights functions in a single proceeding—was unwise. The Legislature issued no mandate that the combined functions be performed in a single proceeding. The fundamental defect inherent in such a procedure is dramatically demonstrated: The Board set only such water quality objectives as could be enforced against the projects. In short, the Board compromised its important water quality role by defining its scope too narrowly in terms of enforceable water rights. In fact, however, the Board’s water quality obligations are not so limited.

Congress has declared in part that any revised or new water quality standards “shall be such as to protect the public health or welfare [and] enhance the quality of water . . . taking into consideration their use and value for public water supplies, propagation of fish and wildlife, recreational purposes, and agricultural, industrial, and other purposes, and also taking into consideration their use and value for navigation.” (33 U.S.C. § 1313(c)(2).) Similar legislative goals relating to the Board’s broad planning function are to be found in the state statutes discussed. (§§ 13000 [statewide program for water quality control], 13241 [water quality control plan to establish objectives ensuring reasonable protection of beneficial uses and prevention of nuisance].) But nothing in the federal act or California’s Porter-Cologne Act allows the Board to limit the scope of its basin-planning function to such water quality standards as are enforceable under the Board’s water rights authority.

We are quick to add, however, that the without project standards do have a place in the water quality program. As discussed in part IIA (infra), we think the imposition of without project standards upon the projects represents one reasonable method of achieving water quality control in the Delta. But in order to fulfill adequately its water quality planning obligations, we believe the Board cannot ignore other actions which could be taken to achieve Delta water quality, such as remedial actions to curtail excess diversions and pollution by other water users.

In summary, we conclude that the Board failed to carry out properly its water quality planning obligations. Because the water quality objectives set at without project level of protection were not established in the manner required by law, they are found to be invalid. However, since remand to the Board could serve no useful purpose in light of the Board’s announced intention to conduct hearings during 1986 to establish new and revised standards, we reverse the trial court’s judgment which commands the Board to reconsider the Water Quality Control Plan. Of course, we would expect the renewed proceedings to be conducted in light of the principles and views expressed in this opinion.

B.

Adequacy of Interim Standard for the Southern Delta

For reasons substantially similar to those expressed regarding the water quality standards for the central and western Delta, we find the Board also erred with respect to the water quality standards designed to protect agricultural uses in the southern Delta.

In this region water quality degradation is caused not by oceanwater intrusion but mainly by upstream depletions of the San Joaquin River and salt infusion from irrigation waste-water runoff carried by the San Joaquin River. The SWP has no facilities on the San Joaquin River system. Although the CVP includes th