Full opinion text
McKinstey, J.: William C. Hinckley, a citizen of California and resident of the City and County of San Francisco, died in that city and county on the 11th day of April, 1876. On the 29th day of December, 1875, he had executed and published his last will and testament, which contained the following clauses: “ 1. I give the property known as the California Theater property, being the property now subject to a lease to H. P. Wakelee, of the City of San Francisco aforesaid, which said lease is recorded in the Registry of Deeds at said San Francisco, liber 28, Leases, page 172, to which reference is had for a more complete description, and which said property is leased to said H. P. Wakelee for a term of years, and which lease is a part of the conditions under which this bequest is made, together with all rights which move to me or my heirs and assigns under or by virtue of such said lease [William C. Hinckley, W. H. Chickering, witness] to the following persons, my fellow-citizens and members of the First Unitarian Society of San Francisco aforesaid, viz.: Horatio Stebbins, C. Adolphe Low, Horace Davis, George 0. Hickox, Stephen H. Phillips, Frank H. Woods, Louis H. Bonestell, Charles A. Murdock and John C. Merrill—nevertheless in trust for the following purposes: “ To pay to my relatives hereinafter named, that is to say, to John Campbell-, James Campbell, Ebenezer Campbell, Francis H. Campbell, Jane Kennedy, Susan Pierce, Emily Jones, Elizabeth Samson, Mary Chapman, Fanny Badger, Susan G. Young, Robert H. Hinckley, Thomas H. Hinckley, George A. Hinckley, and Abby E. Hinckley three thousand dollars each from the income of the said property under the lease aforesaid, or from the capital amount paid by the lessees under said lease for the property, if said lessees choose so to pay it according to the terms of said lease. [Wm. C. Hinckley, W. H. Chickering, witness.] “ And I desire that these bequests be paid as soon as may be after my decease. “ After the payment of these bequests as herein provided, the remaining part of the California Theater property, either under the lease, or in capital amount paid by the lessees, as the case may be, shall be devoted to the establishment of a perpetual fund, to be called ' The William and Alice Hinckley Fund,’ the income of this fund to be devoted perpetually to Human Beneficence and Charity. And while I do not wish to set arbitrary limits to the wisdom, faithfulness, and discretion of my trustees, desiring, as I do, to foster Religion, Learning, and Charity, I wish to call their attention to the trials and afflictions of the industrious, striving, unfortunate poor, and especially to the aged, the infirm, and the lonely. I wish also to show my interest in good learning, and my sympathy [Wm. C. Hinckley and W. H. Chickering, witness] with honorable and striving young men, to set apart from the income of this fund the sum of Three Hundred Dollars per annum, to be known and designated as ‘ The Hinckley Scholarship,’ to be given to some worthy, talented, industrious, and needy young man, who is pursuing liberal studies, either in the University of the State, or in any other school, as the trustees shall ríame. “ 3. It is my will that when any vacancy occurs in the Board of Trustees mentioned in the first clause of my will, by death, resignation, or removal from the city, or separation from the aforesaid religious society, that the vacancy shall be filled by ballot, in an election duty notified, in which election each of the trustees of the said religious society, and each of the trustees of this fund shall be entitled to one vote; but no person shall east more than one vote by reason of being a member of the Board of Trustees of the said religious society, and also one of the trustees of the aforesaid fund. “ I also desire that the trustees of this fund report annually its [Wm. C. Hinckley and W. H. Chickering, witness] condition, and their doings under this, my will, to the trustees of said religious society. “4. I appoint the persons already named as trustees to‘be my executors, and expressly provide that no bonds shall be required of them, or any of them, and request them to pay all my just debts, and to attend my funeral as my bearers, and to let all things pertaining to my burial be done with the simplicity that accords with my feelings. “ Finally, I dedicate this fund established by this will in my own name and in the name of my beloved wife to the interests of Religion, Learning, and Charity; and I desire by it to express my sympathy with my fellow-men, and my humble faith in God, the Father and Friend of all. [Wm. C. Hinckley W. H. Chickering, witness.]” The question to be considered is the validity of the foregoing provisions, in so far as they do not relate to specific legacies to relatives of the decedent. It is contended, on the part of the appellant, that the clauses above recited are in conflict with the policy of this State, as declared in the Constitution; that they are contrary to, and are rendered illegal by, the provisions of the Civil Code, which prohibit perpetuities, contrary to the chapter which relates to trusts, and to a section under the head of Trustees; that the trusts therein named can not be enforced, because the statute 43 Elizabeth, c. 2, has never been adopted in this State, and neither the act adopting the common law, nor the provision of the Constitution giving jurisdiction in “all equity cases,” confers upon any Court in this State the peculiar jurisdiction with respect to charities exercised by the English Court of Chancery. It is further urged that the trusts could not be enforced in England, or, if so, only by employing the cy pres power, a power winch it is claimed can not be resorted to by any Court of this State. On the part of the respondent it is contended that the trust may be established and enforced by a Court of Equity in California, as a “ charity;” that it was the duty of the Probate Court to decree the “ Theater property” to the trustees— whether the attempt to establish a charity was or was not valid—since the trust to pay the legacies was good; and that one third of all the property of a decedent may be devised to charitable uses. (Civ. Code, § 1313.) We shall assume that the aforementioned propositions are necessarily involved. They have all been elaborately argued. A learned writer has said: “ The rule against perpetuities has been gradually established by judicial decisions, and affords a most notable instance of the nice adaptation of the principles of common law to the decision of a question which requires at once a due regard for the rights of persons and property, and a careful consideration of those larger principles of public policy so essential to the welfare of communities and states. For public policy is opposed to the perpetual settlement of property in families in such manner that it is forever inalienable, or inalienable so long as there may be a person to take answering the designation of some testator •who may have died generations before. The first stand of the judges was to allow only those limitations which would take effect at the end of one life from the death of the testator. This was afterwards modified to include two or more lives in being, and running at the same time, ‘ or where the candles are all burning at once;' for it is plain that such a space of time is only one life in being—that of the longest liver. The next step was much debated; but it was finally settled that an executory devise might be made to vest at the end of lives in being and twenty-one years after, to allow for infancy of the next taker, who by reason of infancy could not alienate the estate. The statute of 10 and 11 Wm. III., c. 16, having provided that children en ventre sa mere, born after their father’s death, should for the purposes of the limitations of estates be deemed to have been born in his lifetime, a further extension of nine or ten months was allowed for the period of gestation. The next step was to allow a period of nine months for gestation at the beginning of the term, as the life in being during which the term would run might be that of a child en ventre sa mIre. * * * It was finally determined that twenty-one years might be allowed as a term in gross, without reference to the infancy of any person, but that the period of nine months for gestation should be allowed in cases only where the gestation had commenced of some person who, if born, would take an interest in the estate. By such steps, by imperceptible degrees, and after two centuries of doubt and litigation, and unaided by legislation, the Judges framed and completed the great rule against perpetuities. Thus all future estates which arise by way of executory devise, conditional limitation, or shifting and springing uses, must vest within a life or lives in being at the death of the testator, and twenty-one years; and, in case the person in whom the estate or interest should then vest is en ventre sa mere, nine months more will be allowed; and all estates created as aforesaid, and so limited that they may not vest within that time, are void.” (Perry on Trusts, §§ 379, 380.) I. Trusts for perpetual charitable uses are not in conflict with public policy as declared in the Constitution of the State. On the 13th day of April, 1850, the Legislature of California enacted: “ The common law of England, so far as it is not repugnant to or inconsistent with the Constitution of the United States, or the Constitution or laws of the State of California, shall be the rule of decision in all the Courts of this State.” (Stats. 1850, 219; see Political Code, § 4468.) “ The great rule against perpetuities” had been settled in England before the date of the “Declaration of Independence” by the Colonies, before the first Constitution of California was adopted, and before the act above recited was passed. That rule—at all events the whole of it except that portion which allowed nine months for an infant en ventre sa mere—became part of the law of California, at least from the date of the act adopting the common law of England “ as the rule of decision.” Prior to the adoption of the common law “as a rale of decision,” the people of this State had declared in the Constitution: “Ho perpetuities shall be allowed except for eleemosynary purposes.” (Const, of 1849, art. xi, § 16.) This provision was renewed in the Constitution of 1879. (Art. xx, § 9.) It can not seriously be contended that this provision of the Constitution either prevents the Legislature from shortening the period within which estates must vest, or from making the law thus shortening such period applicable to trusts for charitable uses. In the absence of any legislation adopting the common law, it is probable that the courts of this State would go to the common law definitions to ascertain the meaning of the expression “ no perpetuities shall be allowed,” as used in the Constitution. However this may be, immediately upon the adoption of the common law, it became necessary to construe the language of the Constitution, as being simply declaratory of the common law rule. The exception “ for eleemosynary purposes” can not be held to enlarge the meaning of the prohibitory clause which proceeds it. The exception seems to have been added lest the words “ no perpetuities shall be allowed” might possible be held to include perpetual charities. In a certain sense trusts for charities may be perpetuities, since they are not required to be limited as provided by the rule against perpetuities. But the perpetuities prohibited by the common law did not include trusts for charitable uses. It is a correct exposition of the rule of the common law to declare that by it “ perpetuities are prohibitedyet no legal mind would receive this as a declaration that trusts for charitable uses, although created to continue beyond the period fixed by the common law rule, were prohibited. We must suppose that the framers of the Constitution were familiar with the rule. If they had simply declared—“no perpetuities shall be allowed,” the Courts would not have held the prohibition to have extended to charities, because the framers of the Constitution used the words of prohibition in view of the evils which the English Courts had sought to correct by the establishment of the rule, and in view of the effect and extent of the rule itself. The Constitution did not adopt a new rule, but expressly recognized one already existing elsewhere. The words of the exception, so far from indicating that it was the intention of those who made and adopted the Constitution to extend the prohibition to charities—or that charities should be considered as perpetuities within the meaning of the rule of prohibition—indicate precisely the contrary. In short, the Constitution adopted the common law rale, which never applied to charities, and is to be read as if it had been said: “ Perpetuities shall not be allowed, but let it be clearly understood that settlements for charitable uses are not perpetuities within the meaning of the word as used in the prohibitory clause.” The adoption of the common law left undisturbed the distinction recognized by the Constitution between prohibited perpetuities (including private trusts) and charities. That the prohibition of the common law and Constitution —as also that of any statute merely shortening the period within which, according to the rule of the common law, estates must vest—extends as well to the creation of perpetuities through the medium of private trusts as by common law conveyances, can not be doubted. A “perpetuity”—that is, that which is prohibited as such by the common law or statute—will no more be tolerated when it is covered by a trust than when it displays itself undisguised in the form of a legal estate. (Perry on Trusts, 737, and cases cited; Thelluson v. Woodford, 4 Ves. 227; S. C., 11 id. 112; Hooper v. Hooper, 9 Cush. 122; Hawley v. James, 5 Paige, 445.) II. “Charities” are not prohibited by the provisions of the Civil Code which prohibit perpetuities. As we have seen, charities are not included in the common law rule. It remains to inquire whether the rale prohibiting perpetuities has been extended to include charities by express statutory enactment. Section 715 of the Civil Code reads: “The absolute power of alienation can not be suspended, by any limitation or condition whatever, for a longer period than during the continuance of lives of persons in being at the creation of the limitation or condition, except in the single case mentioned in section 772.” Section 772 thus referred to is: “A contingent remainder in fee may be created on a prior remainder in fee, to take effect in the event that the persons to whom the first remainder in fee is limited die under the age of twenty-one years, or upon any other contingency by which the estate of such persons may be determined before they attain majority.” It is difficult to believe but, had it been the intention that these sections should apply to trusts for charitable uses, they would have been differently worded, or that there would have been inserted an independent section clearly expressing such intention. The sections of the code prohibit limitations or conditions which may suspend the power of alienation beyond the lives of persons. Bearing in mind the object of the common law rule—to prevent the perpetual settlement of property in families—it would seem to be the evident purpose of the provisions of the Code, which limit the period within which estates must vest during the existence of living persons, simply to shorten that period as established by the common law. Accepting this as the real intent of the statute, full force and effect is given to the language employed; and the rule of the statute, like that of the common law, may coexist with and leave undisturbed the doctrines of the common law applicable to charities. We acknowledge the power of the Legislature to declare a different public policy, if, in the progress of our history, the perpetuation of trusts for charitable uses shall be found in any degree to conflict with the development of free institutions. But when, as is now the case, a wise and sufficient purpose can be attributed to the legislation which has been adopted, and the language employed does not necessarily import a larger purpose, we ought not assume that it was the intent entirely to overthrow a policy so thoroughly established and widely recognized. The statute simply recognizes principles of public policy—“essential to the welfare of communities”—which prohibit the perpetual settlement of estates in individuals and families. The common law rule as to perpetuities does not apply to charities. “When either from circumstances extrinsic to a limitation or from the character of its subject-matter, a sufficient guaranty exists against any violation of the spirit of the law for the prevention of remoteness, their force and applicability, with respect to such limitation, cease so far as concerns the necessity for expressly conforming to the period prescribed by law. This consideration seems to apply to limitations * -s -x- £0 charitable uses.” (Lewis on Perpetuities, 663; State v. Griffith, 2 Del. Ch. 399.) Still, bearing in mind the evil which it was the object of the common law rule to prevent, the remarks of Taylor, C. J., in Griffin v. Graham, 1 Hawks, 130; S. C., 9 Am. Dec. 619, will tend to illustrate the meaning of the provisions of the Civil Code, so far as they are applicable to real property. The learned Chief Justice said: “The meaning which the law annexes to this term (perpetuity) is that of an estate-tail, so settled that it can not be undone or made void. As when, if all parties who have an interest join, they can not bar or pass the estate; but if by the concurrence of all having the estate-tail it may be barred, it is not a perpetuity. It is in reference to estates-tail that the word is used in the Bill of Bights; for there was no other estate that had a tendency that way. A condition not to alien annexed to a fee simple is void'; and the rules relative to executory devises, by which their duration is limited, had effectually checked their tendency to a perpetuity. In obedience to the declaration in the Bill of Bights, and to the injunction in the Constitution, the Legislature of 1784 abolished entails—giving as a reason that they tended to raise the wealth and importanee-of particular families, and to give them an undue influence in a republic. This shows plainly that they designed to prevent the accumulation of individual wealth, and did not contemplate the possibility of any evil likely to arise from the establishment of a permanent fund for charitable uses. The probable effect of this was the reverse of what they meant to guard against, as it promised to increase the equality of the republic. It would afford the means of instruction to those who could not otherwise procure them; it would diffuse knowledge and morality among the class of society which stands most in need of them, and, by rendering them useful and efficient members, add to the strength and happiness of the community. Assuredly, then, property applied to these ends never entered into the common law notion of perpetuity; otherwise the objection would have been taken in Porter’s Case, 1 Coke, 22, and in many others to be found in the books, where similar dispositions have been made. * * * I am thus led to conclude, that a perpetuity which the law would deem void, must be an estate so settled for private uses that, by the very terms of its creation, there is no potestas alieoiancli in the owner.” In other States, where the Constitution prohibits perpetuities; or where legislation has been had, adopting' the common law rule, or shortening the common law period within which estates must vest, it has not been supposed that such statutes interfered with the right to make perpetual settlements for charitable uses. Thus in Alabama it was provided, that gifts to others than wife and children must vest within the term of three lives in being, and ten years thereafter. (Code 1852, § 1309.) Yet the Supreme Court of that State, in 1862, held the doctrine to be settled that the Chancery Court had jurisdiction, by virtue of its original common law powers, without claiming prerogative powers, and without the aid of the statute of 43 Elizabeth, to uphold an executory bequest of money to the “Pilgrims' Rest Association,” “to be loaned out by Commissioners to be appointed by said association,” etc. (Williams v. Pearson, 38 Ala. 299.) In Connecticut it would appear that a Colonial statute of 1702 gave pérpetuity to public charities. (Treat’s Appeal, 30 Conn. 115.) By statute of Michigan, the absolute power of alienation can not be suspended for a longer period than the continuance of two lives in being, with an exception like that found in section 772 of our Civil Code. (Com. Laws, 1857, c. 85, §§ 15-26.) In Attorney-General v. Soule, 28 Mich. 153, it was held that a bequest “ for the establishment of a school at Montrose” was so uncertain as not to bind the trustees to the application of the fund to public charity, and therefore no case was presented for interference by the State. But while the doctrine of charitable uses was considered and discussed, there was no suggestion by court or counsel that the statute prohibited perpetual charities. In Ohio (2 Rev. Stats., c. 42, § 1) no estate can be limited to any person or persons, except they are in being, or the immediate descendants of such as are in being at the time of making the deed or- will. In Ohio the general principles of the law of charities, as understood in England, have been repeatedly enforced, without any intimation that they were limited or controlled by any statutory prohibition of perpetuities. (Zanesville C. & M. Co. v. Zanesville, 20 Ohio, 483; McIntyre v. Zanesville, 17 Ohio St. 352; Williams v. First Presb. Soc., 1 id. 501.) By the nineteenth section of the “ Declaration of Rights” in the Constitution of Arkansas, adopted in 1836, it is declared, “ Perpetuities and monopolies are contrary to the genius of a republic, and shall not be allowed.” Nevertheless the Supreme Court of that State has said: " It is not against public policy, or the spirit of our laws, for a man to donate to trustees a lot of ground, to be held and appropriated by them and their successors in perpetuity, for the use and benefit of a religious denomination as a place-of worship.” (Grissom v. Hill, 17 Ark. 488.) In Kentucky a statute has substantially adopted the common law rule against perpetuities. (Rev. Stat., c. 80, § 34.) Yet it has there been held that the Court of Chancery possesses the powers of chancery in England, even such as are in the nature of prerogative. (Att’y-Gen. v. Wallace, 7 B. Mon. 611.) This goes further than it is necessary to go in the present case, but certainly the statute could not have been considered as affecting the question. In Iowa, alienation can not be suspended for a period longer than lives in being and twenty-one years. (Code 1851, p. 1191.) But in Johnson v. Mayne, 4 Iowa, 180, and Miller v. Chittenden, id. 252, the Supreme Court seem to recognize the English law of charities, including the doctrine of cy pres so far as it is a judicial doctrine. In Vermont, where, as in Arkansas, the Constitution declares that a perpetuity shall not be allowed, it was considered, although the question to its full extent was not involved, that the Court of Chancery had full jurisdiction with reference to charitable bequests and uses. (Executors of Burr v. Smith, 7 Vt. 241; S. C., 29 Am. Dec. 154.) In Paschal v. Acklin, 27 Tex. 173, it was expressly held that bequests to charitable uses were not within the constitutional prohibition of perpetuities and entailments. III. Such perpetual trusts, "when relating to real property,” are not prohibited by title iv of part 2 of the Civil Code. It is urged, however, that trusts for charitable uses arising out of real property, are prohibited by title iv of part 2 of the Civil Code. Section 847 declares: “Uses and trusts, in relation to real property, are those only which are specified in this title.” And section 857 reads: "Express trusts may be created for any of the following purposes: “1. To sell real property and apply or dispose of the proceeds in accordance with the instrument creating the trust. “2. To mortgage or lease real property for the benefit of annuitants or other legatees, or for the purpose of satisfying any charge thereon. “3. To receive the rents and profits of real property, and to pay them to or apply them to the use of any person, whether ascertained at the time of the creation of the trust or not, for himself or for his family, during the life of such person or for any shorter term, subject to the rules of title ii of this part. “4. To receive the rents and profits of real property, and to accumulate the same for the purposes arid within the limits prescribed by the same title.” It may not he improper here to ascertain what is intended by the third and fourth subdivisions of the section just quoted. A section of the Hew York statute, which was before the codifiers in this State, read as follows: “Express trusts may be created for any or either of the following purposes: “1. To sell land for the benefit of creditors. “2. To sell, mortgage, or lease lands for the benefit of legatees, or for the purpose of satisfying any charge thereon. “3. To receive the rents and profits of lands, and apply them to the education and support, or either, of any person, during the life of such person, or for any shorter term, subject to the rules prescribed in the first article of this title. “4. To receive the rents and profits of lands, and to accumulate the same, for the purposes and within the limits prescribed in the first article of this title.” (Rev. Stats., ed. 1829, p. 728.) Comparing the section of the New York statute with the corresponding section of our Civil Code, we find: 1. Prior to the amendments of 1874, the first subdivision of the section read like the New York law; and the second subdivision was substantially the same. 2. That the third subdivision of the New York statute has been changed by inserting the words “pay them to,” “whether ascertained at the time of the trust or not,” and “for himself or his family.” None of the changes have altered the meaning of the third subdivision of the section. It had already been held that a trust to receive the profits of land, and “to pay them over” to the beneficiary, was valid under the provision authorizing a trustee to receive such profits “and apply them to the use” of any person. (Leggett v. Perkins, 2 N. Y. 297.) It had also been held, where there was a trustee “to receive rents and profits, and apply them to the use of any person,” that if the person primarily designated^ died during a trust term lawfully constituted in respect to its duration, there was nothing in the terms or policy of the statute which prevented the use from being shifted to some other object of the testator’s bounty—although such last person should not be in existence or known at the creation of the trust. (Gilman v. Reddington, 24 N. Y. 13.) And it had been further decided that any application of rents and profits, by way of trust, to the use of a man’s family, was an application of them to Ids use, and if confined to the period of his life, and to a living individual, was not contrary to the statute. (Rogers v. Tilley, 20 Barb. 639.) The section of the New York statute above recited (§ 55) is found in article second, of title two, of chapter one of “ An act concerning the acquisition, etc., of property,” etc. (Rev. Stats, p. 717.) The reference in the third and fourth subdivisions are distinctly to the first article of the same title. The fifteenth and sixteenth sections of the first article, thus referred to, are: “15. The absolute power of alienation shall not be suspended by any limitation or condition whatever, for a longer period than during the continuance of not more than two lives in being at the creation of the estate, except in the single case mentioned in the next section.” “16. A contin- gent remainder in fee may be created on a prior remainder in fee,” etc., (continuing in the same language as that employed in section 772 of our Civil Code.) These are followed by other sections regulating and declaring the mode in which estates may be limited, none of which authorize an extension of the power of alienation beyond the periods mentioned in sections 15 and 16.. Section 37 of the “ First Article” to which reference is made in the 55th section of the Hew York statute is-like section 724 of the Civil Code of California, with the difference that the Hew York law applies only to accumulations of the rents arising out of real estate, while section 724 relates also to the profits derived from personal property. Section 724 of the Civil Code reads: “ An accumulation of the income of property for the benefit of one or more persons, may be directed by any will or transfer in writing sufficient to pass the property out of which the fund is to arise, as follows: 1. If such accumulation is directed to commence on the creation of the interest out of which the income is to arise, it must be made for the benefit of one or more minors then in being, and terminate at the expiration of their minority; or, 2. If such accumulation is directed to commence at any time subsequent to the creation of the interest out of which the income is to arise, it must commence within the time in this title permitted for the vesting of future interests, and during the minority of the beneficiaries, and terminate at the expiration of such minority.” The references in subdivisions three and four of section 55 of the Hew York statute point' unmistakably to the provisions of law which prescribe the rules to which the subdivisions are subject; that in the third subdivision being aimed at sections 15 and 16 of article first, which prohibit perpetuities; and that in the fourth subdivision, at section 37 of the same article—which prohibits the accumulation of the rents and profits of real estate. The Hew York statutes have been always thus construed. The third and fourth subdivisions of section 55 have been read, by the Courts of that State, in connection with the sections of article first, prohibitory of perpetuities and accumulations. (Downing v. Marshall, 23 N. Y. 366; Lang v. Ropke, 5 Sandf. 363; Rogers v. Tilley, 20 Barb. 639.) The reference in subdivision three of section 857 of our Civil Code to “the rules of title two of this part”—part two—is sufficiently clear and is applicable to the rules found in that chapter which relate to the creation of estates. It may indeed be made to include section 715, which, although it takes its place in title two of the first part, is referred to in section 771—a section of title two of part two. Section 771 is to be read with section 715, and was inserted from abundant caution lest it might be held that the latter section could be avoided, and a perpetuity created, by simply authorizing a change in the character of the property constituting the subject of the trust. Section 771 is merely declaratory of the law as laid down in Hawley v. James, 5 Paige, 444; S. C., 16 Wend. 163. “A more power to exchange lands, whether such exchange is made directly, or by means of a sale and new purchase, is not a power to alien the estate, within the intent and meaning of the provisions of the Revised Statutes on this subject.” (Hawley v. James, 5 Paige, 444.) Consequently such power would not obviate the objection as to alienability, within the rule against perpetuities. (Belmont v. O’Brien, 12 N. Y. 402.) But the reference to title two of part two in the fourth subdivision of section 857 of the Civil Code, is evidently a mistake. There is nothing in the title which in terms treats of accumulations of the rents and profits of real estate. The reference is to provisions which relate to accumulations of income from real estate, and it can be given force and effect by applying it to sections 722-726, in title two of the first part —the only sections which contain the law on that subject, and which prohibit accumulations of income arising from real or personal property. In thus construing section 857 of the Civil Code, our purpose has been broader than to point out an erroneous reference. It has included a design to prove that section 847 is applicable only to private trusts, and does not prevent the creation of permanent trusts for charitable uses. The references in section 857 are to provisions of the code, which, as we have seen, manifestly relate to the creation of estates to vest in persons or individuals in being, and to the accumulation of income for the benefit of such persons. Except so far as section 757 still further limits the period during which beneficial interests may be enjoyed, the title which treats of uses and trusts is but suppletory and correlative to the provisions of the code which relate to the creation of legal estates not violative of the rule against perpetuities. What has been said with reference to the object of the common law and statutory rule prohibiting the vesting of legal estates beyond a certain period—the prevention "of the dangerous enhancement of the wealth, power, and influence of particular individuals and families—applies equally to equitable estates or-interests. We must assume that the Legislature had this object in view. We ought not to construe a statute, in which no direct reference is made to so important a subject as charitable trusts, as intended to prohibit charities; against which can be urged none of the objections, so pregnant of evil, which have been made against permanent' settlements in families. Besides, section 715 is included within part one of the code which treats of “ property in general,” and, as we have seen, has no application to trusts for charitable uses. Here, as in New. York, “ trusts in personal estate are subject to no statu-: tory restriction; in other words, the Legislature has never attempted to define and enumerate the lawful occasions for such trusts.” (Gilman v. Reddington, 24 N. Y. 12.) They stand, therefore, as at the common law, subject only to the statutory rule of section 715, and to the direction against accumulations. (§§ 724,2220.) It would be a strange condition of the law, if while we could uphold a charitable donation of personal property—the income to be perpetually applied to the support of the charity—we must declare void a devise to a like object, upon the ground that the latter is annulled by the provisions of the code which, it is claimed, prohibit such uses and trusts. Of property thus dedicated, one kind is as effectually withdrawn from ordinary business as another; and there is nothing in our general policy or. laws which attaches a peculiar sanctity to land, or which either encourages or forbids restraints upon its alienation, not applicable to money or other property. IY. Nor does section 2221 of the Civil Code require that the individual cestuis que trustent, to be ultimately benefited by a devise or bequest to charity, shall be specified in the instrument creating the trust. It is further objected that the trusts which the will attempts to establish do not comply with section 2221 of the Civil Code. The section is: “Subject to the provisions of section 852, a voluntary trust is created, as to the trustor and beneficiary, by any words or acts of the trustor, indicating with reasonable certainty : “1. An intention on the part of the trustor to create a trust; and, “2. The subject, purpose, and beneficiary of the trust.” It is said that this section applies to all trusts alike. The code does not in terms declare the distinction between express and implied or resulting trusts. But section 857 declares that “ express trusts” in relation to real property may be created for certain purposes. Express trusts are put in opposition to those which are implied or resulting—the latter being such as exist “by operation of law,” and the former such as are created or declared by instrument in writing. (§ 852.) Section 2221 is found in a chapter which treats of “Trusts” in general. The first section of the chapter divides trusts into “ voluntary” and “ involuntary.” (§ 2215.) Section 2221 is “subject to” section 852—that is to say—if a voluntary trust (using the words in the sense of the code) relates to land, it must be in writing. All trusts relating to personal property are left by the section to be proved “by any words or acts of the trustor”—that is, by oral testimony. A bequest to charitable uses can only be by will in writing. It follows necessarily that section 2221 was not intended to apply to such, or any, bequests, or to devises for charitable uses. Section 2221 does not purport to limit the cases in which trusts may be created. It lays down a rule of evidence. Section 2220 declares: “ A trust may be created for any purpose for which a contract may lawfully be made, except as otherwise prescribed by the titles on uses and trusts and on transfers.” As we have seen, the title on uses and trusts does not prohibit charities, and “ transfers” are conveyances of title from one living person to another. (§ 1039.) Y. Section 1313 of the Civil Code—its effect. The conclusion which we have reached with reference to the statutory provisions above considered is strengthened by section 1313 of the Civil Code. “ No estate, real or personal, shall be bequeathed or devised to any charitable or benevolent society, or corporation, or to any person or persons in trust for charitable uses, except the same be done by will duly executed at least thirty days before the decease of the testator; and, if so made at least thirty days prior to such death, such devise or legacy, and each of them shall be valid; provided, that no such devises or bequests shall collectively exceed one third of the estate of the testator leaving legal heirs, and in such case a pro rata deduction from such devises or bequests shall be made so as to reduce the aggregate thereof to one third of such estate; and all dispositions of property made contrary hereto shall be void, and go to the residuary legatee or devisee, next of kin, or heirs, according to law.” If the sections of the code relating to the period within which estates must vest or be beneficially enjoyed were clearly applicable to devises and bequests for charitable uses, it might plausibly be urged that section 1313 was intended only to impose a further limitation upon the powers of testators. In such case section 1313 might be said to mean that no bequest or devise for charitable uses should be valid (even for the.period during which the power of alienation may be suspended), unless by will executed more than thirty days before the death of the testator. But surely, in the absence of language making the provisions of the code relating to perpetuities clearly applicable to charities, much force should be given to the declaration of section 1313. It is there said that if a will settling real or personal property to charitable uses shall be made more than thirty days prior to the death of the testator, the devise or bequest shall be valid. We have seen the references in the title treating of uses and trusts to title two of part first, and title two of part second, and in the chapter treating of trustees to the provisions relating to uses and trusts and to transfers. It is worthy of observation that section 1313 contains no reference to the provisions, of the code guarding against perpetuities or defining certain trusts. Hothing would seem more natural than that such provisions would have been referred to in section 1313, if the Legislature had supposed that they had any bearing upon the matter of trusts for charitable uses. Under the circumstances, the very silence of section 1313 may be treated as an implied legislative construction of the sections which are not referred to. Section 1313 of the Civil Code, like the statute of George II., c. 36, commonly called the mortmain act, recognizes the right to convey or settle to charitable uses, and was passed to prevent improvident alienations or dispositions, by languishing or dying persons, to the disherison of their lawful heirs. (See preamble to Statute Geo. II.) We conclude that no statute of this State has prohibited permanent settlements to charitable uses. VI. Hew York decisions dependent upon statutes of that State. In Hew York it was indeed held that a clause in a will, whereby was created a trust to executors to receive the rents and profits of real estate, and to pay them to certain named societies, during the lives of individuals named, was invalid, because not constituted as required by the section 55 of the Hew York statute above cited. (Downing v. Marshall, 23 N. Y. 379.) It was decided that, by the third subdivision of that section, the trust must be dependent on the life of the beneficiary—“ during the life of such person, or for a shorter term.” (Rev. Stats., p. 728.) This construction was given in view of, and the judgment of the Court influenced by, other sections of the statute, through which the charitable intent of the testator could be effectuated. The sections were 45, 47, 49, and 58. (Rev. Stats. N. Y. 727,728.) They prescribed that every estate in lands should be deemed a legal estate, “ except when otherwise provided in this chapter.” (§ 45. And see § 55.) That every person thereafter entitled in equity to possession and receipt of rents of lands should be deemed to have a legal estate therein, equal, in quality and character, to his beneficial interest. (§§ 47, 48.) That, in case of a disposition of lands, “ whether by deed or devise,” to one or more persons, for the use of, or in trust for, another, no estate should vest in such person or persons; and that every such disposition must be made directly to the person in whom the right to possession and profits is intended to be vested. (§ 49.) That, where an express trust should be created for any purpose not enumerated in section 55, no estate should vest in the trustees; “ but the trust, if directing or authorizing the performance of any act which may be lawfully performed under a power, shall be valid as a power in.,trust, subject to the provisions in relation to such powers contained in article third of this title.” (§ 58.) Article third, thus referred to, classified powers, general and special. (Rev. Stats. 731.) The sections and article above referred to were originally transferred in substance to, and incorporated in, our Civil Code. They were carefully eliminated from our law by the amendments which took effect July 1st, 1874. In Downing v. Marshall, 28 N. Y. 379, the Court of Appeals of New York said that, by the revision of 1830 (Revised Statutes) the law underwent considerable change. But added: “There has been some misapprehension as to the character and extent of the change. All express trusts were abolished, except certain ones enumerated in the 55th section of the statute. * * * The system of trusts was a complicated one, and was believed to be attended with great inconveniences. These it was proposed to remedy, not by depriving men of the power of disposing of their estates, nor even by abridging that power, but by giving effect to such dispositions according to a more simple classification, so as to relieve this branch of the law from much useless refinement and perplexity.” As to trust estates purely passive, the provisions of the statute vested the title in the beneficiary. Active, express trusts were defined in section 55. “All other express trusts were abolished; by which the revisers and Legislature intended simply that legal estates impressed with trust duties should be created only in the cases specified. The provisions of the statute were aimed against the attempt to create such estates or titles, but not against the duty, trust, or power. This is perfectly manifest from the provision which declares that if an express trust be created, for any purpose not enumerated * ' * * and the trust authorizes the performance of any act lawful under a power, it shall be valid as a power in trust. (§ 58.) There was very wisely no attempt to enumerate or define the acts which might be lawfully done under a power, and in this respect, therefore, the law was subjected to no innovation.” (Downing v. Marshall, 23 N. Y. 379.) With reference to this case, further, it may be observed that the Court did not find it necessary to consider or discuss the subject of perpetual charities. The testator had not attempted to establish such a charity. By his will he directed his executors to continue in operation certain manufacturing establishments during the natural lives of two persons named, and to distribute the net annual profits thereof—one half in equal shares to the American Bible Society, the American Tract Society, and the American Home Missionary Society, and the other half in supporting the Marshall Lifirmary. Of these the Bible Society, the Tract Society, and the Marshall Infirmary were incorporated associations. By a provision of the law under which the Bible Society and the Tract Society were incorporated, it was declared—“no devise to ■ a corporation shall be valid unless such corporation shall be expressly authorized by its charter or by statute, to take by devise.” The Bible and Tract societies were not expressly authorized, either by their charters, or by any statute, to take by devise. The Court held—Denio, J., dissenting— that this fact was conclusive as to them—equally conclusive whether the devises were attempted perpetuities or not; or whether they claimed to take a benefit under the will as by a technical trust, or through the power in trust conferred on the executors. As to the Home Missionary Society, it was unincorporated, and “ composed of a fluctuating and unascertained class of persons, having no legal capacity to take the gift.” (Page 382.) There were, as the Court thought, no trustees and no ascertained beneficiaries, either as individuals, or as a class. Where perpetual charities are upheld, still there is no power in the American courts—the Judges of which employ judicial powers alone—in a case where the gift is vague and indefinite, and no trustee is appointed and the court is given no authority to appoint by the will. (Perry on Trusts, 731.) The Marshall Infirmary was authorized to take by its charter. It was said by Porter, J., in Bascom v. Albertson, 34 N. Y. 619, that the decision in Williams v. Williams, 8 N. Y. 525, to the effect, “ the provisions of the Revised Statutes respecting trusts, perpetuities, and the limitations of future estates were not designed to, and do not at all affect conveyances or testamentary gifts to religious or charitable corporations,” was reversed in Beekman v. Bousor, 23 N. Y. 315-318. But what is said in Beekman v. Bousor, with respect to the controlling influence or the statutes on “ Trusts,” relates to a clause in the will there under consideration which seems to have been treated by the Court as an attempt to suspend, by means of a private trust, the power of alienation for a period not dependent on lives in being. That such was the understanding of the Court is rendered more apparent by an examination of the cases referred to in support of the proposition there laid down. They are: Hawley v. James, 16 Wend. 61, and Boynton v. Hoyt, 1 Denio, 53. In Hawley v. James it was held that the creation of a trust term by will to continue until the youngest of the testator’s children and grandchildren, attaining the age of twenty-one years, shall attain that age, when the number exceeded two, was void under the Revised Statutes of New York. In Boynton v. Hoyt it was held that where the testator devised his estate to trustees to receive and apply the rents and profits in accordance with the third subdivision of section 55, but which trust was to continue until the testator’s youngest child would, if living, attain the age of twenty years, the devise was void for suspending the power of alienation for a period not limited by the continuance of two lives in being at the creation of the estate. A gift to individuals or persons in their private capacity will not be charitable. (Thornber v. Wilson, 3 Drew, 245; S. C., 4 id. 350-357; Doe v. Aldridge, 4 T. R. 264; Doe v. Copestake, 6 East, 328; Morice v. Bishop of Durham, 9 Ves. 399; S. C., 10 id. 522.) In order that there may be a good trust for a charitable use, there must be some public benefit open to an indefinite and vague number; the persons to be benefited must be uncertain and indefinite, until they are selected or appointed to be the particular beneficiaries of the trust for the time being. (Perry on Trusts, 710, and cases cited.) It is no charity to give to a friend. * * The thing given becomes a charity when the uncertainty of the recipient begins. Nor can we agree that the reasoning in Williams v. Williams, 8 N. Y. 525, is materially weakened by what was decided in President etc. of the College of St. Mary Magdalen, Oxford, v. The Attorney-General, 6 H. of L. C. 206-208. There it was determined simply that a statute of limitations, applicable to all trusts, was applicable to certain charities. Williams v. Williams, supra, did not turn upon the broad proposition that charities were unaffected by every general statute as to trusts. What is said as to the applicability of the statutes respecting perpetuities and trusts to charities in Levy v. Levy, 33 N. Y. 97, expresses the opinion of but three of the eight Judges of the Court of Appeals. Denio, C. J., and Campbell, J., dissented from the conclusion to which the Court arrived. Judges Davies, Brown, and Potter concurred only in holding that the trust failed under the laws of Virginia, for the reason that the whole scheme was founded upon the assumed validity of the devise therein of a certain farm in Virginia—such devise being void as against the laws of that State. Judge Potter expressly dissented from that portion of the opinion which held the trust void under the laws of New York. VII. Law of Virginia. It may be well, at this point, to examine the law of the State of Virginia with respect to trusts for charitable uses. The leading case is, Gallego’s Executors v. Attorney-General, 3 Leigh, 487; S. C., 24 Am. Dec. 650. It is there said by Mr. Justice Carr: “In England, charitable bequests, where no legal interest is vested, and which are too vague to be claimed by those for whom the beneficial interest was intended, can not be established by a Court of Equity, either exercising its ordinary jurisdiction, or enforcing the prerogative of the King, independent of the statute 43 Elizabeth; and as that statute, if ever in force here, was repealed in 1792,1 conclude that charitable bequests stand on the same footing with us as all others, and will alike be sustained or rejected by Courts of Equity.” Janey’s Executor v. Latane, 4 Leigh, 327, seems to have been, decided on authority of Gallego’s Executors v. Attorney-General. In Brooke v. Shacklett, 13 Gratt. 301, the proposition was repeated, that as the statute 43 Elizabeth constituted no part of the law of Virginia, charitable bequests were to be treated as standing on the same footing with other bequests. Seaburn v. Seaburn, 15 Gratt. 423, recognized as law Gallego’s Executors v. Attorney-General, except as modified by subsequent statutes. It will be seen that the Viriginia cases turned in no degree upon statutes of that State prohibiting alienations or defining trusts, but upon the broader principle that, independent of the statute of Elizabeth, Courts of Equity cannot establish charitable trusts when no legal estate vests, and the trust is so vague that its benefits cannot be claimed by cestuis que trustent. It is not for us to decide whether the principle was always properly, applied. VIII. Jurisdiction of Court of Chancery in England independent of statute of Elizabeth. We are thus conducted to the consideration of the questions: Did the Court of Chancery in England, as part of its ordinary jurisdiction, have power to establish and administer charities, prior to the statute of Elizabeth? If so, what was the nature, and what were the limits of that jurisdiction? The solution of these questions is perhaps peculiarly important here, since the statute 43 Elizabeth has never been adopted in this State. The leading case in Virginia relies entirely on Baptist Association v. Hart, 4 Wheat. 1. VIII a. Of Cases in the Supreme Court of the United States. Baptist Association v. Hart arose out of a bequest in the will of Silas Hart, a resident of Virginia, which was as follows: “Item, what shall remain of my military certificates at the time of my decease, both principal and interest, I give and bequeath to the Baptist Association that for ordinary meets at Philadelphia annually, which I allow to be a perpetual fund for the education of youths of the Baptist denomination, who shall appear promising for the ministry, always giving a preference to the descendants of my father’s family.” Previous to the death of the» testator, the Legislature of Virginia had repealed all English statutes, including 43 Elizabeth. The “Baptist Association” had existed as an organized body for many years before the date of the will. After the death of the testator, it had received a charter from the Legislature of Pennsylvania, incorporating it by the name “The Trustees of the Philadelphia Baptist Association.” It was held in effect that no personal benefit was intended to the individuals composing the Association. They were continually fluctuating, and were not designated in the will. The intent was to constitute the Association, in its collective capacity, trustee. Held, further, that the Association could not take, because not incorporated at the decease of testator. “At the death of the testator there were no persons in existence capable of taking this bequest.” Those for whose ultimate benefit the legacy was intended were to be designated and selected by the trustees. It followed, in the opinion of the Court, that as the Baptist Association was incapable of executing the trust, or even of taking it on themselves, the selection could never be made, nor the persons designated who might take beneficially. Nevertheless, the question remained whether the character of the legacy, as a charity, would entitle it to the protection of the Court. “That such a legacy would be sustained in England is admitted,” said Mr. Chief Justice Marshall. It was contended, on behalf of the executors, that such a legacy would be sustained in England only in virtue of the royal prerogative, or of the statute 43 Elizabeth, and not in virtue of the rules by which a Court of Equity, exercising its ordinary powers, is governed; on the part of plaintiff, that the peculiar law of charities did not originate in, but existed before the statute of Elizabeth. The Court seems to have adopted the view of counsel for the executors, and proceeds to decide not only that charitable bequests, “ where no legal interest is vested, and which are too vague to be claimed by those for whom the benefit is intended,” can not be established by a Court of Equity in the exercise of its ordinary jurisdiction, independent of the Elizabethan statute, but also—apparently, but, perhaps, only apparently—-that they could not have been established by the English chancellor, even in the enforcement of the prerogative of the crown, independent of that statute. It is not necessary to consider whether the last proposition was involved in the determination of Baptist Association v. Hart. There has never been any legislative attempt to devolve upon the courts of California the sovereign power which was employed by the king', as parens patricB, in the superintendence or administration of charities; even if, under ,our Constitution, powers not judicial can be conferred upon the courts. The opinion of the Chief Justice in Baptist Association v. Hart, seems to have been concurred in by all the Associate Justices except Mr. Justice Todd, who was absent. In Vidal v. Girard’s Executors, 2 How. 127, however, Mr. Justice Story, in an opinion unanimously concurred in by the members of the Supreme Court of the United States—after pointing out that the case differed in two particulars from Baptist Association v. Hart, inasmuch as, in the latter, there was both a donation to trustees incapable of talcing and beneficiaries uncertain and indefinite—proceeded to say: “ There are, however, dicta of eminent Judges (some of which were commented upon in the case in 4 Wheat. 1), which do certainly support the doctrine that charitable uses might be enforced in chancery upon the general jurisdiction of the Court, independently of the statute of 43 Elizabeth; and that the jurisdiction had been acted upon not only subsequent but antecedent to that statute. Such was the opinion of Sir Joseph Jekyll in Eyre v. Countess of Shaftsbury, 2 P. Wms. 102; S. C., 2 Eq. Abr. 710, pl. 2, and that of Lord Northington in Attorney-General v. Tancred, 1 Eden, 10; S. C., Amb. 351; 1 Wm. Bl. 90; and that of Lord Chief Justice Wilmot in his elaborate judgment in Attorney-General v. Lady Downing, Wilmot’s Notes, 1, 26, given after an examination of all the leading authorities. Lord Eldon in the Attorney-General v. The Skinner’s Company, 2 Russ. 407, intimates in clear terms his doubts whether the jurisdiction of Chancery over charities arose solely under the statute of Elizabeth; suggesting that the statute has perhaps been construed with reference to a supposed antecedent jurisdiction 'of the Court, by which void devises to charitable purposes were sustained. Sir John Leach, in the case of a charitable use before the statute of Elizabeth (Attorney-General v. The Master of Brentwood School, 1 My. & K. 376), said: ‘Although at this time no legal devise could be made to a corporation for a charitable use, yet lands so devised were in equity bound by a trust for the charity, which a Court of Equity would then execute.’ In point of fact the charity was so decreed in that very case, in the twelfth year of Elizabeth. But what is still more important is the declaration of Lord Redesdale, a great Judge in Equity, in the Attorney-General v. The Mayor of Dublin, 1 Bligh’s N. R. 312, 347 (1827), where he says: ‘We are referred to the statute of Elizabeth, with respect to charitable uses, as creating a new law upon the subject of charitable uses. That statute only created a new jurisdiction; it created no new law. It created a new and ancillary jurisdiction, a jurisdiction created by commission, etc.; but the proceedings of that commission were made subject to appeal to the Lord Chancellor, and he might reverse or affirm what they had done, or make such order as he might think fit for reserving the controlling jurisdiction of the Court of Chancery as it existed before the passing of that statute; and there can be no doubt that by information by the Attorney-General the same thing might be done.’ He then adds, ‘ the right which the Attorney-General has to file an information, is a right of prerogative. The king, as parens patriae, has a right by his proper officers, to call upon the several Courts of Justice, according to the nature of their several jurisdictions, to see that right is done to his subjects who are incompetent to act for themselves, as in the case of charities and other cases.’ So that Lord Redesdale maintains the jurisdiction in the broadest terms, as founded in the inherent jurisdiction of Chancery independently of the statute of 43 Elizabeth. In addition to these dicta p