Full opinion text
OPINION AND ORDER TABLE OF CONTENTS I. FACTUAL BACKGROUND.570 II. NEWMAN’S STANDING AS NEXT FRIEND .575 III. THIS COURT’S JURISDICTION.578 A. Who Is A Proper Respondent? oo t> lo B. Territorial Jurisdiction. co GO U3 C. Personal Jurisdiction. 00 lo D. Transfer to South Carolina .. t> 00 lO IV. THE LAWFULNESS OF PADILLA’S DETENTION.587 A. The President’s Authority To Order That Padilla Be Detained As An Enemy Combatant. Cn 00 00 B. Is Padilla’s Detention Barred by Statute? Cu CO Oi V. CONSULTATION WITH COUNSEL.599 VI. THE STANDARD APPLICABLE TO THIS COURT’S REVIEW AND THE FACTS THE COURT MAY CONSIDER.605 A. Deference Due the President’s Determination LQ o CO B. The Sealed Mobbs Declaration. 00 o CO MUKASEY, District Judge. . Petitioner in this case, Jose Padilla, was arrested on May 8, 2002, in Chicago, on a material witness warrant issued by this court pursuant to 18 U.S.C. § 3144 to enforce a subpoena to secure Padilla’s testimony before a grand jury in this District. His arrest and initial detention were carried out by the U.S. Department of Justice. As the result of events described below — including the President’s designation of Padilla as an enemy combatant associated with a terrorist network called al Qaeda — Padilla is now detained, without formal charges against him or the prospect of release after the giving of testimony before a grand jury, in the custody of the U.S. Department of Defense at the Consolidated Naval Brig in Charleston, South Carolina. Through his attorney, Donna R. Newman, acting as next friend, Padilla has petitioned pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 2241, seeking relief in the nature of habeas corpus, challenging the lawfulness of his detention, and seeking an order directing that he be permitted to consult with counsel. He has named as respondents President George W. Bush, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, and Commander M.A. Marr, the officer in charge of the brig where he is detained. The government has moved to dismiss the petition on several grounds, including that Newman lacks standing necessary to establish next friend status, and that this court lacks personal jurisdiction over any proper respondent, and over all of those named as respondents. Alternatively, the government moves to transfer the case to the District of South Carolina, where Padilla is held. As to the merits, the government argues that the lawfulness of Padilla’s custody is established by documents already before this court. Padilla argues that the President lacks the authority to detain him under the circumstances present here, including that he is a United States citizen arrested in the United States, and that in any event he must be permitted to consult with counsel. The government has submitted a classified- document in camera to be used, if necessary, in aid of deciding whether there exists evidence to justify the order directing that Padilla be detained. For the reasons set forth below, the parties’ applications and motions are resolved as follows: (i) Newman may pursue this petition as next friend to Padilla, and the government’s motion to dismiss for lack of standing therefore is denied; (ii) Secretary Rumsfeld is the proper respondent in this case, and this court has jurisdiction over him, as well as jurisdiction to hear this case, and the government’s motion to dismiss for lack of jurisdiction, or to transfer to South Carolina, is denied; (iii) the President is authorized under the Constitution and by law to direct the military to detain enemy combatants in the circumstances present here, such that Padilla’s detention is not per se unlawful; (iv) Padilla may consult with counsel in aid of pursuing this petition, under conditions that will minimize the likelihood that he can use his lawyers as unwilling intermediaries for the transmission of information to others and may, if he chooses, submit facts and argument to the court in aid of his petition; (v) to resolve the issue of whether Padilla was lawfully detained on the facts present here, the court will examine only whether the President had some evidence to support his finding that Padilla was an enemy combatant, and whether that evidence has been mooted by events subsequent to his detention; the court will not at this time use the document submitted in camera to determine whether the government has met that standard. I. FACTUAL BACKGROUND The immediate factual and legal predicate for this case lies in the September 11, 2001 attacks on this country, and the government’s response. On that date, as is well known, 19 terrorists associated with an organization called al Qaeda hijacked four airplanes, and succeeded in crashing three of them into public buildings they had targeted — one into each of the two towers of the World Trade Center in New York, and one into the Pentagon near Washington, D.C. The World Trade Center towers were destroyed and the Pentagon was seriously damaged. Passengers on the fourth airplane sought to overpower the hijackers, and in so doing prevented that airplane from being similarly used, although it too crashed, in a field in Pennsylvania, and all aboard were killed. In all, more than 3,000 people were killed in that day’s coordinated attacks. On September 14, 2001, by reason of those attacks, the President declared a state of national emergency. On September 18, 2001, Congress passed Public Law 107-40, in the form of a joint resolution that took note of “acts of treacherous violence committed against the United States and its citizens,” of the danger such acts posed to the nation’s security and foreign policy, and of the President’s authority to deter and prevent “acts of international terrorism against the United States.” The resolution, entitled “Authorization for Use of Military Force,” (the “Joint Resolution”) then provided as follows: That the President is authorized to use all necessary and appropriate force against those nations, organizations, or persons he determines planned, authorized, committed, or aided the terrorist attacks that occurred on September 11, 2001, or harbored such organizations or persons, in order to prevent any future acts of international terrorism against the United States by such nations, organizations, or persons. Authorization for Use of Military Force, Pub. Law No. 107-40, § 2(a), 115 Stat. 224, 224 (2001). As the term “Public Law” connotes, the President signed the Joint Resolution. On November 13, 2001, the President signed an order directing that persons whom he determines to be members of al Qaeda, or other persons who have helped or agreed to commit acts of terrorism aimed at this country, or harbored such persons, and who are not United States citizens, will be subject to trial before military tribunals, and will not have recourse to any other tribunal, including the federal and state courts of this country. He specifically cited the Joint Resolution in the preamble to that order. Mil. Order of Nov. 13, 2001, 66 Fed.Reg. 57,833, 57,833 (Nov. 16, 2001). As previously noted, on May 8, 2002, this court, acting on an application by the Justice Department pursuant to 18 U.S.C. § 3144, based on facts set forth in the affidavit of Joseph Ennis, a special agent of the FBI, found that Padilla appeared to have knowledge of facts relevant to a grand jury investigation into the September 11 attacks. That investigation included an ongoing inquiry into the activities of al Qaeda, an organization believed to be responsible for the September 11 attacks, among others, and to be committed to and involved in planning further attacks. On May 15, 2002, following Padilla’s removal from Chicago to New York, where he was detained in the custody of the Justice Department at the Metropolitan Correctional Center (“MCC”), he appeared before this court, and Donna R. Newman, Esq. was appointed to represent him. After Newman had conferred with Padilla at the MCC, and following another court appearance on May 22, 2002, Padilla, represented by Newman, moved to vacate the warrant. The motion to vacate the warrant included an affirmation from Padilla obviously drafted by Newman, albeit one that did not discuss any issue relating to the likelihood that he had information material to a grand jury investigation. (Padilla Affirmation) The motion was fully submitted for decision by June 7. However, on June 9, 2002, the government notified the court ex parte that it was withdrawing the subpoena. Pursuant to the government’s request, the court- signed an order vacating the warrant. At that time, the government disclosed that the President had designated Padilla an enemy combatant, on grounds discussed more fully below, and directed the Secretary of Defense, respondent Donald Rumsfeld, to detain Padilla. The government disclosed to the court as well that the Department of Defense would take custody of Padilla forthwith, and transfer him to South Carolina, as in fact happened. On June 11, 2002, Newman and the government appeared before this court at the time a conference had been scheduled in connection with Padilla’s then-pending motion to vacate the material witness warrant. At that time, Newman filed a habeas corpus petition pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 2241, later to be amended. In response to an inquiry from the court, the government conceded that after the June 9 Order was signed, Department of Defense personnel took custody of Padilla in this district. (Tr. of 6/11/02 at 7; see also Tr. of 7/31/02 at 17) Newman’s petition alleges the facts surrounding Padilla’s initial capture and transfer to New York, Newman’s activities in connection with representing him, proceedings relating to his motion to vacate the material witness warrant, and his subsequent transfer to South Carolina. (Am.Pet.1ffl 15-22, 25) Newman has averred that she was told she would not be permitted to visit Padilla at the South Carolina facility, or to speak with him; she was told she could write to Padilla, but that he might not receive the correspondence. (Newman Aff. of 9/24/02 ¶ 8) In addition to having submitted the above-mentioned affirmation from Padilla in connection with the motion to vacate the material witness warrant, according to the amended petition, it appears that Newman consulted not only with Padilla but also with his family. ■ (Am.Pet.¶ 20) No criminal charges have been filed against Padilla. The President’s order, dated June 9, 2002 (the “June 9 Order”), is attached, in redacted form, to the government’s dismissal motion, and sets forth in summary fashion the President’s findings with respect to Padilla. Attached as well is a declaration of Michael H. Mobbs (“Mobbs Declaration”), who is employed by the Department of Defense. The Mobbs Declaration sets forth a redacted version of facts provided to the President as the basis for the conclusions set forth in the June 9 Order. In addition to the redacted summary contained in the Mobbs Declaration, the government has submitted, under seal, an unredacted version of information provided to the President (“Sealed Mobbs Declaration”). As set forth more fully below, the government has argued that the Mobbs Declaration is sufficient to establish the correctness of the President’s findings contained in the June 9 Order, although it has made the Sealed Mobbs Declaration available to the court to remedy any perceived insufficiency in the Mobbs Declaration. However, the government has maintained that the Sealed Mobbs Declaration must remain confidential. The government has taken the position that it would withdraw the Sealed Mobbs Declaration sooner than disclose its contents to defense counsel. (Respondents’ Resp. to Petitioners’ Supplemental Mem. at 11). The June 9 Order is addressed to the Secretary of Defense, and includes seven numbered paragraphs setting forth the President’s conclusion that Padilla is an enemy combatant, and, in summary form, the basis for that conclusion, including that Padilla: is “closely associated with al Qae-da,” engaged in “hostile and war-like acts” including “preparation for acts of international terrorism” directed at this country, possesses information that would be helpful in preventing al Qaeda attacks, and represents “a continuing, present and grave danger to the national security of the United States.” (June 9 Order ¶¶ 2-5) In addition, the June 9 Order directs Secretary Rumsfeld to detain Padilla. (Id. ¶ 6) The Mobbs Declaration states that Padilla was born in New York and convicted in Chicago, before he turned 18, of murder. Released from prison after he turned 18, Padilla was convicted in Florida in 1991 of a weapons charge. After his release from prison on that charge, Padilla moved to Egypt, took the name Abdullah al Mu-hajir, and is alleged to have traveled also to Saudi Arabia and Afghanistan. (Mobbs Decl. ¶ 4) In 2001, while in Afghanistan, Padilla is alleged to have approached “senior Usama Bin Laden lieutenant Abu Zu-baydeh” (id. ¶ 6) and proposed, among other things, stealing radioactive material within the United States so as to build, and detonate a “ ‘radiological dispersal device’ (also known as a ‘dirty bomb’) within the United States” (id. ¶ 8). Padilla is alleged to have done research on such a project at an al Qaeda safehouse in Lahore, Pakistan, and to have discussed that and other proposals for terrorist acts within the United States with al Qaeda officials he met in Karachi, Pakistan, on a trip he made at the behest of Abu Zubaydah. (See id. ¶¶ 7-9) One of the unnamed confidential sources referred to in the Mobbs Declaration said he did not believe Padilla was actually a member of al Qaeda, but Mobbs emphasizes that Padilla had “extended contacts with senior Al Qaeda members and operatives” and that he “acted under the direction of [Abu] Zubaydah and other senior Al Qaeda operatives, received training from Al Qaeda operatives in furtherance of terrorist activities, and was sent to the United States to conduct reconnaissance and/or conduct other attacks on their behalf.” (Id. ¶ 10) As mentioned above, Padilla was taken into custody on the material witness warrant on May 8, in Chicago, where he landed after traveling, with one or more stops, from Pakistan. (Id. ¶ 11) Dealing with the contents of the Sealed Mobbs Declaration is problematic. Padilla argues that I should not consider it at all, at least unless his lawyers have access to it and, he argues, he has an opportunity to respond to its contents. The government argues that I must not disclose it, but that I need not consider it because the redacted version of what the President was told, as set forth in the Mobbs Declaration, is enough to justify the June 9 Order, unless for some reason I think otherwise, in which case I am invited to examine it in camera. Although neither the government nor Padilla mentions the point, the contents of the Sealed Mobbs Declaration could relate to another issue — whether, as the government claims, there is a reasonably cognizable risk to national security that could result from permitting Padilla to consult with counsel. Although Padilla had been under arrest pursuant to the material witness warrant since May 8, his arrest was announced on June 10, after he was taken into Defense Department custody, by the President and by Attorney General John Ashcroft, who made his announcement during a trip to Moscow. See James Risen & Philip She-non, Traces of Terror: The Investigation; U.S. Says it Halted Qaeda Plot to Use Radioactive Bomb, N.Y. Times, June 11, 2002, at Al. Secretary Rumsfeld was questioned at a press briefing on Wednesday, June 12, during a trip to Doha, Qatar, about how close he thought Padilla and others were to being able to build a “dirty bomb,” and whether he thought Padilla would be “court martialled.” News Briefing, Department of Defense (June 12, 2002), 2002 WL 22026773. In response, Secretary Rumsfeld described Padilla as “an individual who unquestionably was involved in terrorist . activities against the United States.” Id. He said that Padilla “will be held by the United States government through the Department of Defense and be questioned.” Id. He then added that in order to protect the United States and its allies, “one has to gather as much [ ] intelligence information as is humanly possible.” Id. Secretary Rumsfeld then summarized as follows how Padilla would be dealt with: Here is an individual who has intelligence information, and it is, in answer to the last part of your question' — will be submitted to a military court, or something like that — our interest really in his case is not law enforcement, it is not punishment because he was a terrorist or working with the terrorists. Our interest at the moment is to try and find out everything he knows so that hopefully we can stop other terrorist acts. Id. Secretary Rumsfeld distinguished as follows the government’s handling of Padilla from its handling of the usual case of one charged with breaking the law: It seems to me that the problem in the United States is that we have — we are in a certain mode. Our normal procedure is that if somebody does something unlawful, illegal against our system of government, that the first thing we want to do is apprehend them, then try them in a court and then punish them. In this case that is not our first interest. Our interest is to — we are not interested in trying him at the moment; we are not interested in punishing him at the moment. We are interested in finding out what he knows. Here is a person who unambiguously was interested in radiation weapons and terrorist activity, and was in league with al Qaeda. Now our job, as responsible government officials, is to do everything possible to find out what that person knows, and see if we can’t help our country or other countries. Id. Secretary Rumsfeld offered anecdotal evidence to justify applying to Padilla procedures different from those applied to prisoners arrested in conventional cases: If you think about it, we found some material in Kandahar that within a week was used — information, intelligence information — that was used to prevent a[t] least three terrorist attacks in Singapore — against a U.S. ship, against a U.S. facility and against a Singaporean facility. Now if someone had said when we found that information or person, well now let’s us arrest the person and let’s start the process of punishing that person for having done what he had did, we never would have gotten that information. People would have died. So I think what our country and other countries have to think of is, what is your priority today? And given the power of weapons and given the number of terrorists that exist in the world, our approach has to [be] to try to protect the American people, and provide information to friendly countries and allies, and protect deployed forces from those kind of attacks. I think the American people understand that, and that notwithstanding the fact that some people are so locked into the other mode that they seem not able to understand it, I suspect that ... the American people will. Id. Secretary Rumsfeld’s quoted statements appear to show both his familiarity with the circumstances of Padilla’s detention, and his personal involvement in the handling of Padilla’s case. It is not disputed that Padilla is held incommunicado, and specifically that he has not been permitted to consult with Newman or any other counsel. Although the immediate predicate for this case lies in the events of September 11 and their consequences, that date did not mark the first violent act by al Qaeda directed against the United States. An indictment styled United States v. Bin Laden, No. 98 Cr. 1023, charged defendants allegedly affiliated with that organization in connection with the August 1998 bombing of United States embassies in Nairobi, Kenya and Dar-Es-Salaam, Tanzania. According to that indictment, which was tried to a guilty verdict in the summer of 2001, al Qaeda emerged in 1989, under the leadership of Usama Bin Laden. See United States v. Bin Laden, 92 F.Supp.2d 225, 228-29 (S.D.N.Y.2000). As summarized by Judge Sand, who presided at that trial, the indictment portrayed al Qaeda as a “vast, international terrorist network” that functioned on its own and in cooperation with like-minded groups to oppose the United States through the use of “violent, terrorist tactics.” Id. “From time to time, according to the Indictment, Bin Laden would issue rulings on Islamic law, called ‘fatwahs,’ which purported to justify al Qaeda’s violent activities.” Id. at 229. Bin Laden has declared a “jihad” or holy war against the United States. Id. at 230. In addition to the September 11 attack and the 1998 bombings in Kenya and Tanzania, al Qaeda is believed, at a minimum, to be responsible for the October 2000 bombing of the U.S.S. Cole that killed 17 U.S. sailors, and to have participated in the October 1993 attack on U.S. military personnel serving in Somalia that killed 18 soldiers. (Id.) On October 8, 1999, al Qaeda was designated by the Secretary of State as a foreign terrorist organization, pursuant to section 219 of the Immigration and Nationality Act. See Designation of Foreign Terrorist Organizations, 64 Fed.Reg. 55,112 (1999). It has also been similarly designated by the Secretary of State under the International Emergency Economic Powers Act. See Additional Designations of Terrorism-Related Blocked Persons, 66 Fed.Reg. 54,404 (2001). II. NEWMAN’S STANDING AS NEXT FRIEND The first of the several issues presented by this petition concerns Newman’s Standing to assert a claim as next friend. The statute, 28 U.S.C. § 2242 (2000), provides that an application for relief thereunder “shall be in writing signed and verified by the person for whose relief it is intended or by someone acting in his behalf.” The Supreme Court has explained that this provision was intended to permit a third party to sue as next friend when a prisoner is unable to seek relief himself. See Whitmore v. Arkansas, 495 U.S. 149, 162, 110 S.Ct. 1717, 109 L.Ed.2d 135 (1990) (“Most frequently, ‘next friends’ appear in court on behalf of detained prisoners who are unable; usually because of mental incompetence or inaccessibility, to seek relief themselves.”). In Whitmore, the Court described as follows the requirements for next friend standing: “[Njext friend” standing is by no means granted automatically to whomever seeks to pursue an action on behalf of another. Decisions applying the habeas corpus statute have adhered to at least two firmly rooted prerequisites for “next friend” standing. First, a “next friend” must provide an adequate explanation— such as inaccessibility, mental incompetence, or other disability — why the real party in interest cannot appear on his own behalf to prosecute the action. Second, the “next friend” must be truly dedicated to the best interests of the person on whose behalf he seeks to litigate, and it has been further suggested that a “next friend” must have some significant relationship with the real party in interest. Id. at 163-64, 110 S.Ct. 1717 (citations omitted). The Court placed the burden on the next friend “clearly to establish the propriety of his status and thereby justify the jurisdiction of the court.” Id. at 164, 110 S.Ct. 1717. The Court explained that the limitations on next friend status “are driven by the recognition that ‘[i]t was not intended that the writ of habeas corpus should be availed of, as a matter of course, by intruders or uninvited meddlers, styling themselves next friends.’ ” Id. (quoting United States ex rel. Bryant v. Houston, 273 F. 915, 916 (2d Cir.1921)). The Court added that “if there were no restriction on ‘next friend’ standing in federal courts, the litigant asserting only a generalized interest in constitutional governance could circumvent the jurisdictional limits of Art. Ill simply by assuming the mantle of ‘next friend.’ ” Id. Of the factors listed in Whitmore to support a finding of next friend status— inaccessibility of the party in interest, the proposed next friend’s dedication to the welfare of that party, and a “significant relationship” between the proposed next friend and that party — the government disputes Newman only as to the last. It argues that Newman’s relationship with Padilla is not sufficiently significant to warrant recognizing her as next friend in this case (Mot. to Dismiss Am. Pet. at 8-10), and suggests instead that a member of Padilla’s immediate family, if so inclined, might serve in that capacity (id. at 10; Respondents’ Reply in Supp. of Mot. to Dismiss Am. Pet. at 7-8). Here, the government relies principally on Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 294 F.3d 598 (4th Cir.2002), a case involving a petitioner who is also detained as an enemy combatant, in whose behalf a federal public defender sought to file a habeas corpus petition as next friend. The federal defender in that case had no preexisting relationship with Hamdi, id. at 604, and there existed a person known to the federal defender' — Hamdi’s father'— who did have such a relationship, id. at 606. Indeed, Hamdi’s father petitioned for next friend status. Id. The Court said, “[w]e need not decide just how significant the relationship between the would-be next friend and the real party in interest must be in order to satisfy the requirements for next friend standing. It suffices here to conclude that no preexisting relationship whatever is insufficient.” Id. at 604. The Court reasoned, “[Ajbsent a requirement of some significant relationship with the detainee, there is no principled way to distinguish a Public Defender from someone who seeks simply to gain attention by injecting himself into a high-profile case, and who could substantiate alleged dedication to the best interests of the real party in interest by attempting to contact him and his family.” Id. at 605. Notably, the Court in Hamdi explicitly declined to say “that an attorney can never possess next friend standing, or that only the closest relative can serve as next friend.” Id. at 607. This case is easily distinguished from Hamdi. Here, Newman had a preexisting relationship with Padilla that involved directly his apprehension and confinement. She had conferred with him over a period of weeks in aid of an effort to end that confinement. She submitted at least one affidavit that he signed, and was engaged in attacking the legal basis of his confinement when he was taken into custody by the Defense Department. She is at once the person most aware of his wishes in this case and the person best suited to try to achieve them. It is of no significance whatever that when she and Padilla formed their relationship he was in the custody of the Justice Department and now he is in the custody of a different executive department. The legal issues may have changed, but the nature of the relationship between Newman and her client has not. Not only does Newman have a significant and relevant relationship with Padilla, but she appears also to have conferred with Padilla’s relatives. (See Am. Pet. ¶ 20 (“As an additional part of her representation of Mr. Padilla, Petitioner Donna R. Newman ... consulted with both members of Mr. Padilla’s family and representatives of the Government. She continues to consult with the Government and Mr. Padilla’s family in her role as his attorney.”)) She is certainly neither an “intruder” nor an “uninvited meddler.” Whitmore, 495 U.S. at 164, 110 S.Ct. 1717. Despite the government’s casual suggestion that some other member of Padilla’s family might serve as a next friend in this ease (Mot. to Dismiss Am. Pet. at 10; Respondents’ Reply in Supp. of Mot. to Dismiss Am. Pet. at 7-8), there is no indication here that any other member of Padilla’s family, unlike the detainee’s father in Hamdi, wishes to assume that role in place of Newman. The government cites several cases in which family members have been granted next friend status, and argues, extravagantly, that those cases show that “ ‘[n]ext friend’ standing is typically reserved for those who have a close, personal relationship with a detainee — like a parent, spouse, or sibling.” (Mot. to Dismiss Am. Pet. at 9) Those cases stand for no such principle. Rather, they involve for the most part capital defendants who have elected to forgo appeals and whose competence is in question. In such cases, courts have permitted family members to intervene as next Mends to seek stays of execution. See, e.g., Vargas v. Lambert, 159 F.3d 1161, 1168 (9th Cir.1998) (mother had standing to seek stay of execution to allow for hearing on son’s competency); In re Heidnik, 112 F.3d 105, 112 (3d Cir.1997) (per curiam) (daughter could serve as next friend to stop father’s execution upon showing he suffered from paranoid schizophrenia). However, when incompetence has not been shown, courts have denied next Mend status even to close relatives. See Brewer v. Lewis, 989 F.2d 1021, 1026 (9th Cir.1993) (mother did not have next Mend standing because she failed to show defendant was incompetent). The government quotes selectively from T.W. by Enk v. Brophy, 124 F.3d 893 (7th Cir.1997), in an effort to- show that a next Mend ordinarily should be a relative. However, the Court was concerned in that case specifically with who should serve as a next Mend when the real party in interest was a minor child. In such a case, it is obvious that: ordinarily the eligibles will be confined to the plaintiffs parents, older siblings (if there are no parents), or a conservator or other guardian, akin to a trustee; that persons having only ah ideological stake in the child’s case are never eligible; but that if a close relative is unavailable and the child has no conflict-free general representative the court may appoint a personal Mend of the plaintiff or his family, a professional who has worked with the child, or, in desperate circumstances, a stranger whom the court finds to be especially suitable to represent the child’s interests in the litigation. Id. at 897. That case does not support the government’s position here. The government has informed me that the Ninth Circuit recently decided Coalition of Clergy v. Bush, 310 F.3d 1153 (9th Cir.2002), but that case, involving a group of self-appointed “clergy, lawyers and law professors,” id. at 1156, presents the classic “intruder” and “uninvited meddler” scenario that Whitmore found insufficient to confer standing. See Whitmore, 495 U.S. at 164, 110 S.Ct. 1717. Coalition of Clergy does not read on this case. Both sides refer to Lenhard v. Wolff, 443 U.S. 1306, 100 S.Ct. 3, 61 L.Ed.2d 885 (1979) (Rehnquist, Circuit Justice, in chambers). There, Justice Rehnquist found it telling that a capital defendant’s family declined to join in the effort to secure further judicial review of his sentence, and drew the inference that they felt the defendant was competent to waive further proceedings and therefore that the predicate showing of incompetence necessary to permit a next Mend petition when the detainee is accessible and can act for himself had not been made. Id. at 1310. However, he also stated his view “that from a purely technical standpoint a public defender may appear as ‘next friend’ with as much justification as the mother of [one or another capital defendant].” Id. As noted above, there is no issue of competence in this case; the reason for seeking next friend standing is inaccessibility, and the government has conceded that. There being no “technical” impediment to appointing a lawyer to serve as next friend, it is not surprising that courts have done so in appropriate cases. See, e.g., Miller ex rel. Jones v. Stewart, 231 F.3d 1248 (9th Cir.2000) (granting next friend status to lawyer seeking to stay execution and remanding for hearing on defendant’s competence); Ford v. Haley, 195 F.3d 603, 624 (11th Cir.1999) (recognizing that lawyer who had represented petitioner for years was as fit as a relative to serve as next friend); In re Cockrum, 867 F.Supp. 494, 495 (E.D.Tex.1994) (condemned prisoner was incompetent; lawyer who had represented him earlier could serve as next friend). Although Newman does not have the years-long relationship with Padilla that the lawyer in Ford had with her client, she has a sufficient relationship to overcome any suggestion that she is a mere intermeddler pursuing her own agenda. Newman may act as next friend to Padilla here. III. THIS COURT’S JURISDICTION The government argues as well that this action must be dismissed, or transferred to the District of South Carolina because the only proper respondent in a case such as this is Padilla’s custodian; Padilla’s only custodian is Marr, the commander of the brig in South Carolina where Padilla is housed; and she is not within this court’s jurisdiction. The government has moved to dismiss the petition against respondents other than Marr. For the reasons set forth below, that motion is granted with respect to the President and, mea sponte, as to Commander Marr, but is denied as to Secretary Rumsfeld. The government’s jurisdictional argument raises subsidiary issues: who is the proper respondent in a case such as this, whether this court has jurisdiction over that respondent, and whether this ease should be transferred to South Carolina. A. Who Is A Proper Respondent ? As the government would have it, there is only one proper respondent to a habeas corpus petition, and that is the detainee’s “immediate, not ultimate, custodian.” (Mot. to Dismiss Am. Pet. at 11) The government points to language in 28 U.S.C. § 2242 directing that a petitioner “shall allege ... the name of the person who has custody over him,” as well as language in 28 U.S.C. § 2243, requiring that a writ or order to show cause “shall be directed to the person having custody of the person detained,” and providing that, “the person to whom the writ is directed shall be required to produce at the hearing the body of the person detained,” and argues, citing Vasquez v. Reno, 233 F.3d 688 (1st Cir.2000), that this language “indicates that there is only one proper respondent to a habeas petition,” id. at 693. It is certainly true that in the usual habeas corpus case brought by a federal prisoner, courts have held consistently that the proper respondent is the warden of the prison where the prisoner is held, not the Attorney General. See, e.g., Sanders v. Bennett, 148 F.2d 19, 20 (D.C.Cir.1945) (“But the Attorney General is not the person directly responsible for the operation of our federal penitentiaries. He is a supervising official rather than a jailer. For that reason, the proper person to be served in the ordinary case is the warden of the penitentiary in which the prisoner is confined rather than an official in Washington, D.C., who supervises the warden.”). The government cites numerous cases to the same effect. (See Mot. to Dismiss Am. Pet. at 15 n.6) Similarly, as a general rule, the proper respondent to a petition brought by a military prisoner who challenges a court martial conviction is the warden of the facility where he is held. The government cites, for example, Monk v. Secretary of the Navy, 793 F.2d 364 (D.C.Cir.1986), where the Court held “that for purposes of the federal habeas corpus statute, jurisdiction is proper only in the district in which the immediate, not the ultimate, custodian is located,” id. at 369. However, what makes the usual case usual is that the petitioner is serving a sentence, and the list of those other than the warden who are responsible for. his confinement includes only people who have played particular and discrete roles in confining him, notably the prosecuting attorney and the sentencing judge, and who no longer have a substantial and ongoing role in his continued confinement. The warden becomes the respondent of choice almost by default. As discussed below, this is not the usual case. The hint of a more flexible approach in other than usual cases may be found even in authority cited by the government, involving prisoners who file § 2241 petitions challenging parole determinations. In Billiteri v. United States Bd. of Parole, 541 F.2d 938 (2d Cir.1976), although the Court held that a prisoner denied parole should sue the prison warden, not the Board of Parole, it added that a different conclusion might follow if the petitioner were challenging a detention that resulted from a parole violation: There are, to be sure, circumstances where a parole board may properly be considered a custodian for habeas corpus purposes, e.g., after a prisoner has been released into its custody on parole, or arguably, when the Board itself has caused a parolee to be detained for violation of his parole. Id. at 948 (citations omitted); see also Guerra v. Meese, 786 F.2d 414, 417 (D.C.Cir.1986) (warden held to be the proper respondent, but “[w]hen the appel-lees are paroled, if ever, the Parole Commission might then be considered their custodian, within the meaning of the habe-as corpus statute”). Padilla argues that this case is analogous to the situation described in Billiteri, and cites Bennett v. Soto, 850 F.2d 161 (3d Cir.1988), where the Court held that the chair of the board of parole was responsible for revocation of petitioner’s parole, and that he, rather than the warden, was the proper respondent for a petition brought under the analogous Virgin Island habeas statute, id. at 163; see also McCoy v. United States Bd. of Parole, 537 F.2d 962, 964-65 (8th Cir.1976) (Board of Parole, which issued warrant and lodged de-tainer, and not warden of detaining institution, is proper respondent). Other courts dealing with parole have gone even further, and held that a federal prisoner challenging the determination of his parole date may name the Parole Commission as a respondent. See Dunn v. United States Parole Comm’n, 818 F.2d 742, 744 (10th Cir.1987) (per curiam) (Parole Commission, not warden, “may be considered petitioner’s ‘custodian’ for purposes of a challenge to a parole decision under 28 U.S.C. § 2241”); see also Misasi v. United States Parole Comm’n, 835 F.2d 754, 755 n. 1 (10th Cir.1987) (citing Dunn for the propriety of naming the Parole Commission). In Ahrens v. Clark, 335 U.S. 188, 68 S.Ct. 1443, 92 L.Ed. 1898 (1948), the Supreme Court left open the question of whether the Attorney General may be named as a respondent when an alien petitions under § 2241 to challenge his detention pending deportation. After Ahrens, our Court of Appeals has held out at least the possibility that the Attorney General might be a proper respondent in petitions brought by aliens detained in facilities of the Immigration and Naturalization Service (“INS”)- In Henderson v. INS, 157 F.3d 106 (2d Cir.1998), the Court considered, but did not decide, whether the Attorney General could be a proper respondent in such cases. Two of the petitioners in Henderson named both the INS district director in Louisiana and the Attorney General as respondents. Id. at 122. Although the petitioners were not lodged in Louisiana, they were seeking release from detainers lodged by the INS district director in Louisiana. Id. The Henderson Court certified to the New York Court of Appeals the question of whether the INS district director in Louisiana was subject to New York long-arm jurisdiction, id. at 124, and although it did not rule on the propriety of naming the Attorney General, did discuss that issue at some length. The Court said that “additional factors related to the unique role that the Attorney General plays in immigration matters may be taken to suggest that she may be a proper respondent in alien habeas cases.” Id. at 125-26. The Court added that the Attorney General “has the power to produce the petitioners, remains the ultimate decision-maker as to matters concerning the INS, and is commonly designated a respondent in these cases, even when personal jurisdiction over the immediate custodian clearly lies.” Id. at 126 (citations omitted). The Henderson Court took note of the dictum in Billiteri, discussed above, see supra p. 579, to the effect that a parole board might be the proper respondent if the board itself caused a parolee to be detained, and analogized the parolee to the alien in that the Attorney General by her own decision caused the alien to be detained. Henderson, 157 F.3d at 126 n. 22 (discussing Billiteri, 541 F.2d at 948). The Henderson Court also acknowledged arguments against naming the Attorney General, including that the INS district director, rather than the Attorney General, exercised primary control over petitioners, and that “Billiteri appears to bar the designation of a higher authority (in that case, the parole board) as a custodian when a habeas petitioner is under the day-to-day control of another custodian (such as the prison warden).” Id. at 126-27. Although the Henderson Court acknowledged the government’s concern that aliens could engage in forum shopping, it noted “that traditional venue doctrines are fully applicable in habeas suits” and these doctrines “if strictly applied, would do much to prevent forum shopping.” Id. at 127. Although the Court’s conclusion, in dictum, appears before this discussion, what the Court appears to have taken from these various considerations is the following: “Historically, the question of who is ‘the custodian,’ and therefore the Appropriate respondent in a habeas suit, depends primarily on who has the power over the petitioner and, as we will discuss below, on the convenience of the parties and the court.” Id. at 122. Other cases, some that eoncededly do not involve incarcerated prisoners, but others that do, also suggest that the issue of who is the proper respondent is not always subject to a formulaic answer, and may turn on the facts before the court. Thus, in a case involving inactive reservists, the government contested the petitioners’ attempt to name the Secretaries of the Army and Air Force, arguing that only the “immediate custodian” was the proper respondent. Eisel v. Sec’y of the Army, 477 F.2d 1251, 1254 (D.C.Cir.1973). The Court declined to permit the Secretary of the Army or the Air Force to be named as a respondent, and emphasized the difference between the inactive reservist situation and the case of an incarcerated prisoner, id. at 1262, but dealt as follows with the government’s “immediate custodian” argument: [WJhile the statute does provide that the action shall be against the “person having custody of the person detained,” it does not define “custody” or specify who the person having “custody” will be. Nowhere does the statute speak of an “immediate custodian” or intimate that an action must necessarily be instituted in the location of such an “immediate custodian,” even if it were possible to grant substance to the vague concept of “immediate custodianship.” Id. at 1258 (footnotes omitted). Moreover, in other armed forces cases, courts have permitted the Secretaries of the Air Force and the Navy to be named as respondents. See Lantz v. Seamans, 504 F.2d 423 (2d Cir.1974) (per curiam) (upholding jurisdiction of New York court over Secretary of the Air Force in case of petitioning reservist); Carney v. Sec’y of Def., 462 F.2d 606 (1st Cir.1972) (Secretary of the Navy was proper respondent to petition brought by Navy serviceman). Finally, in Demjanjuk v. Meese, 784 F.2d 1114 (D.C.Cir.1986) (Bork, J., in chambers), Judge Bork dealt with a petitioner seeking to avoid extradition who was being held at an undisclosed location. Judge Bork concluded that, “in these very limited and special circumstances” the Attorney General would be treated as the custodian and jurisdiction would lie in the D.C. Circuit alone. Id. at 1116. Of the particular facts present here, the one that seems to me to bear most directly on the issue of who is a proper respondent is -the personal involvement of the Cabinet-level official named as a respondent in the matter at hand. It was Secretary Rumsfeld who was charged by the President in the June 9 Order with detaining Padilla; it was plainly Secretary Rumsfeld who, in following that order, sent Defense Department personnel into this District to take custody of Padilla; it could only have been Secretary Rumsfeld, or his designee, who determined that Padilla would be sent to the brig in South Carolina, as opposed to a brig or stockade elsewhere; and, based on his own statements quoted above, see supra pp. 573-74, it would appear to be Secretary Rumsfeld who decides when and whether all that can be learned from Padilla has been learned, and, at least in part, when and whether the danger he allegedly poses has passed. This level of personal involvement by a Cabinet-level officer in the matter at hand is, so far as I can tell, unprecedented. ■ Certainly, neither side, and no amicus, has cited a case even remotely similar in this respect. How “limited,” Demjanjuk, 784 F.2d at 1116, these circumstances may be — that is, in how many other cases, if any, the Secretary of Defense may have such personal involvement — I know not. However, when viewed in comparison to past cases, the circumstances present here seem at least “very special.” Id. On these facts, the Secretary of Defense is the proper respondent. As noted, Padilla has also sued the President. However, there are at least two reasons why the President should be dismissed as a party: first, Padilla does not seem to be seeking relief from the President; further, based on the authority cited below, the question of whether the President can be sued in this case raises issues this court should avoid if at all possible, and it is certainly possible .to avoid them here. Although it was the President who found that Padilla is an enemy combatant, and who signed the June 9 Order directing the Secretary ■ of Defense to take custody of him, a common-sense assessment suggests that it is now the Secretary of Defense who decides what happens to Padilla. Based on where Padilla is housed — in a naval brig in South Carolina — and Secretary Rumsfeld’s own statements as to the need to find out what Padilla knows and to detain him because of the danger he presents to national security, it is obviously Defense Department personnel rather than White House personnel who are interrogating Padilla, evaluating the worth of any information he provides, and deciding what danger, if any, he may continue to pose. Thus, although the June 9 Order directs the Secretary of Defense to take custody of Padilla, I. do not interpret it to mean that the Secretary must hold Padilla until the President directs otherwise. Nor would I .conclude that if the Secretary were lawfully directed by a court to release Padilla, he would refuse to do so on the basis of the June 9 Order. It does not appear that the President has an ongoing involvement in Padilla’s custody, and therefore Padilla does not appear to be seeking any relief from the President. Therefore, on these facts, even assuming that this court can direct the President to act, of which more in a moment, the President is not a proper party. Moreover, the government has cited persuasive authority to the effect that this court has no power to direct the President to perform an official act. (Mot. to Dismiss Am. Pet. at 14) The relevant considerations are set forth in Franklin v. Massachusetts, 505 U.S. 788, 112 S.Ct. 2767, 120 L.Ed.2d 636 (1992), quoted below, where the plurality reversed a district court injunction directing the President to recalculate the number of representatives of the State of Massachusetts, and reasoned as follows: While injunctive relief against executive officials like the Secretary of Commerce is within the courts’ power, see Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, supra, the District Court’s grant of injunc-tive relief against the President himself is extraordinary, and should have raised judicial eyebrows. We have left open the question whether the President might be subject to a judicial injunction requiring the performance of a purely “ministerial” duty, Mississippi v. Johnson, 4 Wall. 475, 498-499, 18 L.Ed. 437 (1866), and we have held that the President may be subject to a subpoena to provide information relevant to an ongoing criminal prosecution, United States v. Nixon, 418 U.S. 683, 694, 94 S.Ct. 3090, 41 L.Ed.2d 1039 (1974), but in general “this court has no jurisdiction of a bill to enjoin the President in the performance of his official duties.” Mississippi v. Johnson, supra, 4 Wall, at 501. At the threshold, the District Court should have evaluated whether injunctive relief against the President was available, and, if not, whether appel-lees’ injuries were nonetheless redressa-ble. For purposes of establishing standing, however, we need not decide whether injunctive relief against the President was appropriate because we conclude that the injury alleged is likely to be redressed by declaratory relief against the Secretary alone. Id. at 802-03, 112 S.Ct. 2767. “A fundamental and longstanding principle of judicial restraint requires that courts avoid reaching constitutional questions in advance of the necessity of deciding them.” Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Ass’n, 485 U.S. 439, 445, 108 S.Ct. 1319, 99 L.Ed.2d 534 (1988). In this case, as in Franklin, the necessary relief, if any, may be secured by an order to the Secretary alone, and the President can be dismissed as a party. There is no need to decide whether, were the facts otherwise, the President too could be named a respondent in a habeas corpus case such as this. Although petitioner has named Commander Marr as a respondent, he and amici New York and National Criminal Defense Lawyers argue that she is not a necessary respondent in this case because she takes her orders from Secretary Rumsfeld and, indirectly, from President Bush, and cannot produce Padilla in violation of those orders without subjecting herself to a court martial. (Petitioners’ Reply to Mot. to Dismiss Am. Pet. at 22-23) The government responds by pointing out that, “[n]o warden of any penal facility possesses independent power to release a prisoner, yet wardens are universally designated as the proper custodians in prisoner habeas cases.” (Respondents’ Reply in Supp. of Mot. to Dismiss' Am. Pet. at 18) This debate now seems beside the point. I have already determined that Secretary Rumsfeld is a proper respondent, and there is nothing to indicate that he cannot or would not direct Commander Marr to obey any lawful order of this court, if necessary. Accordingly, the petition will be dismissed also as to Commander Marr. B. Territorial Jurisdiction The habeas corpus statute, 28 U.S.C. § 2241(a) (2000), permits the writ to be granted by district courts “within their respective jurisdictions.” The government argues that this phrase operates to limit the jurisdiction of the court to grant the writ, beyond any limits otherwise imposed by the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, and requires, at a minimum, that the respondent be physically present within this District in order for the court to grant relief. (Mot. to Dismiss at 17; Respondents’ Reply in Supp. of Mot. to Dismiss Am. Pet. at 22) However, for the reasons set forth below, the government’s reading of the statute is inconsistent with governing authority, and this court may grant relief under the statute if relief is otherwise warranted. The subject phrase — “within their respective jurisdictions” — was read initially by the Supreme Court in Ahrens v. Clark, 335 U.S. 188, 68 S.Ct. 1443, 92 L.Ed. 1898 (1948), to require that a petitioner be physically present within the geographic boundaries of the district before a petition could be heard. However, the Court did away with that requirement in Braden v. 30th Judicial Circuit Court, 410 U.S. 484, 93 S.Ct. 1123, 35 L.Ed.2d 443 (1973), where it held that a prisoner confined in an Alabama state prison following a felony conviction could seek habeas corpus relief in Kentucky to attack an indictment pending there, reasoning that in enforcing a Kentucky detainer, the Alabama warden was acting simply as the agent of the state of Kentucky, which was the real custodian. The Court said: Read literally, the language of § 2241(a) requires nothing more than that the court issuing the writ have jurisdiction over the custodian. So long as the custodian can be reached by service of process, the court can issue a writ “within its jurisdiction” requiring that the prisoner be brought before the court for a hearing on his claim, or requiring that he be released outright from custody, even if the prisoner himself is confined outside the court’s territorial jurisdiction. Id. at 495, 93 S.Ct. 1123. In Henderson v. INS, 157 F.3d 106 (2d Cir.1998), the Second Circuit relied on Braden for the proposition that a New York district court would have jurisdiction to hear the § 2241 petitions of detained aliens so long as it had jurisdiction over the petitioners’ custodian through New York’s long-arm statute, N.Y. C.P.L.R. § 302(a)(1) (McKinney 1990): “A court has personal jurisdiction in a habeas' case ‘so long as the 'custodian can be reached by service of process.’ ” Id. at 122 (quoting Braden, 410 U.S. at 495, 93 S.Ct. 1123). The Henderson Court then certified to the New York Court of Appeals the question of whether New York’s long-arm statute reached the INS district director in Louisiana, where the Henderson petitioners were detained. That Court declined to answer the question, and the parties then resolved the cases amicably. See Yesil v. Reno, 175 F.3d 287 (2d Cir.1999) (per curiam). The Second Circuit has not considered the issue since. However, before Henderson, in U.S. ex rel. Sero v. Preiser, 506 F.2d 1115 (2d Cir.1974), the Second Circuit had occasion to consider the reach of a district court’s jurisdiction under § 2241(a) when it construed § 2241(d), which directs that in a state having more than one district, a ha-beas petition from a prisoner in state custody pursuant to a state conviction be filed in either the district of conviction 'or the district of confinement, with the district courts involved then having discretion to transfer the case as they deem necessary. The Court noted that both the enactment of § 2241(d) in 1966, and the Supreme Court’s decision in Braden, were intended to undo the damage caused by Ahrens, and said, based on both Braden and the statute itself, that it made sense to read § 2241(d) as a provision fixing venue rather than jurisdiction. The Court reasoned in part as follows: “If the original jurisdictional grant in § 2241(a) was to be construed as coextensive with the scope of service of process, see Fed.R.Civ.P. 4(f), then a jurisdictional reading of § 2241(d) would render that subsection merely repetitious.” Id. The Court’s view that § 2241(a) was “coextensive with the scope of service of process” followed, at least in part, from its reading of Braden. Both before and after Henderson, several district courts in this Circuit have held that if a respondent can be reached through the forum state’s long-arm statute, the court has jurisdiction to hear the petition, see, e.g., Barton v. Ashcroft, 152 F.Supp.2d 235, 239 (D.Conn.2001); Perez v. Reno, No. 97 Civ. 6712, 2000 WL 686369, at *3 (S.D.N.Y. May 25, 2000); as has a district court in the Sixth Circuit, see Roman v. Ashcroft, 162 F.Supp.2d 755, 758 (N.D.Ohio 2001). The government disagrees with those cases, and argues that habeas corpus jurisdiction is different. It notes that 28 U.S.C. § 1391(e), which provides for nationwide service of process on federal officials, does not apply in habeas corpus proceedings, and argues that Braden did nothing to change what the government perceives as the requirement that the custodian in habeas cases involving incarcerated prisoners be located within the district where the petition is filed. Padilla does not assert that § 1391(e) does so apply, but simply that a district court can exercise long-arm jurisdiction if the facts otherwise so warrant, even without resort to § 1391(e). See Perez, 2000 WL 686369, at *3 (acknowledging that 28 U.S.C. § 1391(e) does not apply, but exercising jurisdiction over out-of-state respondent through New York’s long-arm statute). It is not only Henderson, which I recognize assumed more than held that New York’s long-arm statute can provide the basis for personal jurisdiction over habeas corpus respondents, and the above-cited cases, which are not binding authority, that cut against the government’s reading of Braden and therefore against its position here. The Supreme Court cases that antedated Braden provide a context for that case that undercuts the government’s position. One such case, relied on by the government, is Schlanger v. Seamans, 401 U.S. 487, 91 S.Ct. 995, 28 L.Ed.2d 251 (1971), where the petitioner, a serviceman on “permissive temporary duty” attending school in Arizona, sued in Arizona alleging that his enlistment contract had been breached. He named as respondents the Secretary of the Air Force, the commander of Moody Air Force Base, in Georgia, to which he had been assigned, and the commander of the ROTC program at the school he was attending. The Court framed the issue as follows: “The question in the instant case is whether any custodian, or one in the chain of command, as well as the person detained, must be in the territorial jurisdiction of the court.” Id. at 489, 91 S.Ct. 995. The Court concluded that it was the commander of the Georgia base who was the proper custodian, and therefore, “the District Court in Arizona has no custodian against whom its writ can run .... [T]he absence of the custodian is fatal to the jurisdiction of the Arizona District Court.” Id. at 491, 91 S.Ct. 995. However, a year later, in Strait v. Laird, 406 U.S. 341, 92 S.Ct. 1693, 32 L.Ed.2d 141 (1972), the Court considered the petition of an inactive Army reservist whose contact with the Army had occurred in California but whose ■“nominal commanding officer” was at a record-keeping center in Indiana. Id. at 342, 92 S.Ct. 1693. The Court recognized its prior holding “in Schlanger that the presence of the ‘custodian’ within the territorial jurisdiction of the District Court was a sine qua non,” id. at 343, 92 S.Ct. 1693, but added: “The jurisdictional defect in Schlanger, however, was not merely the physical absence of the Commander of Moody AFB from the District of Arizona, but the total lack of formal contacts'between Schlanger and the military in that district,” id. at 344, 92 S.Ct. 1693. Referring to Strait’s commanding officer in Indiana, the Court said: Strait’s situation is far different. His nominal custodian, unlike Schlanger’s, has enlisted the aid and directed the activities of armed forces personnel in California in his dealings with Strait. Indeed, in the course of Strait’s enlistment, virtually every face-to-face contact between him and the military has taken place in California. In the face of this record, to say that Strait’s custodian is amenable to process only in Indiana — or wherever the Army chooses to locate its recordkeeping center — would be to exalt fiction over reality. Id. (citation omitted). The Court concluded that “Strait’s commanding officer is ‘present’ in California through the officers in the hierarchy of command who processed this serviceman’s application for discharge.” Id. at 345, 92 S.Ct. 1693. Further, the Court cited and explicitly endorsed in Strait, id. at 344-45, 92 S.Ct. 1693, the Second Circuit’s decision in Arlen v. Laird, 451 F.2d 684 (2d Cir.1971), where that Court permitted a petition to be filed in New York by an inactive reservist residing there, even though his nominal commanding officer was located in Indiana. The Second Circuit rejected what it called the “limited interpretation of Schlanger,” id. at 686, and concluded that Schlanger did not preclude a district court “with jurisdiction over the territory in which an unattached reservist is in custody and in which he re