Full opinion text
ORDER DENYING PLAINTIFF’S MOTION FOR PARTIAL SUMMARY JUDGMENT MORROW, District Judge. Plaintiff Glow Industries, Inc. (“Glow”) filed this action on August 7, 2002, alleging that the use by defendants Jennifer Lopez and Coty, Inc. of the mark Glow by J.Lo in marketing perfume and other beauty products constituted trademark infringement and unfair competition. Glow Industries alleges that it has marketed and sold beauty products under the mark Glow since 1999, and that it has filed an application to secure federal registration of the mark. Defendants answered the complaint on October 8, 2002; simultaneously, defendant Lopez asserted counterclaims for trademark infringement and unfair competition based on her recent acquisition of the mark Glow Kit. Plaintiff has now moved for summary judgment on Lopez’s counterclaims, asserting that the assignment of the Glow Kit mark to Lopez is invalid, and that there is no evidence of a likelihood of confusion between the Glow and Glow Kit marks. I. FACTUAL BACKGROUND A. The Glow Mark Terry Williamson founded Glow Industries, Inc. in 1999, to design, produce, market and sell a brand-intensive fine of fragrance, bath and body care products under the trademark Glow. Glow Industries’ application to register the Glow trademark represents that the mark was first used in commerce on February 28, 1999. It identifies the goods on which the mark is used as skin soaps, bubble bath, skin lotions, skin moisturizers (International Class 3), and candles (International Class 4). It does not identify fragrance as a product on which the mark is used or anticipated to be used, and Glow Industries’ first sale of its “Glow Scent” perfume did not occur until December 2001. Glow Industries chose the mark Glow because of the positive feeling the word evokes, rather than to describe a characteristic of its products or the results that could be obtained from using the products. President Terry Williamson conceptualized Glow as “a highly branded product line, [and paid] careful attention ... to creating uniqueness and consistency [in] all aspects of its development.” Glow Industries product catalog and its glow-spot.com website state that the company is “committed to developing and offering ... the finest products to use in your bath and on your skin” because the people “at Glow are avid users of bath and body products and are obsessive about the sanctity of the bathing ritual.” Glow Industries also claims that its products offer users certain health benefits. For example, Glow Oil has antioxidant properties that help to “repel free radicals,” while Glow Mist is a hydrosol that reputedly has skin care benefits. Williamson testified at her deposition that some of Glow Industries’ moisturizers, bath treatments and facial masks also contain ingredients that help to promote healthier skin. Glow Industries launched the Glow product line nationally in April 2000 at the Paramount Hotel in New York City. Approximately forty members of the national press were present. It then launched the line to wholesalers on the national beauty website “gloss.com” in spring 2000, and at Bergdorf Goodman in New York City in fall 2000. Since that time, Glow Industries has developed thirty-six wholesale clients across the country. These include a number of specialty stores, four Nord-strom stores, and the national website “whoisthefairest.com.” Williamson concedes, however, that certain of these wholesale accounts have stopped carrying Glow products. Specifically, Glow Industries stopped shipping to Bergdorf Goodman in 2001. Williamson states that Glow Industries terminated its relationship with Bergdorf because its “accounts payable didn’t pay as agreed.” Glow Industries’ catalog identifies only twenty-one stores that carry Glow products, in addition to the websites “glowspot.com” and “whois-thefairest.com.” Glow products have been sold in all fifty states through department stores, specialty boutiques, mail order and the internet. Williams asserts that Glow products have been physically displayed and are available for sale in twenty-nine retail establishments in twenty states. Additionally, Nordstrom purportedly approached Glow Industries about a “national roll-out” of Glow products that was ultimately to include eighty-eight Nordstrom stores across the country. This roll-out did not occur, and Nordstrom offered no explanation for its failure to proceed. Glow Industries has had nearly 100 wholesale inquiries from entities throughout the United States, as well as several foreign inquiries, which it has declined. Glow Industries began selling Glow products in the Chicago area via mail order in the summer of 1999, and has sold its product line in area stores since- May 2001. Between May 2001 and October 2002, Glow Industries sold approximately $23,903 of Glow products to wholesale clients in Illinois. The retail value of these goods was $47,806. While Williams has no direct information that the goods were sold, or that they were sold at retail value, she does not believe her wholesale client Soapstone discounts any merchandise, and she infers that Glow products were sold because Soapstone reordered. Williams has prepared a chart estimating that retail sales of Glow products in Illinois between June 1999 and October 2002 may have totaled as much as $55,345. Lopez disputes the use of this estimate, as it calculates Glow Industries’ wholesale sales at retail value. Lopez argues that the Glow Industries’ actual wholesale sales of $23,903, coupled with its Glow Industries’ retail sales of $7,539, should be considered the total of the business it did in Illinois during the relevant period Glow Industries’ business plan focuses on grass-roots marketing and brand cohesiveness. For this reason, it has done no paid advertising for Glow products. The company has had opportunities to promote Glow products, however. Soap Opera Digest purchased a number of Glow gift pails for soap opera actors who participated in cover shoots for the magazine, and as a result, representatives of “The Young and the Restless” soap opera requested permission to use the mark in the name of a fictional beauty company on the show, “Glow by Jabot.” Glow products were also featured on the Showtime cable network program “Soulfood,” which in turn led to Glow products being featured on the website <www.asseenin.com>. This website features products that have been seen on popular television programs. Glow Industries was featured in the closing credits of the film “Pearl Harbor” because producers purchased a number of Glow products for the cast and crew. Glow products were included in a care package delivered by actress Reese Witherspoon in a scene in the film “Legally Blonde.” An E! Entertainment representative contacted Glow Industries in September 2001 about a new show on beauty and fashion, hosted by Lopez’s sister Lynda Lopez, and sought permission to use the name “Glow” on the show. Glow Industries acceded, based on representations that the show would be product-focused and would air only in Los Angeles and New York. Glow products were slated to be featured on one episode of the show. NASCAR purchased Glow “male pails” for their top ten drivers in connection with an awards ceremony held at the Four Seasons in New York in 2000. It was asked twice to include Glow products in gift baskets given to Oscar presenters, and to provide Glow products for MTV Movie Awards, Grammys, and Latin Grammys gift baskets. It did not do so, as it “do[es] not contribute products to organizations that aren’t charitable in nature.” Glow Industries participates in a “Bath Butler” available at Ritz-Carlton hotels, where customers “can order a specific bath experience just like you might order off of a room service menu, and a person will come up to your room, draw the bath for you, put different products in the bath for you, [and] depending on which bath experience you elected, bring you food and beverage that accompanies that experience as well as in many cases a candle and body lotion.” Glow Industries worked with Ritz-Carlton to develop “bath experiences” featuring Glow products for more than one Ritz-Carlton property, including those in Cleveland, Ohio and Marina del Rey. Williams asserts that Glow products are also sold in Ritz-Carlton gift shops, although she has only seen them available in the Marina del Rey hotel. Glow Industries did not establish any guidelines for Ritz-Carlton’s use of the Glow mark, except to specify that it be used in connection with the Bath Butler program or the sale of Glow products. Between February and late summer 2002, Glow Industries participated in a co-branding venture with Reebok. Reebok issued a “maglog,” i.e., a catalog with editorial content, which featured both an interview with Williamson and her then-business partner, and “product shots” of several Glow products. As part of the venture, certain Glow products were offered for sale on Reebok’s website, and a large pail of Glow products was given to a sweepstakes winner. Reebok also purchased “Glow Sticks” to be given to customers who made purchases above a certain dollar amount. Williamson agreed to repurchase any unsold and resalable products from Reebok at the end of the venture, and recalls repurchasing “a very small amount.” Glow Industries also participated in a one-time promotional venture with Mattel in February 2003, developing a “Barbie spa kit” to be given to Barbie licensees at the Golden Barbie Awards in New York City. The company worked with Mattel to determine what products to include in the kits, and offered input on design of the labels. Between 350 and 400 Barbi spa kits were distributed as a result of this venture. Glow products have been editorially featured in a number of regional, national and international publications, including Vanity Fair, Seventeen, Redbook, Marie Claire, Mademoiselle, Jane, InStyle, W, Harper’s Bazaar, Entertainment Weekly, the Los Angeles Times Magazine and the New York Times Magazine. They have also been discussed by individual customers on the national beauty websites <www.mak-eupalley.com > and <www.whosthefair-est.com>. B. The Glow Kit Mark Prior to October 2002, Dr. Giulio Leone, a dermatologist practicing in the Chicago area, owned the registered trademark Glow Kit. Dr. Leone used the mark on a collection of anti-aging skin treatment products that he sold from the offices of his dermatology practice and on his website, <www.leonederm.com>. The Glow Kit trademark registration covers “[c]os-metics sold separately and as a kit, namely alpha hydroxy acid creams, facial cleansing lotions, and skin creams containing vitamin A derivatives.” Dr. Leone’s trademark application stated he used the mark on his website to promote cosmetic and anti-aging skin products. He disclaimed the exclusive right to use “kit” apart from the mark as registered, and listed the date of the mark’s first use in commerce as October 20, 1998. The Glow Kit mark was registered on the Principal Register on October 19, 1999 under Registration Number 2,288,023. Dr. Leone offers three Glow Kits for sale: Glow Kit for Sensitive Skin; Glow Kit for Non-Sensitive Skin; and Glow Kit for Enhanced Non-Sensitive Skin. The Glow Kit for Non-Sensitive Skin is packaged in a plain, white paper shopping bag that has a sticker on the front with the words “Leone Dermatology Center” and “Glow Kit for Non-Sensitive Skin.” Three separately-packaged products are inside the shopping bag: TxSystems Afirm 3x, NeoStrata Daytime Skin Smoothing Cream and Leone' Dermatology Center’s Non-Drying Gentle Cleansing Lotion. Dr. Leone also sells each of these items separately; he does not use the Glow Kit mark in connection with these sales. Leone’s attorney stated that “[t]he products sold as part of the Glow Kit do not carry the mark; rather they are packaged in a small shopping bag which has a label affixed to the outside which bears the mark ‘Glow Kit.’ ” The NeoStrata Company, which manufactures the Neostrata smoothing cream included in the Glow Kit, “is a dermatological company dedicated to the advancement of skin care and treatment and to educating the public about the benefits of [Alpha Hydroxyacids (AHA) ].” Neostrata “manufactures a comprehensive line of advanced, quality AHA skin care products sold exclusively to dermatologists and plastic surgeons under the NeoStrata brand.” Bioglan Pharmaceuticals, which manufactures the TxSystems Afirm products included in the Glow Kit, has a “primary therapeutic focus ... [on] dermatology, with a product portfolio predominantly in prescription pharmaceuticals.” Dr. Leone described the NeoStrata and Afirm products as “cosmeceuticals,” i.e., “something that’s almost like a medication but it’s to make people look better.” They are “over the counter” products for which no prescription is necessary. In promotional materials and sales records, Dr. Leone references the kits interchangeably as Glow Kits and the “NeoS-trata Glow Kit® for Sensitive [or NonSensitive] Skin.” He represents that “[m]ost patients are extremely pleased with the changes in their skin with the [Glow Kit] routines. Typically, your face will look much fresher and have a subtle ‘glow’ to it.” Dr. Leone advertises that use of the Glow Kits will make a patient’s skin look “younger, softer, smoother, and glowing.” In response to a request that she admit the Glow Kit mark is descriptive, Lopez responded that “the term Glow describes a desirable characteristic to be achieved through the use of the products and that KIT describes the collection of products offered under the mark, and otherwise deny that the unified mark Glow Kit is descriptive ...” Dr. Leone’s sales records identify both the “patient” and “diagnosis” related to each sale. In an affidavit he prepared in connection with his sale of the mark, Leone grouped the invoices by doctor within the dermatological practice. The records reflect that from November 2000 to September 2002, Dr. Leone’s Glow Kit sales totaled less than $ 11,000. This equaled less than 170 units. Glow Industries has never received notice that anyone has actually confused the Glow and Glow Kit marks, and Lopez has adduced no evidence of such confusion in response to this motion. C. The Glow by J.Lo Mark Effective April 26, 2001, defendant Jennifer Lopez entered into a license agreement with defendant Sweetface Fashion Co., LLC (“Sweetface”) pursuant to which she granted Sweetface the right to use the marks JENNIFER Lopez and J.Lo by Jenni-FER Lopez on “fragrances, cosmetics, and hair care (including all bath and soap related products).” Lopez concedes that the license now extends to other products as well. In December 2001, Lopez, Sweetface and representatives of defendant Coty met in Frankfurt, Germany, to discuss a fragrance line to be marketed under Lopez’s name. Lopez’s then manager, Benny Medina, was also present.' At the conclusion of the meeting, it was decided that the product name should include the word “glow.” On February 7, 2002, Sweetface sublicensed the Glow by J.Lo mark to Coty for use on fragrances, bath and body products, and “ancillary products.” Despite the agreements reached at the December 2001 meeting, it appears that, as of late February, there was some uncertainty whether Glow by J.Lo would be the name of the product line. The name was finally confirmed on February 24, 2002, and Lopez filed an intent-to-use (“ITU”) trademark application for Glow by J.Lo on February 25, 2002. The application stated that Lopez intended to use the mark on fragrances, cosmetics, and skin care products (International Class 3). On March 7, 2002, Lopez formally approved Sweet-face’s sublicense with Coty. On March 11, 2002, her representatives received a Thompson & Thompson Trademark Research Report regarding the proposed mark Glow by J.Lo. The report identified nineteen similar, marks in International Class 3 that were registered, published or pending, and three that were abandoned or expired. Both Glow Industries’ pending Glow application and Dr. Leone’s Glow Kit registration were identified in the report. In the first month in which Glow by J.Lo products were available for sale, defendants had sales of approximately $17.9 million in the United States. D. Lopez’s Acquisition Of The Glow Kit Mark Glow Industries commenced this action on August 7, 2002, alleging claims for federal and state trademark infringement and unfair competition based on defendants’ use of the Glow by J.Lo mark. At the time Glow Industries filed its complaint, Dr. Leone owned the registered Glow Kit trademark. On August 14, 2002, Lopez’s representatives contacted Dr. Leone. They stated that they were “trademark lawyers representing a client who is interested in acquiring marks for possible use in the cosmetic and fragrance industries.” Lopez’s representatives told Dr. Leone’s representatives that it had “recently come to [their] client’s attention that [Dr. Leone was] the owner of a trademark registration for the mark ‘Glow Kit’ in class 3.” They said their client was interested in. acquiring rights to the mark. Dr. Leone asked who the purchaser would be. Lopez’s representatives said their client preferred to remain anonymous. During the negotiations that ensued, Dr. Leone expressed interest in retaining the right, or being licensed, to use the mark in connection with the sale of skin care products through his dermatology practice so long as “[Lopez’s] use of the mark [would] be sufficiently different than [that] ... use.” Leone ultimately agreed to sell his rights to the Glow Kit mark on the understanding that the purchaser would license the mark back to him for one year royalty-free, and signed the assignment/license at the end of September. Lopez signed the documents in the beginning of October 2002. During the process of preparing draft assignment/license agreements, Lopez’s representatives stated that “[paragraph 3.1 of the license agreement had to] include a turnover of samples of existing products which can be used as a benchmark for new products. A ‘naked’ license without such a standard will not pass muster.” Dr. Leoné testified that no one contacted him on Lopez’s behalf following execution of the assignment regarding the products included in the Glow Kit, and no one inspected his records or the Glow Kit products. Leone did not recall providing any Glow Kit samples to Lopez. After she acquired the Glow Kit mark, Lopez filed a notice of opposition to Glow Industries’ application to register the Glow mark before the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board (“TTAB”). She then filed a motion to suspend the opposition, which Glow Industries opposed. On April 9, 2003, the TTAB suspended opposition proceedings pending resolution of this action. E. Current Use Of The Glow Kit Mark At his deposition on June 4, 2003, Dr. Leone testified that, because his one-year license will expire on September 25, 2003, he is in the process of “revamping” his website to “eliminat[e] the Glow Kit and put[ ] in a new set of products.” Leone plans to discontinue use of the Glow Kit mark rather than try to renew his license. Glow Kit will be replaced with the STEAL BACK TIME ® Facial Rejuvenation Kit, which will include Leone’s gentle cleansing lotion and the NeoStrata Daytime Protection Cream previously included in the Glow Kit, as well as a “green tea polyphenol” known as Replenix. According to Chip Rosen, Sweetface’s Vice President of Licensing, it has been Lopez’s and Sweetface’s intention, since the purchase of the Glow Kit mark in 2002, to use the mark on gift sets of Glow by J.Lo products. The gift sets are currently under development with Coty. Certain e-mail communications from an advertising agency, Select Communications, indicate that the decision to use the Glow Kit mark on these gift sets may have been made subsequent to Lopez’s acquisition of the mark. A March 18, 2003, e-mail, for example, from Coty’s marketing director, Lawrence Keller, to Select Communications included pictures of a product named “Face Kit Glow by J.Lo.” Keller requested that Select Communications, “tell [him] where [it stood] on that, especially concerning the name_” The attached pictures show a clear cylinder that contains a bottle of Glow by J.Lo fragrance and two other products. A Select Communications document dated March 19, 2003, concerning the “Glow by J.Lo Face Kit Promotion” discusses possible marketing ideas for a “Golden Glow .Face Kit,” a “Luminous Light Face Kit,” or a “Star Power Face Kit” containing Glow by J.Lo fragrance, a face bronzer, an eyeshadow and highlighter duo, and a dual color lip gloss “designed to make you glow.” A series of May 7, 2003, e-mails indicate that plans for a Glow by J.Lo kit were altered at the last minute to rename the product Glow Kit. Sweetface’s Phillip Pierce told Coty’s Julie Mclvor that Sweetface “would like to continue [its] plan to use the name ‘Glow Kit’ on the packaging of the forthcoming color kit.” Mclvor responded that Coty would “make the last minute change to rename the Glow by J.Lo ‘Get the Glow’ ” colour set ... the “Glow by J.Lo ‘Glow Kit.’ ” Coty’s Jean Baptiste Rougeot forwarded the e-mails to Rosen with the message that the “press text concerning the ‘Glow Kit’ [has been] reworked following the rename.” The attached press release describes a Glow by J.Lo “Glow Kit,” which contains Glow by J.Lo fragrance, as well as a Glow Bronzer, Eye Glow Duo, and Glow-On Gloss. II. DISCUSSION A. Legal Standard Governing Summary Judgment ' A motion for summary judgment must be granted when “the pleadings, depositions, answers to interrogatories, and admissions on file, together with the affidavits, if any, show that there is no genuine issue as to any material fact and that the moving party is entitled to a judgment as a matter of law.” Fed.R.Civ.PROC. 56(c). A party seeking summary judgment bears the initial burden of informing the court of the basis for its motion and of identifying those portions of the pleadings and discovery responses that demonstrate the absence of a genuine issue of material fact. See Celotex Corp. v. Catrett, 477 U.S. 317, 323, 106 S.Ct. 2548, 91 L.Ed.2d 265 (1986). Where the moving party will have the burden of proof on an issue at trial, the movant must affirmatively demonstrate that no reasonable trier of fact could find other than for the moving party. On an issue as to which the nonmoving party will have the burden of proof at trial, however, the movant can prevail merely by pointing out that there is an absence of evidence to support the nonmoving party’s case. See id. If the moving party meets its initial burden, the nonmoving party must then set forth, by affidavit or as otherwise provided in Rule 56, “specific facts showing that there is a genuine issue for trial.” Anderson v. Liberty Lobby, Inc., 477 U.S. 242, 250, 106 S.Ct. 2505, 91 L.Ed.2d 202 (1986); Fed.R.Civ.PROc. 56(e). In judging evidence at the summary judgment stage, the court does not make credibility determinations or weigh conflicting evidence. Rather, it draws all in-' ferences in the light most favorable to the nonmoving party. See T.W. Electrical Service, Inc. v. Pacific Electric Contractors Ass’n, 809 F.2d 626, 630-31 (9th Cir.1987). The evidence presented by the parties must be admissible. Fed.R.Civ.Proc. 56(e). Conclusory, speculative testimony in affidavits and moving papers is insufficient to raise genuine issues of fact and defeat summary judgment. See Falls Riverway Realty, Inc. v. Niagara Falls, 754 F.2d 49, 56 (2d Cir.1985); Thornhill Pub. Co., Inc. v. GT & E Corp., 594 F.2d 730, 738 (9th Cir.1979). B. Standing To Assert A Counterclaim Based On The Glow Kit Mark Section 32 of the Lanham Act grants standing to assert a claim for trademark infringement solely to the “registrant” of the trademark. 15 U.S.C. § 1114. This term includes both the registrant and its “legal representatives, predecessors, successors and assigns.” 15 U.S.C. § 1127. See also Berni v. International Gourmet Restaurants of America, Inc., 838 F.2d 642, 645-46 (2d Cir.1988); Ultrapure Systems, Inc. v. Ham-Let Group, 921 F.Supp. 659, 665 (N.D.Cal.1996). Lopez’s counterclaims for trademark infringement and unfair competition assert that Glow Industries has infringed the Glow Kit mark, which was originally-registered by Dr. Leone. Plaintiff seeks summary judgment on the basis that Leone’s assignment of the Glow Kit mark to Lopez was not valid, and Lopez therefore has no standing to sue for infringement of the mark. 1. Legal Standard Governing Trademark Assignment “There is no such thing as property in a trade-mark except as a right appurtenant to an established business or trade in connection with which the mark is employed.” United Drug Co. v. Theodore Rectanus Co., 248 U.S. 90, 97-98, 39 S.Ct. 48, 63 L.Ed. 141 (1918). A trademark is therefore “assignable [only] with the good will of the business in which the mark is used, or with that part of the good will of the business connected with the use of and symbolized by the mark.” 15 U.S.C. § 1060. See also E. & J. Gallo Winery v. Gallo Cattle Co., 967 F.2d 1280, 1289 (9th Cir.1992) (“ ‘[T]he law is well settled that there are no rights in a trademark alone and that no rights can be transferred apart from the business with which the mark has been associated’” (citation omitted)). A “naked” or “in gross” transfer of a mark, i.e., without the associated goodwill, is invalid. See Sugar Busters LLC v. Brennan, 177 F.3d 258, 265 (5th Cir.1999); Visa, U.S.A., Inc. v. Birmingham Trust Nat’l Bank, 696 F.2d 1371, 1375 (Fed.Cir.1982). The term “goodwill” has been generally described as “the advantage or benefit, which is acquired by an establishment, beyond the mere value of the capital, stock, funds, or property employed therein, in consequence of the general public patronage and encouragement which is receives from' constant or habitual customers.” Newark Morning Ledger Co. v. United States, 507 U.S. 546, 555, 113 S.Ct. 1670, 123 L.Ed.2d 288 (1993) (quoting Metropolitan Bank v. St. Louis Dispatch Co., 149 U.S. 436, 13 S.Ct. 944, 37 L.Ed. 799 (1893)). See also id. at 572, 113 S.Ct. 1670 (Souter, J., dissenting) (citing Cruttwell v. Lye, 34 Eng.Rep. 129, 134 (1810) for the proposition that “goodwill is ‘nothing more than the probability[ ] that the old customers will resort to the old place’”). As applied in the trademark context by Judge Platt in Dial-A-Mattress Operating Corp. v. Mattress Madness, Inc., 841 F.Supp. 1339 (E.D.N.Y.1994), “good will is the value attributable to a going concern apart from its physical assets — the intangible worth of buyer momentum emanating from the reputation and integrity earned by the company. A trademark ... is merely the symbol by which the public recognizes that reputation and hence has no independent significance apart from the owner’s good will.” Id. at 1350. Goodwill must accompany the assignment of a trademark “to maintain the continuity of the product or service symbolized by the mark and thereby avoid deceiving or confusing customers.” Gallo Winery, supra, 967 F.2d at 1289 (citing 1 J. Thomas McCarthy, Mccaethy on TRADEMARKS and Unfair Competition, § 18:1(C)). See also Visa, U.S.A., Inc., supra, 696 F.2d at 1375 (“A key objective of the law of trademarks is protection of the consumer against being misled or confused as to the source of the goods or services he acquires. The rule against assignment of a mark in gross thus reflects ‘the need, if consumers are not to be misled from established associations with the mark, that it continue to be associated with the same or similar products after the assignment’”); PepsiCo, Inc. v. Grapette Co., 416 F.2d 285, 288 (8th Cir.1969) (“Inherent to the rules involving the assignment of a trademark is the recognition of protection against consumer deception. Basic to this concept is the proposition that any assignment of a trademark and its goodwill (with or without tangibles assigned) requires the mark itself be used by the assignee on a product having substantially the' same characteristics”). 2. Evidentiary Burden For Proving An Assignment Accompanied By Goodwill Because goodwill may be valued separately from the physical assets of a company, “[i]t is not necessary that the entire business or its tangible assets be transferred” to a trademark assignee in order to find that the assignment included goodwill. Gallo Winery, supra, 967 F.2d at 1289. See also The Money Store v. Harriscorp Finance, Inc., 689 F.2d 666, 676 (7th Cir.1982) (“It is not necessary to the continuing validity of the mark that tangible assets of the assignor pass to the assignee”); Dial-A-Mattress, supra, 841 F.Supp. at 1350 (“Although courts historically have looked for a transfer of the assets embraced by the trademark to evidence the passage of good will, a transfer of assets is not essential to consummate an assignment of the name”). Conversely, a mere recitation in the assignment agreement “that the mark was assigned ‘together with the good will of the business symbolized by the mark’ ” is not sufficient to establish a valid transfer. Money Store, supra, 689 F.2d at 676. See also 2 J. Thomas McCarthy, McCarthy on Trademarks and Unfair Competition § 18:24 (4th ed. 2002) (“One can begin with a rule that most courts now accept: The mere fact that the assignment document recites that good will was transferred to the assignee does not control the validity of the assignment”). The courts instead conduct a case-by-case analysis to determine whether an assignee’s use of a mark maintains sufficient continuity with the prior use. See Dial-A-Mattress, supra, 841 F.Supp. at 1350 (“[RJather than looking for some formalistic passage of assets, the test is simply whether the transaction is such that the assignee can ‘go on in real continuity with the past’ ”); Syntex Laboratories, Inc. v. Norwich Pharmacal Co., 315 F.Supp. 45, 55 (S.D.N.Y.1970) (“The reason for this rule is the need, if consumers are not to be misled as a result of established associations with the mark, that the mark continue to be associated with the same or closely similar products after its assignment.”); 2 J. Thomas McCarthy, MCCARTHY ON TRADEMARKS AND UNFAIR COMPETITION § 18:24 (4th ed. 2002) (“[Ujnder the modern view, the assignment should be upheld if the transaction is such that the buyer is enabled to go on in real continuity with the past, either as evidenced in the tangible or intangible assets acquired by the buyer or as evidenced by the buyer’s post-transaction actions”). See also Pepsi-Co, supra, 416 F.2d at 289 (“A case by case treatment of the problem as specific facts present themselves is desirable”). Many courts conduct this analysis by asking whether the goods offered under the mark post-assignment are “substantially similar,” to those previously associated with it, or at least “sufficiently similar to prevent customers from being misled from established associations with the mark.” Sugar Busters, supra, 177 F.3d at 266. See, e.g., Visa, U.S.A., Inc., supra, 696 F.2d at 1376 (“[Transfer of goodwill requires only that the services be sufficiently similar to prevent consumers of the service offered under the mark from being ‘misled from established associations with the mark’ ” (citation omitted)); Defiance Button Machine Co., v. C & C Metal Products Corp., 759 F.2d 1053, 1059 (2d Cir.1985) (“[Assignments of marks separate from the -underlying business have been upheld when the assignee ‘is producing a product ... substantially similar to that of the assignor [such that] consumers would not be deceived or harmedciting Marshak v. Green, 746 F.2d 927, 930 (2d Cir.1984)); Pilates, Inc. v. Current Concepts, Inc., 120 F.Supp.2d 286, 310 (S.D.N.Y.2000) (same); Clark & Freeman Corp. v. Heartland Co., Ltd., 811 F.Supp. 137 (S.D.N.Y.1993) (same); eMachines, Inc. v. Ready Access Memory, No. EDCV00-00374-VAP (EEx), 2001 WL 456404, *11 (C.D.Cal. Mar. 5, 2001) (“Courts analyze whether or not good will accompanied assignment by determining if the assignee is producing a substantially similar product”); Main Street Outfitters, Inc. v. Federated Dept. Stores, Inc., 730 F.Supp. 289, 291 (D.Minn.1989) (“Because FDS intended to have the good will associated with the trademark ‘Main Street’ transferred to it, and intended to obtain that property right and use it in a business that was substantially similar to that of the assign- or, and did so; and because the trademark was used on goods that were ‘not totally different’, but were substantially similar, the test set forth in PepsiCo has been met”). This test has alternately been framed as “whether the assignee continues to produce goods of the same nature and quality previously associated with the mark.” See Archer Daniels Midland Co. v. Narula, No. 99 C 6997, 2001 WL 804025, * 6-7 (N.D.Ill. July 12, 2001) (“Some courts have framed the inquiry by referring to ‘two tests’ that have been identified for determining whether the assignment of a mark includes the passing of good will. The first ‘test’ asks whether the assignee is able to go on in ‘real continuity with the past’ or if there is a ‘continuity of management.’ The second ‘test examines whether [the assignee] is producing a product substantially similar to that of [the assignor] such that consumers would not be deceived by the assignment.... [W]e prefer as more workable McCarthy’s general formulation: [C]ourts will look to the reality of the transaction to see if “good will” passed.... The focus should be on protecting customers’ legitimate expectation of continuity under the mark, not on searching for a “stereotyped set of formalities.” ... One factor is whether the as-signee continues to produce goods of the same nature and quality previously associated with the mark”); Clark & Freeman, supra, 811 F.Supp. 137 (“[A] trademark may be validly transferred without the simultaneous transfer of any tangible assets, as long as the recipient continues to produce goods of the same quality and nature previously associated with the mark,” quoting Defiance Button, supra, 759 F.2d at 1059). 3. Whether Lopez Has Raised A Question Of Fact As To Whether The Assignment Of The Glow Kit Mark Was Accompanied By Goodwill It is undisputed that when Lopez’s representatives first approached Leone regarding assignment of the Glow Kit mark, they said she was interested in “acquiring marks for possible use in the cosmetic and fragrance industries.” Certain evidence in the record suggests that, even before she acquired the mark, Lopez intended to use it on gift sets of Glow by J.Lo products. Other evidence indicates this idea did not arise until the spring of this year. While there is a triable issue of fact in this regard, it is undisputed that presently, Lopez intends to use the Glow Kit mark on gift sets containing Glow by J.Lo fragrance and other Lopez cosmetic products. When Lopez acquired the mark, she granted Leone a one-year license to continue his existing use. The license will terminate in September 2003. Leone has taken steps to phase out his use of the Glow Kit mark, and developed a substitute mark under which he will market a kit containing two of the three products found in the Glow Kit. Leone also intends to continue separate sale of the products in the kit. Plaintiff argues that Lopez’s anticipated use of the Glow Kit mark is not substantially similar to Leone’s prior use. Lopez responds that the mark is presently being used in precisely the same manner it was before the assignment, as Leone continues to sell products under the mark pursuant to his one-year license. a. Whether The “License-Back” Provision Supports The Validity Of The Assignment Numerous courts have held that assignment/license-back agreements can constitute a valid transfer of a trademark and its associated goodwill. See Gallo Winery, supra, 967 F.2d at 1289-90; Visa, U.S.A., Inc., supra, 696 F.2d at 1377; Haymaker Sports, Inc. v. Turian, 581 F.2d 257, 261 (Oust. & Pat.App.1978). They reason that, where “the assignor-licensee ... contin-uéis] to conduct the same business or provide the same services under the mark,” the license-back ensures continuity of the mark, and protects customers from deception. Visa, U.S.A., Inc., supra, 696 F.2d at 1376. See also Gallo Winery, supra, 967 F.2d at 1290 (“We agree with the federal circuit that a simultaneous assignment and license-back of a mark is valid, where, as in this case, it does not disrupt continuity of the products or services associated with a given mark”). The validity of assignment/license-back transactions turns primarily on the extent to which the licensor maintains control over the quality of the goods distributed under the mark. See Visa, U.S.A., Inc., supra, 696 F.2d at 1377 (“The principle requirement, and the only one here critical, is that ‘the licensing agreement provides for adequate control by the licensor over the quality of goods or services produced under the mark by a licensee’”); Gallo Winery, supra, 967 F.2d at 1290 (citing Visa, and noting that “[t]he district court specifically found that the settlement agreement sets out, and that the Winery is maintaining, a quality control program under which the Winery actively monitors Gallo Salame’s practices”). See also Edwin K. Williams & Co., Inc. v. Edwin K. Williams & Co.-East, 542 F.2d 1053,1059 (9th Cir.1976) (“A tradename licensor must maintain control over the quality of the finished product or service to guarantee to the public that the goods or services are of the same, pre-license quality”). When the terms of a licensing agreement demonstrate that the licensor has maintained control over the quality of the goods and services, the opposing party bears the burden of demonstrating that the licensor has not exercised that control. Visa, U.S.A., Inc., supra, 696 F.2d at 1377 (citing, inter alia, Edwin K. Williams & Co., supra, 542 F.2d at 1059 (“Because a finding of insufficient control essentially works a forfeiture, a person who asserts insufficient control must meet a high burden of proof’)). Here, the license agreement grants Leone the right to use the Glow Kit mark in connection with the manufacture and distribution of “cosmetics sold separately and as a kit, namely, alpha hydroxy acid skin creams, facial cleansing lotions, and skin creams containing vitamin A derivatives,” so long as the quality of the products is at least equal in quality to the samples given Lopez upon execution of the agreement. The contract contemplates that Dr. Leone will continue to use the mark in the same manner as he has previously, and that he will maintain the quality standards evident in the samples given Lopez at signing. While Dr. Leone did not recall providing samples of Glow Kit products to Lopez’s representatives, the agreement he signed specifically states that he did. The language of the agreement demonstrates that Lopez maintained control over the quality of the Glow Kit products distributed by Dr. Leon pursuant to the license-back, and the burden thus shifts to Glow Industries to demonstrate that Lopez did not exercise that control. Dr. Leone’s lack of recollection is not sufficient to meet that burden, and it must be assumed, for purposes of this motion, that Lopez maintained control over the quality of the products Dr. Leone distributed under the mark. Compare Visa, U.S.A., Inc., supra, 696 F.2d at 1377 (“The license back from Visa to Alpha Beta met that requirement. ... Alpha Beta agreed that ‘the nature and quality of all services rendered in connection with the Mark shall conform to standards set by, and under the control of [Visa].’ Alpha Beta also agreed to comply with [certain] minimum standards. [I]t is not determinative that there was ‘no evidence showing to what extent Visa has actually exercised real and effective control. ... The license back provided for adequate control by Visa of Alpha Beta’s use of the mark”) with Haymaker Sports, supra, 581 F.2d at 261-62 (“Here, Block and Moran ... had no interest in the quality of shoes Avon was manufacturing, and there is no evidence that they exercised any quality control. Although quality control has been inferred in a few cases where licensing agreements were silent, there is nothing in the record before us on which to base such an inference”); In re Impact Distributors, Inc., 260 B.R. 48, 55 (Bkrtcy.S.D.Fla.2001) (“[I]t is unlikely that a nonexistent entity was able to maintain the requisite ‘adequate control’ required for a valid license back agreement”). See also Syntex, supra, 315 F.Supp. at 56 (“It has been held that reliance upon the integrity of a licensee is sufficient to fulfill the control requirement where a history of trouble-free manufacture provides a basis for such reliance”). This does not address the central issue, however, which is whether a license-back provision that is limited in duration and non-exclusive, and that will expire before this matter comes to trial, can provide the basis for a finding that the post-assignment use of a trademark is substantially similar to its pre-assignment use. A number of courts have found that trademark assignments were accompanied by a transfer of the goodwill associated with the trademark where the assignor was permitted to continue its prior use of the mark pursuant to a license-back provision while assignee simultaneously began concurrent use of the mark. These cases generally involve permanent license-back provisions that authorize a specific use by the assign- or that does not conflict with the assignee’s intended use. See Gallo Winery, supra, 967 F.2d at 1289-90 (winery licensed meat packager to continue to its use of the Gallo Salame mark on meat and cheese packages); Visa, U.S.A., Inc., supra, 696 F.2d at 1373-74 (Visa licensed a grocery chain to continue using the CHECK O.K. mark in connection with check approval services for its customers; Visa used the mark for check approval services nationally); Brewski Beer, Co. v. Brewski Brothers, Inc., 47 U.S.P.Q.2d 1281, 1998 WL 416757, * 10-11 (Trademark Tr. & App.Bd. 1998) (Los Angeles restaurant and microbrewery licensed a New York tavern to continue operations under the mark). In virtually all of these cases, the court has concluded that the assignment was accompanied by a transfer of goodwill because the products or services being offered concurrently under the mark by the assignor and assignee were substantially similar. See Visa, U.S.A., Inc., supra, 696 F.2d at 1376 (noting that the concurrent uses were sufficiently similar that customers would not be “misled from established associations with the mark”); Syntex, supra, 315 F.Supp. at 55 (“In this case the products of assignor and assignee are identical”). Cf. Brewski Beer, supra, 1998 WL 416757 at *11 (“[B]oth operations offer the same basic services, namely, the serving of beer and food.... More importantly, a customer who is familiar with Brew-sky’s tavern in lower Manhattan would hardly expect, should he plan to visit Brewski’s restaurant and microbrewery in Hermosa Beach, that the two would be identical. In addition, if a patron of Brew-sky’s tavern in lower Manhattan were to travel to Los Angeles and visit Brewski’s restaurant and microbrewery (brewpub) in Hermosa Beach, he or she would readily discern that there are clear differences in the two operations. It has been noted that ‘some changes in the product [or service] represented by a trademark [or service mark] are expected by the public. Other changes are readily discernible. In neither case is the public deceived’ ”). Here, although there is some question when she first formed the intention of doing so, it is undisputed that Lopez is developing a “Glow Kit” that will include various Glow by J.Lo products. A review of the cases demonstrates that they do not support the broad holding Lopez seeks — i.e., that any license-back provision, even one of limited scope or duration, mandates a finding that a trademark assignment was accompanied by a transfer of goodwill. Application of such a rule would be particularly inappropriate if the assignee licensed back the trademark rights intending to use the mark at the conclusion of the limited license-back period on products or services that were not substantially similar to the prior use. The correct test is to “focus ... on protecting customers’ legitimate expectation of continuity under the mark....” Archer Daniels Midland, supra, 2001 WL 804025 at *6-7. That focus here requires that the court look not only at the one-year period during which Dr. Leone has continued to use the Glow Kit mark, but at the upcoming period during which Lopez apparently intends to use the mark on gift sets of Glow By J.Lo products. See Defiance Button, supra, 759 F.2d at 1060 (“As long as the mark has significant remaining value and the owner intends to use it in connection with substantially the same business or service, the public is not deceived”); Main Street Outfitters, supra, 730 F.Supp. at 291 (“Because FDS intended to have the good will associated with the trademark ‘Main Street’ transferred to it, and intended to obtain that property right and use it in a business that was substantially similar to that of the assignor, and did so; and because the trademark was used on goods that were ‘not totally different’, but were substantially similar, the test set forth in PepsiCo has been met”). The question the court must ask, therefore, is whether Lopez’s anticipated use is substantially similar to Dr. Leone’s pre-assignment use. b. Whether Lopez’s Planned Use Of The Mark Supports A Finding That The Assignment Is Valid The undisputed evidence presently before the court indicates that Lopez’s Glow by J.Lo Glow Kits will contain the Glow by J.Lo fragrance and various types of cosmetics. Glow Industries maintains that such a use is not sufficiently similar to Leone’s, and that the assignment is invalid as a result. The mere fact that two uses are in the same “class” for trademark purposes is not sufficient to demonstrate that they are substantially similar. See PepsiCo, supra, 416 F.2d at 289 (holding that a soft drink using a “pepper” syrup was not substantially similar to a soft drink using a “cola syrup” and citing W.T. Wagner’s Sons Co. v. Orange Snap Co., 18 F.2d 554, 555 (5th Cir.1927) (fruit beverages are not substantially the same as ginger ale)). Indeed, even generally similar products have been found not to be substantially similar where they have key differences. Whether differences are important turns in this context on whether the products are designed to appeal to distinct or similar customer groups. Compare Clark & Freeman, supra, 811 F.Supp. 137 (“Sears sold only women’s pixie boots under the mark “Heartland,” while plaintiffs immediately applied it only to men’s shoes, then later to men’s hiking boots. The markets for the two goods are substantially distinct”) with Main Street, supra, 730 F.Supp. at 290-91 (finding that “all-weather coats and women’s coats” were substantially the same as “various items of clothing including jackets, rain wear and various items of apparel”); Money Store, supra, 689 F.2d at 678 (“United and Harriseorp offered the identical service. A customer who was drawn first to United and later to Harriseorp because of the “Money Store” mark would not be misled as to the nature of the services offered”). Cf. Sugar Busters, supra, 177 F.3d at 266 (“We are unconvinced by plaintiffs argument that, by stating on the cover of its diet book that it may ‘[h]elp treat diabetes and other diseases’ and then selling some of those books on the Internet, plaintiff provides a service substantially similar to a retail store that provides diabetic supplies”). Lopez does not contemplate including any of the Tx Systems, NeoStrata or the Leone Dermatology Center products found in Dr. Leone’s Glow Kit in her Glow by J.Lo Glow Kits. Rather, the kits will apparently contain Glow by J.Lo fragrance and other cosmetic products marketed under the Lopez name. Thus, to the extent that consumers associate the Glow Kit mark with the Tx Systems, NeoStrata and Leone products, there will be no continuity of use. There are also substantial differences between the Tx Systems, NeoStrata and Leone products and those Lopez intends to market under the Glow Kit name. The products included in Leone’s Glow Kit are skin lotions and cleansers designed to improve the health of the skin and protect against aging. Lopez’s planned kit, on the other hand, will contain fragrance and cosmetics such as bronzer, eyeshadow and lip gloss. While, in a broad sense, both Leone’s and Lopez’s products are intended to make users look better, they would appear, at least superficially, to appeal to different groups of consumers attempting to address different types of cosmetic challenges. Neither party has proffered sufficient evidence to permit the court to reach a conclusion on the matter as a matter of law, however. First, Lopez’s anticipated use is not yet finalized, and the evidence indicates that she and her marketing partners routinely make changes in product design and marketing strategy until the eve of product roll-out. Second, neither party has proffered expert or other evidence regarding the market for products such as Leone’s as compared with the market for the products Lopez intends to offer under the Glow Kit name. The record is thus devoid of evidence regarding the type of consumers who routinely purchase Lopez’s cosmetics and those who purchase Leone’s. Without a more fully developed record on these points, the court cannot conclude, as a matter of law, that Lopez’s intended use is not substantially similar to Leone’s, and that the assignment was invalid. Accordingly, Glow Industries’ motion for summary judgment on this basis is denied. C. Trademark Infringement Glow Industries argues in the alternative that Lopez’s counterclaim should be dismissed because she cannot prove that Glow Industries has infringed the Glow Kit trademark. The purpose of trademark is to aid in the “[ijdentification of the manufacturer or sponsor of a good or the provider of a service.” New Kids on the Block v. News America Publishing, Inc., 971 F.2d 302, 305 (9th Cir.1992). Trademarks give their owners “a limited property right in a particular word, phrase, or symbol.” Id. at 306. In order to prevail on her trademark infringement claim, Lopez must prove (1) that she has a valid, protectable trademark and (2) that Glow Industries’ use of the same or a similar mark causes a likelihood of confusion in the minds of the relevant consuming public. Fuddruckers, Inc. v. Doc’s B.R. Others, Inc., 826 F.2d 837, 841 (9th Cir.1987); First Brands Corp. v. Fred Meyer, Inc., 809 F.2d 1378, 1381 (9th Cir.1987); Committee for Idaho’s High Desert v. Yost, 881 F.Supp. 1457, 1471 (D.Idaho 1995), modified on other grounds, 92 F.3d 814 (9th Cir.1996) (citing Levi Strauss v. Blue Bell, Inc., 778 F.2d 1352, 1354 (9th Cir.1985)). 1. Protectability Under 15 U.S.C. § 1115(a), a valid federal trademark registration constitutes prima facie evidence that the holder owns the mark, and has the exclusive right to use the mark in commerce in connection with the goods or services specified in the registration. See Brookfield Communications, Inc. v. West Coast Entertainment Corp., 174 F.3d 1036, 1046-47 (9th Cir.1999) (in determining the likelihood of success on a motion for preliminary injunction, the court “first determine[d] whether Brookfield ha[d] a valid, protectable trademark interest in the ‘MovieBuff mark,” and held that “Brookfield’s registration of the mark on the Principal Register in the Patent and Trademark Office constituted prima facie evidence of the validity of the registered mark and of Brookfield’s exclusive right to use the mark on the goods and services specified in the registration”). See also Maktab Tarighe Oveyssi Shah Maghsoudi, Inc. v. Kianfar, 179 F.3d 1244, 1249 (9th Cir.1999) (“This registration constitutes prima facie evidence that Angha owns the marks.... It also provides constructive notice of the claimed ownership of the marks”). The presumption that arises from registration can be rebutted. See Tie Tech, Inc. v. Kinedyne Corp., 296 F.3d 778, 783 (9th Cir.2002) (“In trademark terms, the registration is not absolute but is subject to rebuttal.... [Tjhe plaintiff in an infringement action with a registered mark is given the prima facie or presumptive advantage on the issue of validity, thus shifting the burden of production to the defendant to prove otherwise ... ”); Brookfield Communications, supra, 174 F.3d at 1047 (“Brookfield’s registration of the mark on the Principal Register in the Patent and Trademark Office constitutes prima facie evidence of the validity of the registered mark and of Brookfield’s exclusive right to use the mark on the goods and services specified in the registration.... Nevertheless, West Coast can rebut this presumption”). There is no dispute that the Glow Kit mark is listed on the Principal Register. Glow Industries asserts, however, that the registration is invalid because there is no evidence in the file wrapper that the mark was used in interstate commerce prior to registration. This challenge to the validity of the mark fails, as there is no requirement that a trademark application include evidence of sales in interstate commerce. All that is required is a statement by the applicant that the mark is “used in commerce” as that term is defined for purposes of the Lanham Act. See 37 C.F.R. §§ 2.32, 2.33 (setting forth requirements for trademark applications). Glow Industries next asserts that Lopez has failed to adduce evidence demonstrating that products bearing the Glow Kit mark were ever sold in interstate commerce. Dr. Leone testified that he assumed Glow Kits had been sold throughout the country because “we sell our goods to many different people in different parts of the country.” Following Leone’s deposition, plaintiffs counsel contacted Dr. Leone’s attorney to request copies of shipping records demonstrating that Glow Kits were sold in interstate commerce. She made several written requests and one telephone call, but has not yet received the documents. The fact that Leone has not produced shipping records in response to informal requests does not suffice to rebut the presumption of validity that attaches to the mark by virtue of its registration. Glow Industries also maintains there is a question as to the accuracy of the first use in commerce date stated on Leone’s trademark application. Dr. Leone testified that the date he listed could have been the date of the first sale of a Glow Kit, the first time the Glow Kit mark was affixed to a shopping bag, or possibly, because the application indicated that he was using the mark on his website to promote goods, the date the website was activated. Plaintiff proffers no evidence regarding the dates these events occurred, and the mere fact that Dr. Leone was uncertain of the origin of the first use date does not suffice to overcome the presumption of validity that otherwise attaches to the registration. On the present record, therefore, Lopez is entitled to rely on the presumption to prove that she has valid trademark rights in the Glow Kit mark, as the triable issues of fact that remain regarding the validity of the assignment require the court to assume, for purposes of this motion proceeding, that Lopez validly obtained the rights from Leone. 2. Likelihood Of Confusion Accordingly, the court next examines whether undisputed facts in the record show that there is no likelihood of confusion between the Glow Kit and Glow marks. “The test for likelihood of confusion is whether a ‘reasonably prudent consumer’ in the marketplace is likely to be confused as to the origin of the good or service bearing one of the marks.” Dreamwerks Production Group, Inc. v. SKG Studio, 142 F.3d 1127, 1129 (9th Cir.1998) (footnote omitted). In AMF Inc. v. Sleekcraft Boats, 599 F.2d 341, 348-49 (9th Cir.1979), the Ninth Circuit identified eight factors that should be considered in conducting this inquiry: (1) the strength of the mark; (2) the proximity or relatedness of the goods; (3) the marks’ similarity in appearance, sound, and meaning; (4) evidence of actual confusion; (5) the degree to which the parties’ marketing channels converge; (6) the type of goods and the degree of care customers are likely to exercise in purchasing them; (7) evidence of the allegedly infringing party’s intention in selecting and using the name; and (8) the likelihood that the parties will expand their product lines. “The factors should not be rigidly weighed” (Dreamwerks, supra, 142 F.3d at 1129), but rather “are intended to guide the court in assessing the basic question of likelihood of confusion” (E. & J. Gallo Winery, supra, 967 F.2d at 1290). The court need not address all of the factors, nor must the claimant establish that each weighs in her favor in order to establish a likelihood of confusion. See C & C Organization v. AGDS, Inc., 676 F.Supp. 204, 206 (C.D.Cal.1987) (citing Apple Computer, Inc. v. Formula International, Inc., 725 F.2d 521, 526 (9th Cir.1984)). In Brookfield, supra, 174 F.3d at 1054, the court noted that the Sleekcraft test is “pliant,” that “some factors are much more important than others, and [that] the relative importance of each individual factor will be case-specific.” Id. It observed, however, that the similarity of the marks and whether the parties are direct competitors will “always be important.” Id. (a) Strength Of The Mark (1) Distinctiveness “The strength of a given mark rests on its distinctiveness.” Miss World (UK) Ltd. v. Mrs. America Pageants, Inc., 856 F.2d 1445, 1448 (9th Cir.1988). Potential trademarks fall into four categories: (1) generic, (2) descriptive, (3) suggestive, and (4) arbitrary or fanciful. Japan Telecom, Inc. v. Japan Telecom Am. Inc., 287 F.3d 866, 872 (9th Cir.2002); Filipino Yellow Pages, Inc. v. Asian Journal Publs., Inc., 198 F.3d 1143, 1146 (9th Cir.1999). Generic terms cannot be protected as trademarks because “they are common words or phrases that ‘describe a class of goods rather than an individual product,’” and thus do not relate exclusively to the trademark owner’s product. Japan Telecom, supra, 287 F.3d at 872 (citing New Kids on the Block, supra, 971 F.2d at 306). Descriptive terms “suffer from the same problem.” Id. Descriptive terms relate more directly to a particular product than do generic terms, as they “describe[ ] a person, a place or an attribute of [the] product.” They will not support the grant of an exclusive property right, however, “[b]ecause they tend to consist of common words that might be the only way to describe a category of goods.” Id. See also Kendall-Jackson Winery, Ltd. v. E. & J. Gallo Winery, 150 F.3d 1042, 1047 n. 8 (9th Cir.1998) (“Descriptive marks define qualities or characteristics of a product in a straightforward way that requires no exercise of the imagination to be understood”). Terms that are suggestive, or arbitrary and fanciful, by contrast, are inherently distinctive. Japan Telecom, supra, 287 F.3d at 872 (noting that such terms are protectable “without a showing of secondary meaning”). A suggestive mark “conveys an impression of a good but requires the exercise of some imagination and perception to reach a conclusion as to the product’s nature.” Brookfield Communications, supra, 174 F.3d at 1058 n. 19 (using “Roach Motel” insect traps as an example). See also Kendall-Jackson Winery, supra, 150 F.3d at 1047 n. 8 (a suggestive mark is one for which “a consumer must use imagination or any type of multistage reasoning to understand the mark’s significance, [because] the mark does not describe the product’s features, but suggests them” (emphasis original)). Arbitrary and fanciful marks “have no intrinsic connection to the product with which th