Full opinion text
MEMORANDUM OPINION & ORDER GOODWIN, District Judge. This case involves a challenge to the Environmental Protection Agency’s (the EPA’s) decision, pursuant to its authority under section 303(c) of the Clean Water Act, 33 U.S.C. § 1313(c), to approve the State of West Virginia’s antidegradation implementation procedures, a set of procedures designed to prevent the degradation of the State’s waters. For the reasons that follow, the court concludes that the EPA acted arbitrarily and capriciously in approving West Virginia’s antidegradation procedures. With respect to seven particular aspects of West Virginia’s program, the EPA failed to ensure that West Virginia’s procedures met minimum federal requirements, as defined by the Clean Water Act and the EPA’s own regulations. In some instances there is simply insufficient evidence in the administrative record to support certain aspects of West Virginia’s implementation procedures and, correspondingly, the EPA’s approval of those procedures. For example, West Virginia has classified the main segments of the Kanawha and Monongahela Rivers as Tier 1 waters, but there is almost no evidence in the record about the water quality of these rivers that would justify the decision to deny them the more stringent protection of Tier 2. See infra at IV.l. Nor is there sufficient evidence in the record explaining how Tier 2 review, which is location-specific and requires public participation, could be done at the time a general section 402 or section 404 permit was issued, rather than at the time new individual discharges are proposed. See infra at IV.4. In other instances, West Virginia’s regulations simply fail to require the minimum protections required by the EPA’s regulations, and the EPA’s approval of West Virginia’s procedures was based on an unreasonable attempt to effectively amend the plain meaning of those provisions so as to bring them into fine with federal requirements. For example, West Virginia’s procedures allow new or expanded discharges from certain wastewater treatment plants to evade Tier 2 review if the new discharge results in a “net decrease in the overall pollutant loading.” The EPA approved this provision as consistent with minimum federal standards by, in effect, amending it to apply only when there is a net decrease in the pollutant loading for each pollutant parameter. See infra at IV.3. Apart from the seven instances where the EPA failed to ensure that West Virginia’s procedures met minimum federal requirements, however, the court rejects the plaintiffs’ challenges to six other aspects of West Virginia’s procedures. The EPA’s conclusion that these six aspects of West Virginia’s procedures satisfied minimum federal requirements was reasonable and supported by the evidence in the record. For example, the EPA reasonably concluded that best management practices for nonpoint source pollution will be “achieved,” as required by EPA regulations, if those practices are “installed and maintained,” as required by West Virginia’s procedures. See infra at IV.5. Similarly, there was sufficient evidence in the record to support the EPA’s approval of a provision allowing for a de minimis ten percent reduction in the available assimila-tive capacity of Tier 2 waters before Tier 2 review is required. See infra at IV.8. That said, because the EPA failed to ensure, in a number of respects, that West Virginia’s antidegradation implementation procedures were consistent with minimum federal requirements, the EPA’s approval of West Virginia’s procedures was arbitrary, capricious, and an abuse of discretion. Accordingly, the court VACATES the EPA’s approval of West Virginia’s an-tidegradation procedures and REMANDS to the EPA for further proceedings consistent with this opinion. I. Background The Clean Water Act (CWA or the Act), 38 U.S.C. § 1251 et seq., was passed by Congress “to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation’s waters.” 33 U.S.C. § 1251(a) (2003). In particular, the CWA seeks to eliminate “the discharge of pollutants into the navigable waters” of the United States, and to “provide[] for the protection and propagation of fish, shellfish, and wildlife and provide[ ] for recreation in and on the water.” Id. at §§ 1251(a)(1) & (a)(2). The Supreme Court has explained that the CWA requires the Administrator of the EPA to “establish and enforce technology-based limitations on individual discharges into the country’s navigable waters from point sources,” and also “requires each State, subject to federal approval, to institute comprehensive water quality standards establishing water quality goals for all intrastate waters.” PUD No. 1 of Jefferson County v. Washington Dept. of Ecology, 511 U.S. 700, 704, 114 S.Ct. 1900, 128 L.Ed.2d 716 (1994). Under a 1987 amendment to the Act, State water quality standards must include an antidegradation policy, which is “a policy requiring that state standards be sufficient to maintain existing beneficial uses of navigable waters, preventing their further degradation.” Id. at 705, 114 S.Ct. 1900; see also 33 U.S.C. § 1313(d)(4)(B). Pursuant to this statute, the EPA promulgated a regulation governing antidegradation, 40 C.F.R. § 131.12. Section 131.12 requires States to “develop and adopt a statewide antidegradation policy and identify methods for implementing such policy.” 40 C.F.R. § 131.12(a) (2003). Section 131.12 further provides that “[t]he antidegradation policy and implementation methods shall, at a minimum, be consistent” with certain federal standards specified in the regulation. Id. States must submit their antidegradation policy and implementation procedures to the EPA. 33 U.S.C. § 1313(c)(2)(A). If the State’s policy and procedures are consistent with the minimum federal standards, the EPA must approve the procedures within sixty days. Id. at 1313(c)(3). If not, the EPA must, within ninety days, “notify the State and specify the changes to meet such requirements. If such changes are not adopted by the State within ninety days after the date of notification, the Administrator shall promulgate such standard pursuant to paragraph (4) of this subsection.” Id. On April 14, 2001, the West Virginia legislature passed West Virginia’s antide-gradation implementation procedures, codified in Title 60, Series 5, of West Virginia’s Code of State Regulations. West Virginia submitted those procedures to the EPA on July 5, 2001, and the EPA approved the procedures on November 26, 2001. On January 23, 2002, the plaintiffs, a group of concerned citizens and environmental and recreational organizations, brought this suit challenging the EPA’s approval of West Virginia’s procedures. The plaintiffs claimed that the EPA’s approval of West Virginia’s antidegradation implementation procedures was “arbitrary, capricious, an abuse of discretion, or otherwise not in accordance -with law,” 5 U.S.C. § 706(2)(A), and sought a declaration to that effect, an order setting aside the EPA’s approval and remanding the case to the EPA for further proceedings, and an award of costs and expenses, including reasonable attorneys’ and expert witness fees, under 28 U.S.C. § 2412. In particular, the plaintiffs contend that a number of provisions of West Virginia’s antidegradation implementation procedures are inconsistent with EPA regulations implementing the Clean Water Act. The primary regulation at issue is 40 C.F.R. § 131.12. The parties in this case, in addition to the plaintiffs and the EPA, include a number of defendant-intervenors. The defendant-intervenors are organized into three groups: the Industrial Intervenors; the Municipal Intervenors; and the West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection (WVDEP). The parties have filed cross-motions for summary judgment, and the matter is ripe for decision. Prior to turning to the merits of the case, the court will briefly discuss the relevant provisions of § 131.12. Section 131.12 provides, in relevant part, that a State’s antidegradation policy and procedures must ensure that: (1) Existing instream water uses and the level of water quality necessary to protect the existing uses shall be maintained and protected. (2) Where the quality of the waters exceed levels necessary to support propagation of fish, shellfish, and wildlife and recreation in and on the water, that quality shall be maintained and protected unless the State finds, after full satisfaction of the intergovernmental coordination and public participation provisions of the State’s continuing planning process, that allowing lower water quality is necessary to accommodate important economic or social development in the area in which the waters are located. In allowing such degradation or lower water quality, the State shall assure water quality adequate to protect existing uses fully. Further, the State shall assure that there shall be achieved the highest statutory and regulatory requirements for all new and existing point sources and all cost-effective and reasonable best management practices for non-point source control. (3) Where high quality waters constitute an outstanding National resource, such as waters of National and State parks and wildlife refuges and waters of exceptional recreational or ecological signifi-canee, that water quality shall be maintained and protected. 40 C.F.R. § 131.12(a)(l)-(3). These three provisions establish what are commonly referred to as three “tiers” of antidegradation protection. See Am. Wildlands v. Browner, 260 F.3d 1192, 1194 (10th Cir.2001). Tier 1 applies to all waters, and requires that existing water uses be protected. 40 C.F.R. § 131.12(a)(1). Tier 2 applies to high quality waters, defined as waters “[wjhere the quality of the waters exceed levels necessary to support propagation of fish, shellfish, and wildlife and recreation in and on the water.” Id. § 131.12(a)(2). In Tier 2 waters, water quality (as opposed to uses) “shall be maintained and protected” unless the State finds, after a process of public participation, “that allowing lower water quality is necessary to accommodate important economic or social development in the area in which the waters are located.” Id. This process of public participation and a finding of economic or social necessity is known as Tier 2 review. Tier 3 applies to high quality waters that “constitute an outstanding National resource, such as waters of National and State parks and wildlife refuges and waters of exceptional recreational or ecological significance.” Id. § 131.12(a)(3). In Tier 3 waters, “water quality shall be maintained and protected,” with no exception for economic or social necessity. Id. The bulk of the plaintiffs’ objections to the EPA’s action here involve how West Virginia’s procedures provide for classification of waters as Tier 2 waters and the circumstances in which Tier 2 review is required. II. Standard of Review As noted above, this court reviews the EPA’s decision to approve West Virginia’s antidegradation implementation procedures only to ensure that the approval was not “arbitrary, capricious, an abuse of discretion, or otherwise not in accordance with law.” 5 U.S.C. § 706(2)(A). This standard of review is “narrow,” and “a court is not to substitute its judgment for that of the agency.” Motor Vehicle Mfrs. Ass’n of U.S. v. State Farm Mut. Auto. Ins. Co., 463 U.S. 29, 43, 103 S.Ct. 2856, 77 L.Ed.2d 443 (1983). That said, “the agency must examine the relevant data and articulate a satisfactory explanation for its action including a rational connection between the facts found and the choice made.” Id. (quotations and citation omitted). Under the arbitrary and capricious standard, the court “presume[s] the validity of Agency action,” and the court’s job is simply “to scrutinize the Agency’s activity to discern whether the record reveals that a rational basis exists for the Agency’s decision.” Reynolds Metals Co. v. EPA 760 F.2d 549, 558 (4th Cir.1985). When reviewing a federal agency’s interpretation of a statute that it administers, the court “first ask[s] “whether Congress has directly spoken to the precise question at issue.’ ” Satellite Broad. & Communications Ass’n v. FCC, 275 F.3d 337, 369 (4th Cir.2001) (quoting Chevron, U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., 467 U.S. 837, 842, 104 S.Ct. 2778, 81 L.Ed.2d 694 (1984)). “If [the court] can discern Congress’s intent ... by using ‘traditional tools of statutory construction,’ [the court] must give effect to that intent.” Id. (quoting Chevron, 467 U.S. at 843 n. 9, 104 S.Ct. 2778). On the other hand, if “the statute is ‘silent or ambiguous’ about the issue, we must defer to the agency’s reasonable construction of the statute.” Id. (quoting Chevron, 467 U.S. at 843-44, 104 S.Ct. 2778). “This analytical approach applies not only when a regulation is directly challenged, ... but also when a particular agency action is challenged,” as is the case here. Kentuckians for the Commonwealth v. Rivenburgh, 317 F.3d 425, 439 (4th Cir.2003) (emphasis omitted). The court also defers to the EPA’s reasonable interpretation of its regulations, unless that interpretation is “plainly erroneous or inconsistent with the regulation.” Auer v. Robbins, 519 U.S. 452, 461, 117 S.Ct. 905, 137 L.Ed.2d 79 (1997) (quotations and citation omitted). As for an agency’s factual findings, the court “should accept the agency’s factual findings if those findings are supported by substantial evidence on the record as a whole,” even if there are “alternative findings that could be supported by substantial evidence.” Arkansas v. Oklahoma, 503 U.S. 91, 113, 112 S.Ct. 1046, 117 L.Ed.2d 239 (1992) (citation omitted), “Particular deference is given by the court to an agency with regard to scientific matters in its area of technical expertise.” Nat’l Wildlife Fed’n v. EPA 286 F.3d 554, 560 (D.C.Cir.2002). To obtain summary judgment, the moving party must show that there is no genuine issue as to any material fact and that the moving party is entitled to judgment as a matter of law. Fed.R.Civ.P. 56(c). In this case, the only material facts are those contained in the administrative record. See Citizens to Preserve Overton Park, Inc. v. Volpe, 401 U.S. 402, 420, 91 S.Ct. 814, 28 L.Ed.2d 136 (1971); Virginia Agr. Growers Ass’n v. Donovan, 774 F.2d 89, 92 (4th Cir.1985). Furthermore, as stated above, this court will accept the EPA’s factual findings “if those findings are supported by substantial evidence on the record as a whole.” Arkansas, 503 U.S. at 113, 112 S.Ct. 1046. If the administrative record does reveal some genuine issue of material fact — that is, if the evidence in the administrative record could reasonably support different factual conclusions — the court defers to the EPA’s reasonable resolution of that factual question. To put it another way, when a court reviews an agency action, the “plaintiffs burden on summary judgment is not materially different from his ultimate burden on the merits.” Krichbaum v. U.S. Forest Service, 17 F.Supp.2d 549, 556 (W.D.Va.1998). Accordingly, this matter is appropriately resolved on cross-motions for summary judgment. III. Standing Under Article III of the United States Constitution, “[t]he judicial Power [of the United States] shall extend to all Cases ... [and] Controversies .... ” U.S. Const, art. Ill, § 2. Among other things, the “case and controversy” requirement ensures that the federal judicial power can be exercised only when a plaintiff has standing to bring suit. See Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Gaston Copper Recycling Corp., 204 F.3d 149, 153 (4th Cir.2000). “The standing inquiry ensures that a plaintiff has a sufficient personal stake in a dispute to render judicial resolution appropriate.” Id. In this case, the EPA has not challenged the plaintiffs’ standing to bring suit. Nor do the WVDEP or the Industrial Intervenors question the plaintiffs’ standing in this case. The only parties to challenge the plaintiffs’ standing are the Municipal Intervenors. Because Article III standing is a jurisdictional requirement, this court must satisfy itself of a plaintiffs standing regardless of whether any party has raised the issue. See Bernhardt v. County of Los Angeles, 279 F.3d 862, 868 (9th Cir.2002); Skrzypczak v. Kauger, 92 F.3d 1050, 1052 (10th Cir.1996); Dan River, Inc. v. Unitex Ltd., 624 F.2d 1216, 1223 (4th Cir.1980). To demonstrate Article III standing, a “plaintiff must show (1) it has suffered an ‘injury in fact’ that is (a) concrete and particularized and (b) actual or imminent, not conjectural or hypothetical; (2) the injury is fairly traceable to the challenged action of the defendant; and (3) it is likely, as opposed to merely speculative, that the injury will be redressed by a favorable decision.” Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Envt’l Services, Inc., 528 U.S. 167, 180-81, 120 S.Ct. 693, 145 L.Ed.2d 610 (2000). The Fourth Circuit has explained that “[i]n the environmental litigation context, the standing requirements are not onerous.” Am. Canoe Ass’n v. Murphy Farms, Inc., 326 F.3d 505, 517 (4th Cir.2003). In order to demonstrate their standing in this case, the plaintiff organizations filed affidavits from eight of their members articulating the types of harms they would suffer as a result of the EPA’s approval of West Virginia’s antidegradation procedures. Michael Hartman states that he has long participated in boating, fishing, and swimming in the Kanawha River, and plans to continue to do so. Pis.’ Op. Br., App. 1. He also enjoys watching the Kanawha River from a riverside park in his hometown of St. Albans, West Virginia. Id. He expresses concern that any degradation of the water quality of the Kanawha River will impair his recreational and aesthetic enjoyment of the river. Id. He also claims that a clean environment is critical to the region’s social and economic growth, because a clean environment is a primary concern for new individuals and businesses considering relocation to West Virginia. Id. A lowering of the water quality in the river, he states, will harm his interest in the area’s continued social and economic growth and vitality. Id. Liz Garland, a resident of Elkins, West Virginia, states that she is an avid whitewater canoeist and that she paddles on a number of the State’s rivers and streams. Pis.’ Op. Br., App. 2. She expresses concern over contact with pollutants in the waters where she canoes and states that a reduction in the quality of these waters would cause her to limit or end her canoeing activities in those waters. Id. Deborah Wise, a resident of Morgan-town, West Virginia, states that the main source of her drinking water is the Monongahela River. Pis.’ Op. Br., App. 3. In addition, she serves as a raft guide in the Gauley, Cheat, Cherry, and New Rivers. Id. She expresses concern that degradation of these waters would cause her loss of income as well as loss of her own recreational enjoyment. Id. Leslee McCarty, a resident of Hillsboro, West Virginia, states that she operates a bed and breakfast near the Greenbrier River and frequently swims or kayaks in the Greenbrier and other rivers in the State. Pis.’ Op. Br., App. 4. She states that her bed and breakfast guests are often concerned about the quality of the Greenbrier River. Id. She expresses concern that any decline in the quality of water in these rivers would decrease her aesthetic enjoyment of these rivers, as well as the economic and recreational benefits that the rivers provide her. Id. A number of other individuals claim similar aesthetic, recreational, and economic interests in the water quality of a number of the State’s water bodies. Pis.’ Op. Br., App. 5-8. The Municipal Intervenors argue that the plaintiffs cannot demonstrate a concrete and particularized injury because West Virginia’s implementation procedures fully require the State to maintain and protect existing instream water uses. So long as existing uses are protected, they argue, any failure by the State to adequately protect water quality cannot cause any concrete, actual harm. The Municipal Intervenors’ argument boils down to the position that no party can ever have standing to challenge the EPA’s approval of a State’s antidegradation plan on the grounds that the plan does not comply with the minimum requirements of Tier 2 or Tier 3, which protect water quality, as opposed to Tier 1, which protects existing uses. This is because, they argue, no actual, concrete injury can ever flow from a State’s failure to protect water quality, so long as the State adequately protects the existing uses of a water body. The court disagrees. The Supreme Court has explained that “[t]he actual or threatened injury required by Art. Ill may exist solely by virtue of ‘statutes creating legal rights, the invasion of which creates standing ....’” Warth v. Seldin, 422 U.S. 490, 500, 95 S.Ct. 2197, 45 L.Ed.2d 343 (1975). That is to say, Congress may, by statute, create cognizable legal interests, the injury of which suffices for Article III standing. Contrary to the Municipal Intervenors’ assumption, the Clean Water Act is not concerned solely with protecting existing uses of the nation’s waters. The Act is intended to “restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation’s waters.” 33 U.S.C. § 1251(a). In addition to protecting wildlife and recreation, id. § 1251(a)(2), the Act seeks to eliminate “the discharge of pollutants into the navigable waters.” Id. § 1251(a)(1). These provisions make clear that the Act is not concerned solely with the uses of waters, but also with the quality of waters. The plaintiffs in this case have “alleged precisely those types of injuries that Congress intended to prevent by enacting the Clean Water Act.” Gaston Copper, 204 F.3d at 156. Specifically, they have alleged a threat of harm to their aesthetic, recreational, and economic interests protected by the Clean Water Act’s goal of maintaining water quality. See id. at 154 (holding that damage to aesthetic, recreational, or economic interests can constitute injury in fact). Even if the lowering of water quality does not affect existing uses, such as fishing or swimming, that lower water quality could still affect the plaintiffs’ aesthetic and economic interests. “[E]nvironmental plaintiffs adequately allege injury in fact when they aver that they use the affected area and are persons ‘for whom the aesthetic and recreational values of the area will be lessened’ by the challenged activity.” Laidlaw, 528 U.S. at 183, 120 S.Ct. 693 (quoting Sierra Club v. Morton, 405 U.S. 727, 735, 92 S.Ct. 1361, 31 L.Ed.2d 636 (1972)). The plaintiffs state that they enjoy and value the visual beauty of the State’s rivers. Water degradation, even degradation that does not result in the elimination of aquatic life or danger to human use or consumption, could still impact a water body’s clarity and appearance. In addition to damaging the plaintiffs’ aesthetic interests, such degradation could also injure their economic interests, which depend on the aesthetic enjoyment of others. Deborah Wise’s work as a whitewater raft guide would be affected by a decrease in her clients’ aesthetic enjoyment of the water. The same is true of Leslee McCarty and the guests that frequent her bed and breakfast. The individual affidavits, the factual content of which is not contested, illustrate how West Virginia’s antidegradation procedures will “affect the plaintiff[s] in a personal and individual way,” Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife, 504 U.S. 555, 560 n. 1, 112 S.Ct. 2130, 119 L.Ed.2d 351 (1992), and serve to “differentiate [the plaintiff organizations] from the mass of people who may find the conduct ... objectionable only in an abstract sense.” Gaston Copper, 204 F.3d at 156. The court is also satisfied that these threatened injuries are “actual or imminent, not conjectural or hypothetical.” Laidlaw, 528 U.S. at 180, 120 S.Ct. 693. Here, the individual affiants currently use a number of West Virginia’s waterways for a variety of specific activities and have demonstrated a legally protected interest in maintaining the quality of that water. There is no doubt that West Virginia’s regulations would permit a greater reduction in water quality than what would be permitted under the plaintiffs’ version of the minimum federal requirements. For example, if the plaintiffs’ claims are correct on the merits, West Virginia cannot allow a twenty percent cumulative reduction in the assimilative capacity of a given water body without conducting Tier 2 review. See infra part IV.8. Similarly, if the Kanawha and Monongahela Rivers should be classified as Tier 2 water bodies, West Virginia’s classification of those rivers as Tier 1 will certainly permit greater degradation of those rivers’ water quality. See infra part TV.l. Accordingly, the court concludes that the threatened injury to the plaintiffs caused by the EPA’s approval of West Virginia’s antidegradation procedures is actual and imminent. The United States District Court for the District of Colorado reached the same conclusion in a case involving almost identical circumstances. In American Wildlands v. Browner, 94 F.Supp.2d 1150 (D.Colo.2000), the court held that the plaintiffs, a group of environmental organizations, had standing to bring suit challenging the EPA’s approval of revisions to Colorado’s water quality standards, including Colorado’s an-tidegradation implementation procedures. Id. at 1155-56. The court found standing based on affidavits, filed by individual members of the organizations, detailing those individuals’ “aesthetic, conservation, and economic interests in preserving Montana’s waters” and the individuals’ “use of these waters in the form of drinking, fishing, swimming, and agricultural and household use.” Id. at 1155. The supporting affidavits are very similar to those submitted here. Id. The court held- that the affidavits “suffice[d] to establish [the individuals] have suffered an injury in fact to their aesthetic, conservation, and economic interests.” Id. at 1156. Having satisfied itself of the plaintiffs’ injury in fact, the court has little trouble concluding that “the injury is fairly traceable to the challenged action of the defendant” and that “it is likely, as opposed to merely speculative, that the injury will be redressed by a favorable decision.” Laidlaw, 528 U.S. at 180-81, 120 S.Ct. 693. The Municipal Intervenors do not contest these elements (nor does any other party). If, as this court has concluded, the plaintiffs will suffer injury in fact from a reduction in water quality in West Virginia’s rivers, it is clear that this injury is traceable to the EPA’s approval of West Virginia’s allegedly substandard antidegradation procedures, and that a favorable judicial decision could redress this injury by causing the promulgation (either by the State or the EPA) of stricter regulations. Accordingly, the court concludes that the plaintiffs in this case have standing to challenge the EPA’s approval of West Virginia’s an-tidegradation procedures. IV. Merits The court now turns to the merits of the plaintiffs’ claims. In the plaintiffs’ motion for summary judgment, the plaintiffs allege ten specific instances in which West Virginia’s antidegradation implementation procedures are inconsistent with minimum federal requirements, and in which the EPA’s approval of West Virginia’s procedures was therefore arbitrary and capricious. Each of the challenges involves a particular aspect of West Virginia’s procedures. For the most part the challenges are independent of one another and therefore resist a general summary. Without attempting a summary, then, the court will address these issues in the order raised by the plaintiffs. 1. Classification of segments of the Ka-nawha and Monongahela Rivers as Tier 1 waterways Section 60-5-4.3 of West Virginia’s antidegradation implementation procedures provides that: In determining whether a water segment is afforded only Tier 1 protection, the agency will focus on whether the water segment is meeting or failing to meet minimum uses, except that, notwithstanding any other provision of this rule, the main stems of the Monongahela River, and the Kanawha River from milepoint 72 to the confluence with the Ohio River shall be afforded Tier 1 protection only. The plaintiffs argue that there is insufficient evidence in the administrative record to permit the EPA to conclude that these segments of the Monongahela and Kana-wha Rivers are not entitled to Tier 2 protection. In fact, the plaintiffs state that the only evidence in the record regarding the water quality levels in these river segments indicates that they should be categorized as Tier 2 waterways. The plaintiffs point to a letter by Jeffrey Towner of the United State Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) written to the EPA in response to the EPA’s request for comments on West Virginia’s proposed antidegradation implementation procedures. In this letter, the USFWS objects to the classification of these river segments as Tier 1 waters, stating that “water quality parameters in these waters exceed levels necessary to support minimum use and [the waters] are therefore Tier 2 waters.” AR 633. In response, the EPA argues that “EPA’s antidegradation regulation gives states the discretion regarding how to identify ‘high quality waters’ that are afforded Tier 2 protection.” EPA Op. Br. at 48. Specifically, the EPA argues that states may choose to use either a “pollutant-by-pollutant” approach or a “water body-by-water body” approach to classifying water segments. The court agrees with the EPA that its regulations give states some discretion in how they identify waters as Tier 2 waters. The EPA discusses its approach to Tier 2 waters in its advanced notice of proposed rulemaking (ANPRM) for 40 C.F.R. Part 131. See Water Quality Standards Regulation, 63 Fed.Reg. 63,742 (proposed July 7,1998) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pt. 131); AR 514-79. In the ANPRM, the EPA states that § 131.12(a)(2), the regulation establishing the Tier 2 designation, “does not include specific guidelines for identifying high quality waters.” 63 Fed.Reg. 63,742, 36,-782; AR 555. The EPA notes that various EPA guidance documents “make a variety of suggestions concerning approaches to defining tier 2 waters,” and that “States and Tribes have developed various ways to identify tier 2 waters.” Id. In particular, the EPA states that the various approaches to classifying waters “fall into two basic categories: (1) pollutant-by-pollutant approaches; and (2) water body-by-water body approaches.” Id. Under the pollutant-by-pollutant approach, the State makes a classification for each pollutant in a given water body. The water body is classified as Tier 2 for those pollutants for which “water quality is better than applicable criteria .... ” Id. The same water body therefore could be classified as Tier 2 for certain pollutants and Tier 1 for other pollutants: “available assi-milative capacity for any given pollutant is always subject to tier 2 protection, regardless of whether the criteria for other pollutants are satisfied.” Id. Under the water body-by-water body approach, States “weigh a variety of factors to judge a water body segment’s overall quality.” Id. Tier 2 classification is based on the overall quality of the water body segment, not on individual pollutants. Id. The EPA stated that “[tjhere are advantages and disadvantages to each approach,” and that “either, when properly implemented, is acceptable.” Id. The pollutant-by-pollutant approach may be “easier to implement because the need for an overall assessment considering various factors is avoided” and “may result in more waters receiving some degree of tier 2 protection” because the overall quality need not be high. Id. On the other hand, the water body-by-water body approach “allows for a weighted assessment of chemical, physical, biological, and other information (e.g., unique ecological or scenic attributes),” and thus “may be better suited to EPA’s stated vision for the water quality standards program: refined designated uses with tailored criteria, complete information on uses and use attainability, and clear national norms.” 63 Fed. Reg. 63,742, 36,783; AR 556. A danger in the water body-by-water body approach is that a State might not “develop inclusive qualification criteria” but might define overall water quality so as to include only a “narrow universe of waters,” excluding “many deserving high quality waters.” Id. While the plaintiffs do not concede that the water body-by-water body approach is an acceptable manner of classifying waters, they spend the bulk of their energies arguing that even assuming this approach is permissible in general, West Virginia’s designation of the main segments of the Kanawha and Monongahela Rivers in this case is unsupported by evidence. In light of the EPA’s regulation, which does not specify a particular approach to classification, and in light of the EPA’s explanation of why either approach is acceptable, the court concludes that the EPA’s regulations permit a State to adopt a water body-by-water body approach to classification, assuming that this approach is implemented adequately. As such, the court agrees with the EPA that there is nothing inherently problematic about West Virginia’s designation of large river segments as Tier 1 waters, assuming that this designation is supported by some data regarding the “chemical, physical, biological, ... ecological[,] ... scenic [or other] attributes,” id., of those water bodies that justify West Virginia’s assessment that these water bodies, overall, are not high quality. The EPA also argues that using the water body-by-water body approach to designate these river segments as Tier 1 waters allows the WVDEP to focus its limited regulatory resources on the State’s Tier 2 waters. In the 1998 ANPRM, the EPA noted that the water body-by-water body approach “allows States ... to focus limited resources on protecting higher-value State ... waters.” Id. The court acknowledges the value of a State focusing its resources on high quality waters, and agrees with the EPA that the water body-by-water body approach may be an effective manner of achieving this benefit. The EPA’s regulations place limits, however, on the degree to which a State may exclude some waters from heightened protection so as to devote more resources to higher quality waters. For example, under the three-tier system established in 40 C.F.R. § 131.12, a State could not relegate all waters to Tier 1 classification other than “waters of National and State parks and wildlife refuges and waters of exceptional recreational or ecological significance.” 40 C.F.R. § 131.12(a)(3). Even though such a decision would undoubtedly allow the State to devote many more resources to preserving its most important waters (its Tier 3 waters), the regulations do not permit the State to accomplish this goal by denying Tier 2 protection to deserving high quality waters (as defined by § 131.12(a)(2)). The desire to preserve and focus state resources is a permissible goal under the EPA’s regulations, but that goal must be implemented in a manner consistent with the regulations’ minimum requirements. “The agency charged with implementing the statute is not free to evade the unambiguous directions of the law merely for administrative convenience.” Brown v. Harris, 491 F.Supp. 845, 847 (N.D.Cal.1980) (citing Manhattan Gen. Equip. Co. v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue, 297 U.S. 129, 134, 56 S.Ct. 397, 80 L.Ed. 528 (1936)). The court is satisfied that the water body-by-water body approach permits a State to make an overall classification of a particular water body without needing to make a classification for each individual pollutant, and that this approach has the benefit of allowing a State to focus its resources on overall high quality waters. The question remains, however, whether the segments of the Kanawha and Monongahela Rivers at issue here are, overall, the sort of “high quality” water bodies deserving of Tier 2 protection. To answer this question, one must know something about the quality of water in those rivers. Apart from these general points about the regulatory scheme, which the court takes no issue with on an abstract basis, the EPA points to only one piece of evidence that pertains directly to the water quality in the Kanawha and Monongahela Rivers. That evidence is the fact that both river segments are on a list of impaired waters prepared by the WVDEP for submission to the EPA under section 303(d) of the Clean Water Act. Section 303(d) requires States to submit to the EPA a list of waters that fail to meet water quality standards for at least one pollutant parameter. See 33 U.S.C. § 1313(d). West Virginia’s section 303(d) list is not included in the administrative record, but limited excerpts of the State’s 2002 list are included as an exhibit to the Industrial Intervenors’ Brief in Support of their Motion for Summary Judgment. Ind. Br., Exh. 9. Despite the fact that this list is not in the administrative record, the court takes judicial notice of the list (more specifically, those portions of the list that were submitted to the court), as the list is a formal document produced by the West Virginia DEP and submitted to the EPA. See City of Charleston v. A Fisherman’s Best, Inc., 310 F.3d 155, 171-72 (4th Cir.2002) (taking judicial notice of a fishery management plan prepared by a federal agency); Fornalik v. Perryman, 223 F.3d 523, 529 (7th Cir.2000) (“[I]t is well-established that executive and agency determinations are subject to judicial notice.”). Neither the EPA nor the intervenors give the court much guidance on how to interpret this incomplete document, other than to state that the relevant segments of the Kanawha and Monongahela Rivers are on the list. Page twelve of the document contains a discussion of the Kana-wha River and the Monongahela River. Ind. Br., Exh. 9, at 12. According to this discussion, the Kanawha is listed as impaired related to its dioxin levels, but its zinc levels, which were impaired in the past, now satisfy water quality standards. The Monongahela is. listed as impaired related to aluminum and fecal coliform levels. According to the EPA, there are 574 waters on this list, and the EPA argues that the fact that West Virginia listed only two of these 574 waters as Tier 1 waters supports the EPA’s conclusion that the classification is reasonable. The court disagrees — on the contrary, these facts clearly show that a listing on the State’s section 303(d) list is not sufficient to remove a water body from Tier 2 protection and that more evidence is needed. The EPA does not discuss the Kanawha and Monongahela’s particular section 303(d) impairments, or why those impairments render these rivers Tier 1 waters as opposed to other listed waters with similar impairments. For example, the section 303(d) list also includes the Guyandotte River. According to a discussion preceding the listing, the Guyandotte is impaired related to iron, aluminum, and fecal coli-form, and the upper segment of that river is also listed for biological impairment. Ind. Br., Exh. 9, at 12. The EPA does not explain why the Monongahela, which is impaired related to aluminum and fecal coliform, is listed as a Tier 1 water body whereas the upper segment of the Guyan-dotte, which is impaired related to these two pollutants and also for iron and biological impairments, is not listed as a Tier 1 water body. The EPA has not even attempted to explain why the Kanawha and Monongahela’s appearance on the section 303(d) list means that those rivers are not, overall, high quality waters. The EPA itself warned of the risk under the water body-by-water body approach of failing to develop adequate “inclusive qualification criteria” for identifying Tier 2 waters, 63 Fed. Reg. 63,742, 36,783; AR 556, but that is precisely what seems to have occurred here. Apart from the section 303(d) listing, neither the EPA nor the WVDEP has identified any qualification criteria — such as chemical, physical, biological, ecological, scenic, or other attributes — against which these river segments (and others) can be judged and classified as Tier 1 or Tier 2. In short, there may be legitimate reasons why these two river segments are classified as Tier 1 bodies, but the EPA has not offered any such reasons or identified anything in the record (or, in the case of the section 303(d) fist, outside of the record) that would support this classification. This court is mindful of its task to “accept the agency’s factual findings if those findings are supported by substantial evidence on the record as a whole.” Arkansas v. Oklahoma, 503 U.S. 91, 113, 112 S.Ct. 1046, 117 L.Ed.2d 239 (1992) (emphasis omitted). In this case, however, the only evidence in the record related to the water quality levels in the Kanawha and Monongahela is the letter from the USFWS stating that “water quality parameters in these waters exceed levels necessary to support minimum use and [the waters] are therefore Tier 2 waters.” AR 633. The court does not suggest that this letter proves that these river segments merit Tier 2 classification. Rather, the letter, which supports the plaintiffs’ position, illustrates the total absence of any contrary record evidence supporting West Virginia’s classification of these waters as Tier 1 waters, or supporting the EPA’s conclusion that this classification satisfies its regulations. In fight of the total absence of any evidence about the quality of water in these river segments apart from their fist-ing on the section 303(d) fist, the court concludes that the EPA’s approval of section 4.3’s classification of these segments of the Kanawha and Monongahela Rivers as Tier 1 waters was arbitrary and capricious. 2. Exempting existing permitted uses from antidegradation review West Virginia’s Tier 2 antidegradation review procedures are set forth in section 60-5-5.6 of the West Virginia regulations. The regulations provide that Tier 2 review is required in any Tier 2 water segment when: (1) “The regulated activity is a new or expanded activity ...,” section 5.6.a.l, or (2) “The Secretary [of the WVDEP] determines, upon renewal of a permit or certification, that other individual circumstances warrant a full review such as cumulative degradation resulting from multiple discharges within a watershed, degradation resulting from a single discharge over time, or degradation caused by a regulated facility’s historic noncompfiance with its permit.” Section 5.6.a.2. Thus, Tier 2 review always applies on Tier 2 waters for new or expanded activities but only applies to the renewal of an existing permitted activity when the Secretary of the WVDEP determines that individual circumstances warrant a full review. The plaintiffs argue that all point source discharges, whether pre-existing or new, must undergo Tier 2 review, and that the general exemption for existing permitted discharges and the renewal of such existing discharges is contrary to the EPA’s regulations. The plaintiffs first argue that this exemption is inconsistent with EPA’s Tier 2 regulation, which provides that “the State shall assure that there shall be achieved the highest statutory and regulatory requirements for all new and existing point sources.” 40 C.F.R. § 131.12(a)(2) (emphasis added). This means, the plaintiffs argue, that existing permitted uses must be subjected to Tier 2 review. The EPA correctly points out that the plaintiffs take section 131.12(a)(2)’s reference to “existing point sources” out of context. The plaintiffs confuse the substance of Tier 2 review with the standard for when Tier 2 review is required. Tier 2 review is required when an activity on a Tier 2 water body threatens to lower the existing water quality. 40 C.F.R. § 131.12(a)(2) (water quality “shall be maintained and protected”). The mention of “existing point sources,” in contrast, appears in the latter part of § 131.12(a)(2), which sets out the substance of Tier 2 review. When Tier 2 review is triggered, a lowering of water quality is permissible only after a process of public comment and a finding that the degradation is necessary to accommodate important economic or social development in that area. Id. § 131.12(a)(2). But even when the State “allow[s] such degradation or lower water quality, ... the State shall assure that there shall be achieved the highest statutory and regulatory requirements for all new and existing point sources and cost-effective and reasonable best management practices for nonpoint source control.” Id. (emphasis added). In other words, even after public participation and a finding of necessity, a new or expanded use is permitted to degrade water quality only when the State assures that all other new and existing point sources are achieving the highest regulatory requirements and that nonpoint sources are controlled by best management practices. The reference to “new and existing point sources” in § 131.12(a)(2) does not refer to when Tier 2 review is required, but refers to what the State must assure as to other sources before it will permit additional discharge from a new or expanded source. Thus, the plaintiffs’ argument in this regard is without merit. The plaintiffs next argue that EPA regulations require protection of “existing uses.” The phrase “existing uses” is defined in the EPA’s regulations as follows: “[ejxisting uses are those uses actually attained in the water body on or after November 28, 1975.” Id. § 131.3(e). In light of this definition, the plaintiffs argue, any discharge permit issued after November 28, 1975, must be subjected to antidegra-dation review. The main reference to “existing uses” in the EPA’s antidegradation policy is in Tier 1, which provides that “[ejxisting instream water uses and the level of water quality necessary to protect the existing uses shall be maintained and protected.” Id. § 131.12(a)(1). Indeed, the EPA notes that Tier 1, which protects “existing uses,” “protects the highest use attained in the water body on or after November 28,1975, whether or not the use is included in the water quality standards.” EPA Reply Br. at 10 n. 6. Accordingly, the EPA agrees with the plaintiffs about the meaning of the term “existing uses.” The term “existing uses” is not used, however, to establish when Tier 2 review is required. Rather, the regulation provides that “[wjhere the quality of the waters exceed levels necessary to support ... wildlife and recreation in and on the water, that quality shall be maintained and protected ....” 40 C.F.R. § 131.12(a)(2) (emphasis added). The present tense use of the verb “exceed” suggests that Tier 2 protections apply to current water quality levels, not to any levels that have existed on or after 1975. Nothing elsewhere in the EPA’s regulations suggests to the contrary, so the EPA’s interpretation of Tier 2 as applying to current water quality levels is reasonable. Finally, the plaintiffs argue that even if Tier 2 review only protects current water quality levels on Tier 2 waters, it is unreasonable to assume that existing permitted uses will not further lower those levels. The plaintiffs point to a Guidance Document issued by EPA Region 4, which states that “it is generally accepted that a new or increased volume of discharge will result in the lowering of water quality for a Tier II water body. However, changes in the chemical matrix in industrial waste-water ... due to process/production changes can also result in degradation.” Pis.’ Op. Br., App. 11, at 3. According to the plaintiffs, this latter sentence shows that the EPA has recognized that existing uses that are not expanded can nonetheless further degrade existing water quality. The EPA responds by quoting from its Water Quality Standards Handbook, which states that “new discharges or expansion of existing facilities would presumably lower water quality and would not be permissible unless the State conducts” Tier 2 review. 1994 Water Quality Standards Handbook, Ch. 4.5, at 4-7 (2d ed.1994); AR 329. This document makes no reference to potential degradation of current water quality levels from pre-ex-isting permitted uses. In addition, the EPA points out that under West Virginia’s plan, Tier 2 review also applies to the renewal of an existing permit when the Secretary of the WVDEP determines “that other individual circumstances warrant a full review.” Section 5.6.a.2. The EPA states that “[e]xamples of situations where a full review may be warranted are ‘cumulative degradation resulting from multiple discharges within a watershed, degradation resulting from a single discharge over time, or degradation caused by a regulated facility’s historic noncompliance with its permit.’ ” EPA Op. Br. at 26 (quoting section 5.6.a.2). From the evidence in the record, it appears that the EPA’s conclusion that existing uses will not usually degrade water quality is reasonable. West Virginia also has provided for the Secretary to invoke Tier 2 review when circumstances warrant and has specified at least some instances in which Tier 2 review is warranted, such as degradation resulting from a single discharge over time. It was therefore reasonable for the EPA to approve section 5.6.a.2 based on its conclusions that existing discharges will not normally result in further degradation and that West Virginia has ensured Tier 2 review when further degradation does result from an existing discharge or discharges. 3. Exempting discharges from public wastewater treatment plants when there is a net decrease in overall pollutant loading Section 60-5-5.6.C of the West Virginia procedures provides that: A proposed new or expanded discharge from a publicly owned or publicly owned and privately operated sanitary waste-water treatment plant constructed or operated to alleviate a public health concern associated with failing septic systems or untreated or inadequately treated sewage, is exempt from Tier 2 review. This exemption ... applies only where there will be a net decrease in the overall pollutant loading discharged to the combined receiving waters. The plaintiffs contend that this provision does not comply with the EPA’s regulations, because the exemption from Tier 2 review applies even when the new or expanded discharge results in an increase in individual pollutant parameters, so long as there is a decrease in the overall discharge of pollutants from the facility. The plaintiffs argue that because some pollutants are more harmful than others, allowing an increase in a particularly harmful pollutant to be offset by a reduction in a less harmful pollutant would not ensure that existing water quality is maintained and protected, as required by 40 C.F.R. § 131.12(a)(2). In response, the EPA agrees with the plaintiffs’ characterization of § 131.12(a)(2) but contends that section 5.6.C complies with that standard. In its approval letter, the EPA stated that it interprets the phrase “net decrease in the overall pollutant loading” to mean “that there must be a net reduction in the loading for the parameter of concern for this exemption to apply.” AR 110. In other words, both the plaintiffs and the EPA agree that a new or expanded discharge from publicly owned wastewater treatment plants cannot be exempted from Tier 2 review if there is a net increase in any individual pollutant parameter. They disagree about whether section 5.6.c reflects this rule. It is well established that a reviewing court must defer to an agency’s reasonable interpretation of the statute the agency is authorized to administer or one of the agency’s own regulations. See Crutchfield v. County of Hanover, 325 F.3d 211, 218 (4th Cir.2003). Judicial deference to an agency’s “reasonable interpretations of governing law” is based in part on the notion that when “Congress has explicitly left a gap for the agency to fill, there is an express delegation of authority to the agency to elucidate a specific provision of the statute by regulation.” Chevron U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., 467 U.S. 837, 843-44, 104 S.Ct. 2778, 81 L.Ed.2d 694 (1984). Judicial deference is also based on an acknowledgment that “the well-reasoned views of the agencies implementing a statute constitute a body of experience and informed judgment to which courts and litigants may properly resort for guidance.” United States v. Mead Corp., 533 U.S. 218, 227, 121 S.Ct. 2164, 150 L.Ed.2d 292 (2001) (quotations and citations omitted). The issue presented here, however, is how this court should review the EPA’s interpretation of West Virginia’s, regulations. There is no dispute between the plaintiffs and the EPA about the meaning of the EPA’s regulations; rather, the only dispute is whether West Virginia’s procedures satisfy the EPA’s agreed-upon standards. Neither party cites any case-law addressing the proper standard of judicial review in this circumstance, even though it is far from obvious that the traditional deference accorded administrative decisions applies in this circumstance. The EPA’s task under the CWA was simply to approve or disapprove West Virginia’s antidegradation procedures, depending on whether those procedures were “consistent with” the Act and the EPA’s own regulations interpreting that Act. 33 U.S.C. § 1313(c). The court owes judicial deference to the EPA’s interpretations of the Act and its own regulations in part because Congress has charged the EPA with administering those laws. But Congress has not charged the EPA with administering West Virginia’s antidegradation procedures — that task is left to West Virginia. That said, judicial deference to agency decisionmaking is not based solely on the fact that the agency is charged with administering the statute or regulation in question. The second justification for judicial deference is that the regulation in question falls within a complex area of particularized agency expertise. This justification still applies in this context. Regardless of whether the EPA is interpreting its own regulations or West Virginia’s, antidegradation implementation procedures are undoubtedly a particularized area of law in which the EPA has unique experience and understanding. While the parties have cited no caselaw outlining the proper standard for this court to use in reviewing the EPA’s interpretation of the State’s regulations, the court has found two cases that provide some limited guidance. The first case, Montgomery National Bank v. Clarke, 882 F.2d 87, 87-88 (3d Cir.1989), involves the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, a federal agency in charge of approving the expansion of national banks. In Montgomery National Bank, the Third Circuit explained that under federal law, the Comptroller is authorized to approve a branch extension of a national bank if, among other things, “ ‘such establishment [is] authorized to State banks by the law of the State in question.’ ” Id. at 88 (quoting 12 U.S.C. § 36(c) (1982)). Under this statute, “the Comptroller must apply state branching laws when acting upon an application by a national bank to open a branch.” Id. The plaintiff bank argued that the Comptroller had incorrectly interpreted a New Jersey statute when it approved a competitor bank’s application to open a nearby branch. Id. at 90-92. The court rejected the bank’s argument, in part because “an agency’s reasonable interpretation of a statute that it administers, particularly to the extent that it rests on factual premises within its expertise, is entitled to judicial deference.” Id. at 91. The court held that “[t]his administrative law doctrine[, which] is usually applied to acts of Congress[,] ... also applies to a state statute that serves as a federal agency’s rule of decision.” Id. at 92. The courts will defer to the federal agency’s reasonable interpretation of the state statute, the court held, so long as “the issue raised by the unsettled question of state law falls squarely within the federal agency’s field of expertise and the state courts or state agency charged with administering the state statute have not ruled out the interpretation of the statute proffered by the federal agency.” Id. at 92. Montgomery National Bank is not directly analogous to the case at hand. In Montgomery National Bank, the Comptroller was charged by federal statute with interpreting and applying state law in the course of carrying out the Comptroller’s own decisions regarding expansions of national banks. At least insofar as the Comptroller was making a decision to approve a branch office, the New Jersey statute was, in a sense, “a statute that [the Comptroller] administers.” Id. at 91. Here, in contrast, the WVDEP is the agency charged with administering West Virginia’s antidegradation procedures. The EPA’s role is simply to determine whether those procedures are “consistent with” federal law. Even so, part of the rationale from Montgomery National Bank applies to this case, and suggests that the court should defer to the EPA’s reasonable interpretation of West Virginia’s regulations. As in Montgomery National Bank, the State regulations at issue here “fall squarely within the federal agency’s field of expertise and the state courts or state agency charged with administering the [regulations] have not ruled out the interpretation of the [regulations] proffered by the federal agency.” Id. at 92. In fact, in this case the WVDEP, a defendant-inter-venor, has in its briefs explicitly approved of and adopted the EPA’s interpretations of West Virginia’s antidegradation procedures. See WVDEP Op. Br. at 1, 5, 6; Reply Br. at 4, 6, 7. See also Western State Bank of St. Paul v. Marquette Bank Minneapolis, 734 F.Supp. 889, 892-93 (D.Minn. 1990) (relying on Montgomery National Bank and deferring to federal Comptroller’s reasonable interpretation of a Minnesota statute). The second case on point is Riverside Cement Co. v. Thomas, 843 F.2d 1246 (9th Cir.1988). In Riverside Cement, a cement company appealed a decision by the EPA interpreting a California regulation regarding permissible nitrogen oxide emission levels from cement kilns. Id. at 1247-48. The Ninth Circuit rejected the EPA’s interpretation of the California regulation, holding that “EPA may either accept or reject what the state proposes; but EPA may not take a portion of what the state proposes and amend the proposal ad libi-tum.” Id. at 1248. The court added that “EPA could not, [unless it decided to promulgate its own rules for the state] ... take upon itself the primary role Congress assigned to the states.” Id. The court did not explicitly address whether the EPA’s interpretation of the state regulation was entitled to deference. Instead, the court held that the EPA’s interpretation was an impermissible modification of the state regulation. Id. One judge dissented, arguing that “[w]hat we have in this case is a difference in interpretation of the state’s Rule 1112 which the EPA approved.” Id. at 1249. Because “EPA’s interpretation is reasonable,” the dissent argued, that interpretation “is entitled to deference.” Id. at 1250. It is unclear whether the Riverside Cement majority concluded that it owed any deference to the EPA’s interpretation of the California rule. It is clear, however, that regardless of the level of deference owed to the EPA’s interpretation, the Riverside Cement majority found the EPA’s interpretation unreasonable. The court called the EPA’s interpretation an “amendfment]” to the regulation rather than a permissible interpretation and stated that the EPA could not “pretend” that the rule meant something other than what the rule said. Id. at 1248. Accordingly, both Montgomery National Bank and Riverside Cement are consistent with the rule that the court should d