Full opinion text
FINDINGS OF FACT AND CONCLUSIONS OF LAW FOLLOWING TRIAL MCMAHON, District Judge. This case began in January of 2002, when the complaint in Dodge v. County of Orange, 208 F.R.D. 79 (S.D.N.Y.2002) (“Dodge ”) was filed. Plaintiffs brought suit pursuant 42 U.S.C. § 1988 (“Section 1988”) and sought to represent a class of pre-trial detainees charged with misdemeanors who were admitted to the Orange County Correctional Facility (“OCCF”) from January 1, 1999 to the present and allegedly subject to strip searches upon their admission to the facility that they contend violated the Fourth Amendment of the United States Constitution. The plaintiffs in Dodge moved for a preliminary injunction against further unconstitutional strip searches at OCCF in February of 2002, and defendants moved to dismiss plaintiffs’ complaint as moot. I denied defendants’ motion to dismiss and granted plaintiffs’ request for a hearing on their motion for a preliminary injunction. See Dodge v. County of Orange, 208 F.R.D. 79 (S.D.N.Y.2002). I also consolidated the preliminary injunction hearing with a hearing to determine whether class certification under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 23(b)(2) was appropriate, or whether partial class certification under Rule 23(c)(4)(A) would be the best method for adjudicating plaintiffs’ case. A one-day hearing was held on June 24, 2002. Following the hearing, I granted plaintiffs motion for class certification pursuant to Rule 23(b)(2) and issued a preliminary injunction. See Dodge v. County of Orange, 209 F.R.D. 65 (S.D.N.Y.2002). The injunction enjoined defendants to conduct strip searches of newly-arrived inmates only when they had reason to believe the new arrival might be secreting contraband, based on (1) the nature of the crime charged; (2) the circumstances of the arrest; and (3) the particular characteristics of the arrestee. [DX 33]. On October 22, 2002, a second complaint, Rango v. County of Orange, 02 Civ. 8451 (S.D.N.Y.2002) (“Rango ”) was filed. The Rango plaintiffs purported to represent a class of pre-trial detainees charged with felonies who were admitted to the Orange County Correctional Facility (“OCCF”) from January 1, 1999 to the present and allegedly strip searched in violation of the Fourth Amendment of the United States Constitution. The Rango plaintiffs moved for a preliminary injunction soon after filing their complaint. At oral arguments on the Rango plaintiffs’ motion for a preliminary injunction, I deferred my decision on that motion pending an evidentiary hearing. The parties then agreed to consolidate the Dodge and Rango cases so that a single trial could be conducted on plaintiffs’ requests for permanent injunctive relief in both cases. The consolidated trial was conducted over four days, between May 19 and May 28, 2003. At the trial, I heard testimony from twenty six witnesses and received into evidence voluminous exhibits from both parties. I was also given a personal tour of OCCF on May 29, 2003, at which I time I heard additional testimony from OCCF corrections officers. Upon reviewing that evidence, together with the parties’ post-trial submissions, I make the following findings of fact and conclusions of law. FINDINGS OF FACT I. The Orange County Correctional Facility OCCF is a county jail located about sixty miles northwest of New York City, in a county that contains two of the poorest cities in New York State (Middletown and Newburgh), as well as a growing number of suburban developments that are beginning to impinge on the county’s extensive rural areas. For many years, OCCF was housed in Goshen, New York at 40 Erie Street. OCCF officials and counsel were frank in describing the jail as old and decrepit. On September 1, 2001, the County opened its new correctional facility, which is located in Goshen at 110 Wells Farm Road. As part of the trial, I was given an extensive tour of the facility, which is most impressive. OCCF is a county jail. In the jurisprudence of the Second Circuit, county jails are not considered “prisons.” Shain v. Ellison, 273 F.3d 56, 65-66 (2d. Cir.2001) (hereafter “Shain ’ However, at least in the more populous counties (and I include Orange County — one of the fastest growing counties in terms of population in New York State — in that group), the county jail is not the local pokey, either. Accordingly, a description of the facility is both warranted and relevant. OCCF is constructed as four separate modules, each of which contains three or four units. Each unit houses up to fifty-three inmates in a self-contained area, in which not only cells, but also recreation areas (both outdoor and indoor) and faeilities for serving food are located. The facility has common areas for educational programs conducted by the Board of Cooperative Educational services (BOCES); medical treatment; personal grooming; and a common kitchen. It also houses administrative offices for jail personnel and the County Sheriff and recreational facilities for use by corrections personnel. (A diagram of OCCF is attached to this opinion as Ex. 1.) OCCF is surrounded by high metal fencing topped with barbed wire. It boasts guard towers and lights. It looks nothing whatever like a community lock-up; it is every bit as forbidding as the medium security federal prison I visited some years ago. OCCF, like all county jails in New York, houses at least three classes of criminal inmates: persons accused of felonies who have not been admitted to (or made) bail; persons convicted of misdemeanors who have been sentenced to terms of imprisonment of less than one year; and persons accused of misdemeanors who have not made bail. Every criminal detainee who arrives at OCCF has been arraigned. Alien detainees and persons who have been civilly committed are also housed in the facility. [Ryan Direct ¶ 21], The County is presently negotiating with federal authorities to house certain federal detainees. When multiple inmates are being transported to the facility (generally by the Orange County Sheriffs Department), no effort is made to segregate accused felons from misdemeanants or civil committees. Similarly, accused felons are not necessarily segregated from accused misdemean-ants, sentenced misdemeanants, or civil detainees in the housing units. However, a person being detained for trial on a charge of rape or murder is unlikely to be housed in the same unit as a person who is delinquent on his child support, because New York State law requires that inmates be classified by perceived level of risk (high, medium, low) and housed with other inmates who share a similar risk assessment. Men and women are housed separately, and there is a separate housing unit for juveniles. OCCF only accepts inmates after a court has issued a securing order that remands the inmate to OCCF until he can either raise bail or be tried on the criminal charges against him. [Ryan Direct ¶ 8]. Approximately thirty seven different local and municipal courts (and, on occasion, federal authorities) remand inmates to OCCF. The arresting agencies include the New York State Police (who serve as the police force for significant parts of Orange County) and the police departments of the various municipalities within the County. OCCF has the capacity to house 786 inmates. [Ryan Direct ¶ 5]. At present its capacity is not taxed. An average of 530 inmates are housed at OCCF each day. The annual census filed with the State of New York show that just over 5,500 inmates passed through the institution in each of the years 2001 and 2002. In 2001, 36% of the inmates housed at OCCF were felony pre-trial detainees (2,009 inmates); in 2002, 42% were felony detainees (2,322 inmates). The rest are misdemeanants at various stages of the process (both pretrial and sentenced), persons secured under civil commitment orders, and immigration detainees. This contrasts with Rikers Island, New York City’s “local jail.” Rik-ers consists of several different buildings, some of which (such as the Anna M. Kross Center) house up to approximately 3,000 inmates on any given day. [Tr. 182 (De-Rosa Testimony) ]. The record contains no data about how many new arrivals are/were received at either the old or the new facility on any given day. According to Capt. Joseph Ryan, the current daytime shift commander at OCCF, there are some days on which no new arrivals come to OCCF, while as many as thirty or more may show up on the five to ten busiest days of the year. [Tr. 99-100], Corrections Officer James Ognibene III testified that the average number of new pre-trial detainees who were .in-processed on a given day was about fourteen or fifteen, with seven to ten of those on the day tour and fewer at night. I find that the booking and receiving officers at OCCF are not heavily burdened with in-processing new detainees during the average tour of duty. II. Strip Searches I here emphasize that the only matter at issue in this case is the constitutionality of strip searching inmates who are arriving at OCCF for the first time post-arraignment or arrest. The case is not about the legality of strip searches conducted after contact visits, strip searches conducted after court appearances or work details, or strip searches conducted during cell shakedowns or when violations of contraband rules are suspected. Therefore, I will focus the rest of my findings of fact on that issue. First, however, it is necessary to define what a “strip search” is, because — as I have previously noted — the term means different things to different people. See Sarnicola v. County of Westchester, 229 F.Supp.2d 259, 272 n. 5 (S.D.N.Y.2002). According to the Orange County Correctional Facility Training Manual, a “strip search” is: a search of the inmate’s clothes, once they have been removed, and a visual inspection of the inmate’s naked body. This should include the inmate opening his mouth and moving his tongue up and down and from side to side, removing any dentures, running his hands through his hair, allowing his ears to be visually examined, lifting his arms to expose his arm pits, lifting his feet to examine the sole, spreading and/or lifting his testicles to expose the area behind them and bending over and/or spreading the cheeks of his buttocks to expose his anus. For females, the procedures are similar except females must in addition, squat to expose the vagina. [PX 8, at 13]. The Facility Training Manual elaborates on the strip search procedures, providing, in part, that the strip searching officer should “[cjarefully examine the inmate’s groin”; that “a flashlight should be used, making it unnecessary to touch the prisoner at this point in the search”; and that the officer should “[r]equire the inmate to turn around, bend over and spread his buttocks” and “[t]hen, using the flashlight, look at the inmate’s rectum to see if any contraband has been placed there.” [PX 8, at 15]. A. The Penological Interest in Strip Searching OCCF houses inmates who present a wide variety of security risks. [Camp Direct ¶ 8; DX 5-11]. These range from maximum-custody inmates who are considered the most dangerous, to minimum-custody inmates who are considered to pose lesser security risks. [Camp Direct ¶ 8]. As both sides’ experts testified, however, penal institutions must provide a perimeter security that addresses the maximum possible risk. [DX 50A (DeRosa Dep. 101); Camp Direct ¶ 8]. They also agreed that one of the primary security objectives of any correctional facility must be to prevent the introduction of “contraband” into a correctional facility due to the dangers that contraband presents in a correctional setting. [Tr. 432-83, 447 (Camp Testimony); Tr. 196-97 (DeRosa Testimony); DX 50A (DeRosa Dep. 17-18); DX 49B (Fraser Aff. ¶¶ 16-18) ]. In a correctional setting, the term “contraband” means anything that an inmate is not permitted to have in a correctional facility. Items such as money, cigarettes, or other materials that individuals can possess legally outside a correctional facility may be considered contraband, even serious contraband, inside a correctional facility. [Tr. 429, 433-34 (Camp Testimony) ]. Both William Fraser and George Camp (defendants’ expert) testified credibly about the harm that contraband can cause within a correctional facility. The dangers posed by weapons, ammunition, or drugs are obvious. Less apparent is the danger presented by money, cigarettes, or even excess prison issue items. All of the expert witnesses testified, including plaintiffs’ expert, that even this “lesser” contraband can increase the level of violence and endanger the health, safety, and well-being of inmates, staff, and civilians in a correctional facility. [Camp Direct ¶¶ 8, 11; Tr. 433-34 (Camp Testimony); Tr. 196-97 (DeRosa Testimony); DX 50A (DeRosa Dep. 17-18); Tr. 395 (Fraser Testimony) ]. The danger results from the unique environment that exists inside a correctional facility. Even seemingly innocuous items like money, cigarettes, or excess issue (extra sets of items that are issued to an inmate once he arrives at the jail, such as clothing or linens) can be used by inmates to barter, and thus be held over the heads of other inmates. [Tr. 433-34 (Camp Testimony) ]. Barter tends to disrupt prison operations by allowing certain inmates, or groups of inmates, to exercise authority in competition with correctional staff. The use of even seemingly innocuous contraband in this manner can have serious and dangerous consequences. This is why both experts and Mr. Fraser agreed that the introduction of contraband into a correctional facility such as OCCF “endangers the safety and security of the inmates, [correctional] employees, visitors, and the surrounding community.” [DX 49B (Fraser Aff. ¶ 16) ]. Jail and prison administrators have the legal mandate and professional obligation to ensure that correctional facilities maintain safe environments for those who reside at, work in, or visit them. [Camp Direct ¶ 7]. The presence of contraband in a correctional facility interferes with this mandate because it can allow inmates to disrupt jail operations, escape, or harm themselves or others. [Camp Direct ¶ 8]. It also increases the level of violence at the institution. [Tr. 196-97 (DeRosa Testimony); Tr. 395 (Fraser Testimony)]. At large correctional facilities like OCCF, this dangerous threat places a premium on keeping contraband out, as both the experts and correctional staff agreed that it was extremely hard to find contraband at OCCF once it already had been introduced into the facility. [Tr. 226 (DeRosa Testimony); Camp Direct ¶ 26; Tr. 356-57 (Ryan Testimony) ]. For OCCF and other jail facilities, this means that the development of procedures, policies, and precautions that will deter, and hopefully prevent, the introduction of contraband is a priority, because of the dangers that this contraband presents to institutional security, safety, and stability. [Camp Direct ¶¶ 8, 11, 12; Tr. 196-97 (De-Rosa Testimony); DX 50A, at 17-18 (De-Rosa Dep.) ]. The responsibility for stopping the introduction of contraband into OCCF falls on the administrators of that facility. The experts agreed that no prudent correctional administrator could safely rely on security precautions taken by other law enforcement agencies, or even correctional facilities that may have had custody of the inmate before he or she arrived at OCCF. [Tr. 228-29 (DeRosa Testimony) ]. The record of this case contains several instances where inmates who arrived at OCCF after spending considerable time in local custody and at arraignment nonetheless possessed dangerous items, such as razor blades, drugs, and bullets. [DX IB (razor blades); DX II (marijuana); DX 1A (bullet)]. As former-Commissioner Fraser explained, the police are good at making arrests but often fall short with respect to thorough and effective searches. [Tr. 385]. The fact that OCCF is a jail, not a prison, does not necessarily make the contraband problem easier to manage. While the Second Circuit surmised in Shorn that prisons might present more dangerous circumstances because they house inmates convicted of serious crimes, that is only one aspect of the problem. Jails like OCCF primarily house pretrial detainees, some of whom are accused of serious crimes. [Camp Direct ¶¶ 47-50]. Statistics provided by OCCF, and not disputed by plaintiffs, show that one third or more of the persons housed at that facility in every year since 1999 are felony pre-trial detainees, while one-half or fewer of the inmates are either accused or convicted misdemeanants. Moreover, a sample of the inmate population drawn from the month of August in each of the years 2000-2002 reveals that a significant percentage of the post-arraignment pre-trial inmates admitted to OCCF (either the old or the new facility) after being charged with misdemeanors or civil violations had prior felony criminal histories or gang affiliations, which might make them greater security risks than the charges pending against them indicated. Jail officials rightly view gang affiliation as a serious security risk. During the past two years, OCCF has housed approximately 1,000 gang members from approximately 51 different gangs. [Hefferon Direct ¶ 12]. These have included members of gangs well-known for their violence, including the Bloods, Crips, Latin Kings, Netas, Pagans, BBK (Bankard Barrio Kings), and Ching-a-lings. On any given day there are approximately 50 gang members incarcerated at OCCF. [Hefferon Direct ¶ 13]. In the years 2000, 2001, and 2002, respectively, approximately 42%, 40%, and 50% of those gang members were being held on misdemeanor or lesser charges. Gang members are often more violent, dangerous, and manipulative than other inmates, regardless of the nature of the charges against them. [DX 50A, at 117; Hefferon Direct ¶ 15; Tr. 391-92 (Fraser Testimony) ]. They are also more likely than other inmates to attempt to coerce family members or to coerce, cajole, or intimidate lesser violators into smuggling contraband into the facility. [DX 49B, at ¶32], One of the best ways of identifying gang members is by examining markings and tattoos on their bodies. [Hefferon Direct ¶¶ 12-14], Finally, officials at a county jail like OCCF usually know very little about the new inmates they receive or the security risks they present at the time of their arrival. Ironically, prison officials are often at an advantage here, since sentenced inmates arrive after being convicted and after the preparation of a pre-sentence report (which is theoretically supposed to contain details about the inmate’s past). Moreover, many inmates arrive at prisons from jails, where they have been incarcerated and already evaluated for potential security risks (a procedure known as “classification,” which will be discussed extensively below). Both experts and Mr. Fraser agreed that thorough Admission Searches of all arriving inmates are the best way to maintain the security level necessary for keeping serious and dangerous contraband out of OCCF. [Tr. 339-450 (Camp Testimony); Tr. 198, 218-19 (DeRosa Testimony); DX 50A, at 16-18 (DeRosa Dep.); Fraser Direct ¶ 4], All jail personnel who testified at this trial, including plaintiffs’ expert, Robert Joseph DeRosa, testified that, if they could, they would strip search every newly arrived inmate, regardless of what brought him or her to their facility, in order to minimize the risk of introduction of contraband. [Tr. 219 (DeRosa Testimony); Tr. 447 (Camp Testimony); Tr.]. So strongly do the corrections people feel about this that Fraser testified, credibly, that not until the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit denied the motion for rehearing en bane in Shain did officials at Rikers Island finally stop strip searching every new inmate who arrived at Rik-ers. [Tr. 393-94 (Fraser Testimony) ]. Thereafter, Rikers personnel modified their strip search procedures for certain type of inmates to the extent of acquiring hospital gowns, which allows inmates to remain clothed while they squat and cough — a process that, according to Mr. DeRosa, is generally sufficient to dislodge any contraband contained in the anal or vaginal areas. [Tr. 183]. B. OCCF Strip Search Policies I find as a matter of fact that until the new jail opened in the summer of 2001, it was the policy at OCCF for each and every newly-arrived inmate to be subjected to an on-arrival strip search, in the manner described above, without regard to the nature of the charges against the inmate or any reason to suspect that he/she might be carrying contraband. Indeed, defendants, through counsel, stipulated that prior to the time when OCCF moved to its present facility the policy was to conduct on-arrival strip searches on every newly-arrived inmate. [Tr. 16]. Moreover, I credit the testimony of Corrections Officers Enos Va-nAmburgh, James Ognibene III, Christine Mertens (for females), Thomas C. Heffer-on, and Robert Crosby on this point. These officers were all assigned during relevant periods to work in the jail’s Booking and Receiving area. All of them testified, credibly, that every single new arrival at OCCF was strip searched without regard to the nature of the crime charged, the circumstances of the arrest, or particular characteristics of the arrestee. Their testimony was confirmed by the deposition testimony of defendant Bigger, who was the sheriff of Orange County from 1995 through the end of 2002. [PX 22, at 5-22]. Sheriff Bigger’s deposition revealed that new arrivals were strip searched even if they were able to make bail and were not being admitted to the general population. [PX 22, at 20-21], In or about March 2000, use of the term “personal hygiene check” began at OCCF. I find, based on the credible testimony from Ognibene and the fair inferences drawn from the deposition of Bigger, that a “personal hygiene check” and a “strip search” were de facto the same. As Corrections Officer Ognibene testified, “[t]he names changed, but the search remained the same.” [Tr. 89]. I do not credit the testimony of Capt. Ryan or any other witness who stated that there were differences between the “strip search” and the “hygiene check” as carried out at OCCF. When OCCF moved to the new jail, new booking and receiving facilities, containing new and improved devices for detecting contraband, were suddenly available. At that point, the County promulgated the “August 2001 Policy.” [DX29]. That policy provided that Admissions Searches “may be conducted” on all inmates charged with felonies, and those inmates charged with misdemeanors or lesser offenses when any of the following factors was present: “(a) Committed sentenced inmate/weekenders; (b) Committed probation/parole violator; (c) Weapons or narcotics offenses; (d) Known gang affiliation; (e) Prior or current escape charges; (f) Committed for a felony; (g) Prior or current contraband charges; (h) Known history of contraband charges; (i) Metal detector/boss chair activation; (j) Inmate that appears under the influence of drugs/alcohol; (j) Currently suicidal inmate; (k) Pri- or suicidal history in past 10 years.” Id. At the preliminary injunction hearing in Dodge, both Captain Joseph Ryan, OCCF’s Day Shift Commander, and his subordinate Lieutenant Dominic De Marco testified — credibly—that the new policy was implemented to give corrections officers under their command as little discretion as possible about whether or not to conduct strip searches. 209 F.R.D. 65, 73. Thus, while the August 2001 Policy purported (on its face) to list circumstances where an officer “may” conduct a strip search, the policy, in effect, listed the factors that mandated a strip search. As a result, at least some strip searches were conducted that violated the reasonable suspicion rule of Shain. Indeed, this Court entered a preliminary injunction in Dodge after finding that newly arrived inmates were strip searched, pursuant to the August 2001 Policy, without reasonable suspicion to believe that they might be secreting contraband. The only inmate testimony concerning strip searches during the period when the August 2001 Policy was in effect came from the three inmates who testified during the Dodge preliminary injunction hearing. Nonetheless, that strip searches were carried out during that period without reasonable suspicion to believe that the inmate was secreting contraband was confirmed by several corrections officers, who testified (credibly) that the policy of strip searching all or virtually all new arrivals at OCCF did not really change until 2002. [Tr. 519-20 (Officer Jo-Ann Manee); Tr. 545 (Officer Nancy Duryea); Tr. 549-50 (Officer Joseph Alvarado) ]. Additionally, I have no basis to reconsider my findings, made in Dodge, that Wallace Babcock, who was arrested at the Orange County Courthouse when he went there voluntarily to try to resolve arrearages in child support payments and transported to OCCF, was strip searched without reasonable suspicion to believe that he was carrying contraband. See 209 F.R.D. at 70. After this Court entered the preliminary injunction in Dodge, OCCF again revised its strip search policy. [DX 30]. That new “August 2002 Policy” provides that a strip search “may be conducted” if any one of the following factors exists: “(A) Committed sentenced inmate/weekender; (B) Committed for Felony offense (Sentenced or Unsentenced); [and] (C) Weapons or Narcotics offenses.” Id. Again, I find that “may” means “must” when used in the August 2002 Policy with respect to those factors. In addition, the policy provides that a strip search may be conducted when there is “[rjeasonable suspicion that a legally committed inmate is concealing weapons or other contraband based on the crime charged, the particular characteristics of the arrestee, and/or circumstances of the arrest (if available).” Id. The policy explicitly states that the an officer may consider the following characteristics of the arrestee when determining whether reasonable suspicion exists: “(1) Known Gang Member; (b) Prior or Current escape charges; (c) Inmate has prior or current contraband charges; (d) Metal Detector, Boss Chair, Hand held Magnetometer activation ...; (e) Inmate appears to be under the influence of drugs or alcohol; (f) Currently suicidal inmate; (g) Inmate has history of suicidal behavior; (h) Inmate displays assaultive behavior; [and] (i) Inmates disposition (nervous, fidgety, sweating, uncooperative, distracting).” Id. The policy further provides that an officer who develops reasonable suspicion that an un-sentenced misdemeanor or violation arres-tee is concealing contraband must obtain approval from a supervisor before performing a strip search. Id. By its terms, the August 2002 Policy does not require supervisory approval before strip searching sentenced inmates or those accused of felonies or weapons or narcotics offenses. C. OCCF Procedures 1. Admitting The process of admitting a newly arrived inmate takes place in an area of the facility known as Booking and Receiving. (A diagram of the Booking and Receiving Area is attached to this opinion as Ex. 2). Having toured this area, I find that it is a large — indeed, huge — open hall with a booking desk in the center. It is ringed with five separate holding cells, each of which can house multiple inmates. The following constitutes my findings of fact concerning the procedures followed to admit new arrivals to OCCF since of August of 2002, after the short-lived preliminary injunction was entered in Dodge, Inmates arrive at OCCF in shackles and restraints and are discharged at a sally-port outside the Booking and Receiving area. Usually, staff at OCCF are alerted that a vehicle transporting inmates will be arriving so they are prepared to process the inmates when they arrive. [Tr. 423-25 (Camp Testimony) ]. The inmates typically are met by two OCCF Booking and Receiving officers, who review the inmates’ securing orders to make sure that OCCF is authorized to receive them. If this paperwork is satisfactory, the OCCF officers escort them inside OCCF into the Booking and Receiving area. [Tr. 424; Camp Direct ¶¶ 3-10]. Inside the OCCF Booking and Receiving area, the officer lines the arriving inmates up against an interior wall, asks them if they have anything in their pockets (such as drugs, weapons, or needles), and then conducts a pat-search. Any items taken from the inmate are placed in a plastic bag. [Tr. 424; Camp Direct ¶¶ 19-25]. At that point, the inmate is issued an institutional jump suit and is taken to a semi-private “changing room.” It is at this point that an inmate who is going to be strip searched is strip searched. As described above, the August 2002 policy provides that the following categories of inmates are automatically subjected to strip searches upon their arrival to OCCF: (1) all sentenced inmates, (2) all inmates who have been committed to OCCF for a felony offense (whether or not they have been sentenced, or even tried), (3) all inmates charged with drug or weapons offenses, and (4) all inmates who are returning from court or work details (regardless of the nature of the charges lodged against them). [DX 30]. If a corrections officer concludes that an inmate falls into one of these categories and conducts a strip search, he must note that fact on a form called an “Admissions Strip Search Report.” [DX20L]. If the new arrival is charged with a misdemeanor or violation or is civilly committed, and the offense does not involve drugs or weapons, the written policy states that the corrections officer on duty must assess the inmate’s individual circumstances to determine whether there is reasonable suspicion to conduct an Admission Search. [DX 30; DX 20L]. If a booking and receiving officer believes that such reasonable suspicion exists, the officer first must then secure the approval of a supervisor before a strip search can be performed. [Tr. 280 (Ryan Testimony); DX 20L]. If the supervisor approves, then both the officer and the supervisor must execute an Admission Strip Search Report, and the supervisor also must describe on that form the “reasonable suspicion” that provided the basis for the search. [DX 20L]. Any strip search is conducted by an OCCF officer of the same sex in a semiprivate changing room that has opaque glass on a portion of the window in the door. This prevents other inmates or staff from observing what is happening. [Tr. 425, 481-82 (Camp Testimony); Camp Direct ¶ 35]. The officer never touches the inmate during a strip search, which is carried out in the manner described above. As soon as the search is concluded, the inmate puts on the institutional jumpsuit. The balance of his or her belongings is placed in a plastic bag for deposit with the OCCF property clerk. [Tr. 425]. There is no evidence in this record that any inmate has complained of being physically or sexually abused by OCCF staff during an Admission Search, that any inmate has filed an internal grievance alleging such abuses, or that any such abuses have occurred. Once the inmate has changed into the institutional jumpsuit, he or she then is walked through the metal detector and required to sit in the Body Orifice Security Scanner (“BOSS”) chair. The BOSS chair is a non-intrusive, high sensitivity detector designed to detect metal objects hidden in body cavities. It is used to screen inmates for weapons and contraband objects that might be hidden in anal, oral, vaginal, and nasal cavities. [DX 20M], It will not pick up non-metallic items such as drugs, cigarettes, or money. The BOSS Chair is not foolproof, but it enhances any other search conducted on an arriving inmate. [Tr. 246^47 (DeRosa Testimony) ]. The BOSS scan comes after most inmates who are going to be strip searched have already been strip searched. [Tr. 425 (Camp Testimony) ]. Though nothing in the record indicates as much, I presume that if an inmate who was not previously subjected to a strip search sets off the BOSS chair, he or she is returned to the changing area and strip searched under the “reasonable suspicion” standard. After clearing the BOSS Chair, the inmate is placed in one of the OCCF’s holding cells, usually directly opposite the booking area so inmates can be observed by corrections officers. [Tr. 425; Camp Direct ¶¶ 9-17]. Later, the inmate is interviewed by an OCCF booking officer to obtain the pedigree information necessary to complete various forms and the answers to suicide screening questions. [Tr. 425; Camp Direct ¶¶ 1-6; DX 20-20-L, 20N-200]. All the pertinent information about the new inmates in these forms is self-reported. [Tr. 289 (Ryan Testimony) ]. After the inmate’s paperwork has been completed, he is fingerprinted and, if he is charged with a crime (either felony or misdemeanor), his fingerprints are forwarded to the New York State Department of Criminal Justice Services (“NYSDCJS”) to confirm his true identity. Under New York law, OCCF is not permitted to forward to NYSDCJS the fingerprints of persons remanded for civil violations, persons remanded for family court non-payments, or immigration detainees. OCCF must destroy these fingerprints when the inmate is discharged. [Tr. 281 (Ryan Testimony) ]. Finally, the inmate receives a medical assessment by one of the OCCF nurses. Once all the paperwork and assessments required during the booking and receiving process are completed, the inmate is escorted to a new housing unit, where he or she will remain pending completion of the classification and assessment process. [Hefferon Direct ¶ 6]. Inmates are housed as follows: Alpha 1 houses adult and juvenile men without acute medical problems or a history of prior suicide attempt or current suicidal ideation; Bravo 4 houses suicidal males, adult and juvenile; Bravo 1 houses all newly-arrived females, adult and juvenile, regardless of suicidal ideation; Medical 1 houses adult and juvenile males with acute medical (non-psychiatric) problems; and Medical 2 houses adult and juvenile females with acute medical (non-psychiatric) problems. OCCF believes that there is no need for a more elaborate housing assignment at the pre-classification stage because the new arrivals — regardless of the nature or severity of the charges pending against them — are kept confined to their cells for twenty three hours a day until the classification process is complete. They leave their cells only for one hour of daily recreation, a fifteen-minute shower, and necessary medical or legal visits. [Ryan Direct ¶ 19; July 25, 2003 Letter to the Court], Meals are taken in the cells. As a result, newly-arrived and pre-classified inmates do not have the same opportunity that classified inmates do to intermingle with others in the housing unit — or, presumably, to pass contraband from one to another. 2. Classification Under New York law, see N.Y. Correct. Law § 500-b (McKinney 2003), OCCF is required to classify inmates for housing assignments and supervision levels according to the risks that they present. [Ryan Direct ¶ 21]. The classification process at OCCF begins shortly after the new inmate arrives. [Hefferon Direct ¶ 5]. The paperwork completed in Booking and Receiving is forwarded to the Classification Department so that it can start to assemble the information necessary to classify the inmate in accordance with New York law. Id. at ¶ 6. Classification requires an assessment of the inmate’s criminal history, current charge(s), pending detainers, current or prior disciplinary problems at OCCF or any other correctional institution, problems adjusting to confinement, amount of bail, propensity for victimization, escape or contraband risk, aggressive behavior, history of bail jumping, or any other factor that may be required to properly evaluate the danger a particular inmate presents. [DX 40B-2, at 17 (Ryan Dep.) ]. Classification officers record their overall assessment on a worksheet to develop the security score that defines the inmate’s classification level: minimum custody, low medium custody, high medium custody, or maximum custody. [DX 40B-2, at 17 (Ryan Dep.); Ognibene Direct ¶6; Van Amburgh Direct ¶ 6]. This custody level is used to ensure that the inmate only receives housing and work assignments that are compatible with the security risk that he or she presents. [Tr. 93 (Ryan Testimony) ]. Under New York law, the classification officers at OCCF have seven days to complete the classification of new inmates. [Hefferon Direct ¶ 10]. The testimony at trial indicated that the classification process at OCCF usually was completed within three to five days. [Ryan Direct ¶ 21]. OCCF obtains criminal history information about newly arrived inmates during the classification process. Criminal history is derived from so-called “File 15” reports, also known as “rap sheets.” To obtain these reports, OCCF (or any other law enforcement facility) must have access to a NYSPIN terminal. At OCCF, the NYSPIN terminal is located in a secure room within the Classification Department, which is about 600 feet away from the Booking and Receiving area. Captain Ryan testified that the County has placed the NYSPIN terminal in the Classifications Department to control access to and the use of the rap sheets that are generated. According to Captain Ryan, this is necessary due to New York State rules restricting dissemination of the File 15 reports because of privacy and confidentiality requirements. [Ryan Direct ¶ 15]. Criminal history information about an arriving inmate, in the form of a File 15, can be (and generally is) obtained expeditiously. Former Corrections Officer Enos Van Amburgh worked for approximately eight and a half years in the jail’s Classification Department. It was his job to run rap sheets on every inmate processed at the Orange County Jail (the old facility). Van Amburgh did so as soon as he received the paperwork from booking. [Tr. 12]. Customarily it took him only a couple of minutes to generate a File 15 on an inmate. Id. Although, in Van Amburgh’s experience, there were occasions where attempts to secure a File 15 were delayed, this did not happen often. [Tr. 13]. In the eight and a half years that Van Am-burgh worked in classification, the terminal probably went down only “five times, six times,” [Tr. 15], and when the terminal was down, it could be back up in five minutes. While it has happened that the terminal was down for up to three or four hours, [Tr. 13-14], I conclude, based on Van Amberg’s testimony, that this happened no more than five times during an eight and a half year time span. The terminal was never down for as many as eight hours when Van Amburgh was there. [Tr. 14]. Capt. Ryan acknowledged that the time from when the NYSPIN terminal receives the inmate’s name and social security number to when it provides the File 15 could be as quick as the time it takes to log onto a website. [Tr. 95]. All that is needed to generate a File 15 is the inmate’s name, social security number, and date of birth. [Tr. 320]. He also conceded that the terminal operates under normal conditions most of the time. [Tr. 95], Capt. Ryan testified that the system is “booted,” usually “once or twice a month.” Id. But there is no evidence in the record tending to show that this adversely affects the turnaround time to generate File 15’s or otherwise delays the in-processing of inmates. I recognize that, hypothetically, a computer malfunction could slow the process down considerably. But on the record before me I cannot conclude that this happens with any frequency. Rap sheets are generated based on self-reported information, and not until fingerprints have been compared is it possible to confirm that the arrestee is in fact the person he says he is. Fingerprint confirmation normally takes more than a week to get to OCCF. [Ryan Direct ¶ 21]. Of course, some arrestees’ identities cannot be confirmed via fingerprint check. If an arrestee has not previously been fingerprinted — for example, if he or she has never before been involved with the criminal justice system — then there is no way for corrections officers to obtain absolute identity confirmation. Nonetheless, corrections officers evaluate those inmates and make risk assessments about them, based on self-reported information. I conclude that corrections officers do rely on self-reported information in making classifications and risk assessments. Moreover, in the absence of data indicating that significant numbers of new arrivals at OCCF turn out to be lying about who they are — and there is no hard data on that issue in this record — I conclude that File 15s generated on the basis of self-reported data are generally reliable. Lacking any evidence of how frequently new arrivals at OCCF attempt to mask their identity, I cannot and do not conclude that rap sheets are per se unreliable or could not be used by corrections officers as one piece of information in making preliminary assessments during the booking and receiving process. Nothing prevents the operator of the NYSPIN terminal from sharing with officers in Booking and Receiving information in a new arrival’s File 15 criminal history during the booking and receiving process. As Capt. Ryan put it, “There’s no reason why anybody can’t communicate any information to anybody.” [Tr. 97]. However, booking officers at OCCF do not receive criminal history information from Classification Officers during in-processing of new arrivals. In addition, Orange County maintains computerized “prior commitment” records that contain information about persons formerly admitted to the facility. These records are generated and maintained by the County as a part of their classification process. [PX 40]. Upon completion of the classification process, the inmate is assigned to a more permanent housing unit, where he or she dwells with other inmates who are similarly classified in terms of their security risk and who are not considered a threat to the new inmate. [Ryan Direct ¶ 21]. A typical housing unit, therefore, may contain inmates charged with misdemeanors and/or felonies, inmates remanded under civil commitments, and immigration detainees, as long as all of these inmates pose approximately the same security risk. Id. 3. Information Available (or Not Available) at the Time of the Booking and Receiving Process As noted above, a new arrival at OCCF brings with him a securing order from the court that arraigned him and committed him to OCCF’s custody. This order contains minimal information about the inmate, typically consisting of only the name the arrested individual gave to the arresting agency, the charge pending against him, and information concerning bail (e.g., the amount bail was set for). [DX 18]. Thus, securing orders generally do not contain detailed information relevant to an assessment of whether there is reasonable suspicion to believe that a new arrival at OCCF might be secreting contraband, except for the crime charged. [Tr. 236 (De-Rosa Testimony) ]. Booking and receiving officers at OCCF, who are charged with in-processing new arrivals and making decisions about matters like whom to strip search, receive no information other than the securing order that arrives with the prisoner. They are not provided with the File 15 “rap sheet” generated by OCCF’s Classification Department. They are not even provided with information about whether the new arrival had previously been incarcerated at OCCF, although that information is maintained at the jail. Captain Ryan’s testimony concerning why information generated within OCCF itself is not provided to officers in Booking and Receiving makes no sense. He testified that rap sheets are not made available to booking officers because the information contained therein is “privileged” (though he did not explain the nature of the privilege), and he indicated that it was undesirable for such information to be disseminated to staff members, lest they take a dislike to a particular prisoner, which he deemed not “beneficial to good operations.” [Tr. 96-97]. He did not explain why this particular concern overrode giving Booking and Receiving personnel information that would help them do their job of evaluating arriving inmates for reasonable suspicion of contraband, or how it was that the use of this “privileged” information by the officers who work in Classifications did not give rise to the same concerns. There is also information elsewhere in the system that might be made available to the booking and receiving officers who are in-processing new arrestees. For example, every arresting officer on a police force in the State of New York is required to prepare a police arrest report, containing information about the circumstances of the arrest and information about a suspect. [Tr. 152]. These reports are not confidential [Tr. 153], and nothing in the law would prevent a police agency from giving a copy of an arrest report to whoever is transporting a detainee to OCCF or from faxing the arrest report to jail. The City of Middletown is one of the largest jurisdictions within Orange County. According to its former police chief, Louis Ogden, officers of the Middletown Police Department routinely tell sheriffs deputies who arrive to transport newly arraigned arrestees to OCCF about anything that the deputies ought to know concerning the individuals they are transporting, including information about the perceived dangerousness of the detainee. Plaintiffs’ expert witness, Robert DeRo-sa, testified credibly that when a new inmate arrived at Rikers Island, in New York City, where he served as deputy warden and warden of the Anna M. Kross Center for approximately seven years, the inmate brought with him a File 15 rap sheet generated at Central Booking, as well as a securing order and arrest ticket (a form containing pedigree information and fingerprints). [Tr. 239-43 (DeRosa Testimony) ]. The rap sheet was generated by classifications officers within New York City Corrections. Id. at 241. Of course, the situation at Rikers differs from the situation at OCCF in two rather obvious particulars. First, Rikers is a much larger and busier institution. Furthermore, it receives all its prisoners from a single police department, not from thirty seven different jurisdictions. However, that police department — the NYPD — is a gigantic decentralized police department, with thousands of officers scattered over five separate counties, each of which is significantly larger than Orange County in terms of population. Personnel who transport prisoners from the various municipalities to OCCF and OCCF Corrections Officers are not trained in how to gather information from other law enforcement agencies within Orange County. [Tr. 319 (Ryan Testimony) ]. At no time have OCCF officials asked the various municipalities that feed inmates into the jail to devise a system for sharing information about new arrestees that could be used to make the kind of individualized assessment about the risk of contraband carriage that is required by existing Second Circuit case law. Id. at 317-18. Therefore, no one knows whether it is possible to devise a workable information sharing system with the multiple jurisdictions involved. Captain Ryan thinks it would be “pretty much impossible,” [Tr. 277], while Chief Ogden believes that if the County simply directed local law enforcement to provide it with information, the authorities would readily comply. Chief Ogden testified credibly that, while he was Chief, he would have told his officers to provide sheriffs deputies with File 15s and arrest reports if asked to do so. [Tr. 166-67], The experience of New York City strongly suggests that it would be possible to devise procedures that would require local law enforcement agencies to transmit material in addition to the securing order with a prisoner who was being sent to OCCF. Moreover, contrary to the testimony of OCCF officials, New York State regulations regarding NYSPIN security do not appear to bar the sharing of File 15s among law enforcement agencies. See N.Y. Comp.Codes R. & Revs. tit. 9, § 486.4 (2003). 4. Compliance (or Non-Compliance) with the August 2002 Strip Search Policy On July 26, 2002, this Court entered a preliminary injunction in the Dodge case, in which I directed that OCCF comply with the mandate of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit as handed down in Shain. I thus enjoined the defendants in Dodge to conduct strip searches of newly-arrived inmates only when they had reason to believe the new arrival might be secreting contraband, based on (1) the nature of the crime charged; (2) the circumstances of the arrest; and (3) the particular characteristics of the arrestee. [DX 33]. The injunction did not direct OCCF personnel to adopt any particular policies or procedures in order to effect this result, leaving all such matters to the sound discretion of experts in penology. The court simply and solely directed defendants to comply with the Constitution as interpreted by the Second Circuit in Shain. The Dodge injunction expired ninety days later, pursuant to the Prison Litigation Reform Act (“PLRA”). See 18 U.S.C. § 3626(a)(2) (“Preliminary injunctive relief shall automatically expire on the date that is 90 days after its entry, unless the court makes the findings required under subsection (a)(1) for the entry of prospective relief and makes the order final before the expiration of the 90-day period.”). Shortly after the Dodge injunction was entered, OCCF adopted the August 2002 strip search policy. OCCF contends that it voluntarily continues to follow this policy, even though the Dodge injunction has expired. Plaintiffs contend that this is a paper policy only, and that it is routinely disregarded. Defendants demur. At trial, plaintiffs presented testimony from ten witnesses, all of whom were arrested after the August 2002 policy went into effect, and all of whom insisted that they had been strip searched upon their initial arrival at OCCF, despite the fact that they were arrested for misdemeanors or civil violations and that officers had no probable cause to believe that they were carrying contraband. Defendants presented testimony from the corrections officers who in-processed these individuals. What follows are my findings of fact concerning these incidents. Because the individuals whose stories are told below are all members of the plaintiff class, and both sides have requested a jury trial on the subject of damages, these findings of fact pertain solely to the injunctive phase of the case. a. Gary Luke Gary Luke was admitted to the Orange County Jail on or about October 5, 2002, on a bench warrant arising out of a violation of probation and a charge of injuring an animal (a Class “A” Misdemeanor). Upon his arrival at the receiving area, he was ordered by the corrections officers to remove all of his clothes, squat down, lift his genitals, and spread the cheeks of his buttocks for the officers’ visual inspection. The record does not indicate the nature of the underlying charge or the nature of the violation, but Luke testified without contradiction that it had nothing to do with either drugs or weapons. [PX 4; Tr. 19; DX 68]. Luke was admitted to the general population. There is no dispute that Luke was strip searched on arrival at OCCF; the appropriate paperwork so indicates. [DX 68]. The corrections officer who supervised Luke’s admission to the jail was David Myers. Myers had no recollection of Luke’s arrival independent of his paperwork, although he knew Luke from prior incarcerations at OCCF. However, the Strip Search Report that is part of Luke’s file indicates that Luke appeared to be under the influence of “drags or alcohol” when he arrived at the jail. He had eleven pull tabs on his person, and during questioning Luke admitted to having a prior problem with alcohol. Based on his appearance and property inventory, Luke obtained supervisor consent to conduct a strip search and prepared the appropriate paperwork, with supervisory sign-off as required by the policy. I find that Officer Myers did not have reasonable suspicion to conclude that Luke might be secreting contraband on his person, so as to justify an on-arrival strip search. Myers had no suspicion whatever that Luke was under the influence of drugs. Eleven pop top cans does indeed suggest the influence of alcohol, but Luke appeared to be drunk, nothing more. There is no evidence in this record 'that alcohol abuse is correlated with efforts to introduce into the facility contraband of the sort that can be hidden in the anus or genitalia. See Dodge, 209 F.R.D. at 76-77, and cases cited. Moreover, alcohol intoxication is not a per se reason to conduct a strip search; it is merely a factor that an officer can consider. In Luke’s case, the evidence suggests that the officer searched Luke simply and solely because he believed that the jail’s policy allowed him to search any newly arrived inmates who appeared to by drunk. [Myers Direct ¶ 8]. b. John MaeChurch John MaeChurch was admitted to the Orange County Jail on February 27, 2003 for failure to pay child support. Upon his arrival at- the receiving area he claims he was brought to a separate room where he was ordered by the corrections officers to remove all of his clothes, squat down, lift his genitals, and spread the cheeks of his buttocks for the officers’ visual inspection. None of the circumstances surrounding MacChurch’s arrest involved the use or possession of drugs or weapons. [PX 49; Tr. 25]. Defendants contend that MaeChurch was strip searched during a cell shakedown, not during MacChurch’s admission to OCCF. [Tr. 29-30], The “no search” box on MacChurch’s Admissions Strip Search Report was checked off, [PX 60A], but no corrections officer testified about the MaeChurch search or about his admission to OCCF. After hearing MaeChurch testify, I find him to be a credible witness and conclude he was strip searched without reasonable suspicion in violation of OCCF’s stated policy. c. Demorris Reed Demorris Reed was admitted to the Orange County Jail in February 2003 for failure to pay child support (Family Article 4). His arrest did not involve the use or possession of drugs or weapons. [PX 46; Tr. 32], Nonetheless, he claims that, upon his arrival at the receiving area, he was ordered by the corrections officers to remove all of his clothes, squat down, lift his genitals, and spread the cheeks of his buttocks for the officers’ visual inspection. Reed was admitted to the general population. Corrections Officer William Proscia received Reed at OCCF. Proscia testified that he was going to strip search him because high bail ($7,000) had been set for the prisoner, which caused Proscia to wonder if he might have been charged with a felony. [Tr. 537]. However, he stated that a supervisor overruled him, and so he did not conduct the search. I do not credit this testimony, largely because Officer Proscia testified that the strip search policy at OCCF in 1999 and 2000 was otherwise than I have found it to be. [Tr. 533-34], I find that Reed was in fact strip searched upon arrival at OCCF, without reasonable suspicion and in violation of jail policy. Reed was again admitted on April 9, 2003 for endangering the welfare of a child (a Class “A” Misdemeanor). He claims that he was subjected to a strip search at the jail in the same manner as before. Reed testified that the notation in the Admission Strip Search Report, [DX 61B, 61C], which indicates that he was not strip searched, is “wrong.” [Tr. 38-39]. This time, Reed’s admitting officer was Joseph Alvarado. Alvarado has no recollection of admitting him, and testified only to the procedure that he should have followed, since he checked the “no search” box on the Admissions Strip Search Report. Since Alvarado is not able to controvert Reed’s testimony, I accept it as true. There were violations of OCCF’s strip search policy in Reed’s case. d. Delacy Brandon-Abraham Delacy Brandon-Abraham was admitted to the Orange County Jail in February 2003 for violation of an Order of Protection (Family Article 4). She claims that, upon her arrival and before being placed in a cell, a female corrections officer escorted her to a room and ordered her to remove all of her clothes; squat down; and expose her breasts, female genitalia, and anal cavity for visual inspection. None of the circumstances surrounding the arrest involved the use or possession of drugs, weapons, or contraband. [PX 47; Tr. 40]. Brandon-Abraham testified that the notation in the Admission Strip Search Report indicating that she was not strip searched, [DX 53A], is not correct. [Tr. 45-46]. Brandon-Abraham was admitted to the general population. Corrections Officer Jo-Ann Mance-Saenz in-processed Brandon-Abraham, whom she recalls as a “large woman” who “arrived at the OCCF with a substantial amount of candy.” [Mance-Saenz Direct ¶ 7]. After pat-searching Brandon-Abraham, she took her into a changing room, with a jump suit. Per standard procedure, she asked Brandon-Abraham to remove all of her clothing other than her undergarments, so she could do a routine check for contraband under the armpits, between the toes, and in the hair. Apparently, Brandon-Abraham was not wearing any undergarments — a fact that Officer Mance-Saenz learned only when the inmate removed her outer clothing. Officer Mance-Saenz told her to put on a jump suit and went in search of some underwear that would fit her. Since this was not an Admissions “strip search” as defined above, Officer Mance-Saenz filled out the paperwork accordingly. I credit the testimony of Officer Mance-Saenz. There was no violation of OCCF strip search policy in Brandon-Abraham’s case. e. Jeremiah Westford Jeremiah Westford (18 years old), Charles Toto (19 years old), and John Watson (17 years old) were admitted to OCCF in April 2003. Westford was admitted on charges of criminal possession of stolen property (a Class “A” Misdemeanor) and consumption of alcohol in a motor vehicle. Watson was charged with criminal possession of stolen property and petit larceny (both Class “A” Misdemeanors). Toto was charged with criminal possession of stolen property (a class “A” misdemeanor). Each testified that, upon his arrival at the receiving area, he was ordered by the corrections officers to remove all of his clothes, squat down, lift his genitals, and spread the cheeks of his buttocks for the officers’ visual inspection. None of the circumstances surrounding their arrest involved the use or possession of drugs or weapons. [PX 48; Tr. 174-75]. All testified that the notation in their Admissions Strip Search Report indicating that they were not strip searched was “a false statement,” id. at 176-77, or “absolutely false,” id. at 179, or “wrong.” Id. at 55-56. All three were bailed out of jail within hours of their arrival and before they were introduced into the general population. A single corrections officers, Michael Pfleger, in-processed these three young men. Pfleger testified that upon their arrival he patted them (and a fourth companion) down, directed them to line up against the wall, and led them, one at a time, to a changing room, where he gave them a plastic bag for their clothes and jump suits into which they had to change. Pfleger remained at the door of the changing room, looking outside to keep an eye on the other three while one young man changed his clothes in the room. While I find that the young men had to remove their clothes (i.e., “strip”) in the presence of Officer Pfleger, I credit Pfleger’s testimony and do not believe that they were “strip searched” as that term is used in this case. f. Patrick Crowe Patrick Crowe was admitted to the Orange County Jail on August 8, 2002 on a charge of petit larceny (a Class “A” Misdemeanor). He claims that upon his arrival at