Full opinion text
OPINION BASSLER, District Judge. The central issue in this case is whether plaintiff United States of America (“the Government” or “Plaintiff’) is entitled to a permanent injunction prohibiting defendants Lane Labs-USA, Inc. and Andrew J. Lane (collectively “Defendants”) from marketing certain products — one made from shark cartilage, one from rice bran treated with Shiitake mushroom, and one from glycoalkaloid, which is an extract of sand brier — as treatments for cancer, skin cancer, and HTV/AIDS. This matter comes before the Court on the Government’s motion for summary judgment pursuant to Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 56. Defendants oppose the Government’s motion and cross-move to exclude portions of the Government’s expert reports and testimony. The Government brought this enforcement action on behalf of the United States Food and Drug Administration (“FDA”) on December 10, 1999, charging Defendants with violating the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (“FDCA”), 21 U.S.C. §§ 301 et seq., by improperly promoting and marketing three products — BeneFin®, SkinAn-swer™ and MGN-3™ (collectively “the Products”) — for the cure, mitigation or treatment of disease, thereby rendering these products misbranded and unapproved new drugs. Lane Labs contends that it has fully complied with federal law and has marketed the Products not as drugs but as dietary supplements, pursuant to the 1994 Amendments to the FDCA, the Dietary Supplement Health & Education Act of 1994 (“DSHEA”). The Government seeks a permanent injunction, pursuant to 21 U.S.C. § 332(a), restraining Defendants from marketing the Products as well as any other products with the same or similar ingredients. The Government also seeks an order requiring Defendants to make restitution and disgorgement to consumers who purchased the Products. The Court exercises jurisdiction pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 1331. Venue is proper pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 1391(b). For the reasons set forth below, the Government’s motion for summary judgment is granted. FACTUAL BACKGROUND Both parties have submitted 56.1 Statements in compliance with Local Civil Rule 56.1. The facts below are undisputed unless otherwise noted. 1. LANE LABS AND ITS PRODUCTS Defendant Lane Labs-USA, Inc. (“Lane Labs”) is a Delaware corporation that maintains its principal place of business in Allendale, New Jersey. Lane Labs describes itself as “a prominent supplier of high quality dietary supplements.” (Defs. Opp. Br. at 4.) Lane Labs has more than 40 employees and approximately $30 million in annual sales. Defendant Andrew Lane is the president of Lane Labs, as well as its director and sole shareholder. Lane Labs sells the Products at issue in this action directly to consumers, both in and outside of New Jersey, through Lane Labs’ CompassioNet division. BeneFin is a product distributed in either powder or caplet form, containing shark cartilage. MGN-3, distributed in capsule form, is a polysaccharide dietary fiber formula made from rice bran (hemicellulose B) that is produced by the hydrolysis of rice bran with the enzymatic extract of Shiitake mushroom. The main ingredient in MGN-3 is arabinoxylan. SkinAnswer is a skin cream that is applied topically and labeled as containing glycoalkaloid, an extract of sand brier. Lane Labs obtains the Products from overseas manufacturers. Specifically, Lane Labs purchases BeneFin and Ski-nAnswer from Lane-Labs Australia. Defendants purchase MGN-3 from Daiwa Pharmaceuticals (“Daiwa”), located in Japan. II. BUSINESS RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DRS. LANE AND GHO-NEUM AND LANE LABS A./. William, Lane, PhD. I. William Lane, Ph.D. (“Dr.Lane”) is defendant Andrew Lane’s father and has worked as a paid consultant for Lane Labs since at least 1997. Dr. Lane began studying the anti-angiogenic effects of shark cartilage in 1983. Dr. Lane formed Cartilage Consultants, Inc. in 1990 to research the benefits of shark cartilage as an an-giogenesis inhibitor. Dr. Lane is the sole shareholder and chairman of that corporation. Shortly after forming Cartilage Consultants, Dr. Lane was retained as a consultant by Cartilage Technologies, a company which was in the process of developing a shark cartilage product called Cartilade. In September 1993, defendant Andrew Lane, Dr. Lane’s son, also joined Cartilage Technologies. Defendants claim that Dr. Lane became disillusioned with the poor quality of shark cartilage used by Cartilage Technologies for its Cartilade product. After allegedly expressing his concerns to Cartilage Technologies in 1994, Dr. Lane’s consulting position was terminated and Andrew Lane was also fired. Dr. Lane then began working with a Cartilade distributor in Australia to develop an allegedly superior method of processing shark cartilage. On August 11, 1994, Andrew Lane formed Lane Labs in order to market this new form of shark cartilage in the United States. Thereafter, Dr. Lane, through Cartilage Consultants, became a paid consultant for Lane Labs. Dr. Lane’s ties to the Australian manufacturer of shark cartilage products enabled the formation of a business relationship between the manufacturer and Lane Labs. That Australian distributor later became Lane Labs-Australia, which Defendants claim is an entity entirely independent of Lane Labs. Lane Labs-Australia develops and manufactures BeneFin and SkinAnswer, both of which are distributed by Lane Labs in the United States. Dr. Lane has written a myriad of articles, books, papers and pamphlets and has participated in interviews in which he touted the positive effects of BeneFin, SkinAn-swer and MGN-3. Many of these sources are available to consumers over the Internet. Specifically, Dr. Lane has promoted shark cartilage, particularly BeneFin, as an effective treatment for cancer. (E.g. Pl.Ex. 15-18, Ex. 23, Tabs B and M.) Dr. Lane has claimed glycoalkaloids, such as SkinAnswer, are safe and effective treatments for skin cancer. (E.g. Pl.Ex. 14 and 19.) Dr. Lane has also made assertions that MGN-3 is a safe and effective treatment for cancer and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (“HIV”). (E.g. Pl.Ex. 20-22, Ex. 23, Tab T.) In addition to the many articles Dr. Lane has written on the alleged benefits of the Products, he has co-authored three books on shark cartilage as an effective treatment for cancer — Sharks Don’t Get Cancer, Sharks Don’t Get Cancer: How Shark Cartilage Could Save Your Life and Sharks Still Don’t Get Cancer: The Con-tinning Story of Shark Cartilage Therapy. Dr. Lane has also produced one videotape on the same subject, Shark Cartilage: A Promise Kept, and one book on how gly-eoalkaloid cream can help treat skin cancer, The Skin Cancer Answer. (Pl.Ex. 23, Tab M.) The Government claims that part of Dr. Lane’s role as a paid consultant for Lane Labs has been to promote the Products as treatments for cancer and HIV through his position as “researcher-spokesperson.” The Government further argues that the relationship between Lane Labs and Dr. Lane is so closely intertwined and financially mutually beneficial that any claims about the Products made by Dr. Lane may be attributed to Defendants. However, Defendants contend that Dr. Lane has been compensated by Lane Labs only for his “critical” role in discovering the existence of the Products and forming business relationships with various distributors, particularly Lane Labs-Australia. Defendants assert that Dr. Lane has not been compensated to promote BeneFin, MGN-3 and SkinAnswer for the cure, mitigation or treatment of disease. B. Mamdooh Ghoneum, PhD. Mamdooh Ghoneum, Ph.D. (“Dr.Ghone-um”) has also worked closely with Lane Labs. Dr. Ghoneum is an Associate Professor and Chief of Research in the Department of Otolaryngology at Charles D. Drew University. Dr. Ghoneum is one of the leading researchers of MGN-3. He has written many scientific abstracts and articles summarizing his research findings and discussing MGN-3 as a possible effective treatment for cancer, HIV and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (“AIDS”). Lane Labs has an agreement with Dr. Ghoneum such that Defendants pay Dr. Ghoneum a royalty of 9.5 percent for every kilogram of MGN-3 that Lane Labs purchases from Daiwa, the Japanese distributor. Lane Labs also agreed to pay Dr. Ghoneum an additional 8.5 percent, which is specifically earmarked for research purposes, for every kilogram of MGN-3 that Lane Labs purchases from Daiwa. The Government asserts that Dr. Gho-neum’s role in Lane Labs’ business has been that of “researcher-spokesperson.” The Government contends Defendants purposefully and consistently link the Products with statements, articles and research by Dr. Ghoneum through promotional mailings, the Internet, and statements by Defendants’ employees. Therefore, the Government argues that the promotional claims made by Dr. Gho-neum may also be attributed to Defendants. Defendants paint a different picture of Dr. Ghoneum’s association with Lane Labs. Similar to the purported relationship between Dr. Lane and Lane Labs, Defendants contend that Dr. Ghoneum is compensated merely for initiating and facilitating Lane Labs’ relationship with Daiwa. Defendants point to Dr. Ghoneum’s deposition testimony in which he testified that Lane Labs had no control over the content of his writing or research. (Pl.Ex. 29 at 76.) Defendants also highlight that much of Dr. Ghoneum’s research was published prior to 1998, before he had any financial relationship with Lane Labs. III. LANE LABS’ MARKETING AND DISTRIBUTION PRACTICES A. Promotional material disseminated to customers Lane Labs has used many of the materials written by Dr. Lane to promote its products. For instance, Defendants have distributed materials to customers describing Dr. Lane’s role in the development of BeneFin, including an article by Dr. Lane entitled “Having My Say [,] Shark Cartilage Therapy [,] A Personal History of Its Development” (Pl.Ex. 23, Tab H at P12582 — P12586), which espouses the theory that shark cartilage could be an effective treatment for cancer. Defendants often distributed the “Having My Say” article along with information about ordering BeneFin. In addition, the packaging Defendants used in distributing Be-neFin and SkinAnswer has, in the past, included Dr. Lane’s name and picture. Defendants allegedly ceased at least the latter practice over two (2) years ago due to concerns expressed by the FDA. Lane Labs has also used abstracts and articles authored by Dr. Ghoneum, as well as Dr. Ghoneum’s name and endorsement, to market the Products. For instance, Lane Labs has distributed mailings to customers and potential customers that include articles and abstracts written by Dr. Ghoneum. One such article, entitled “One Sizeable Step for Immunology, One Giant Leap for Cancer Patients,” written by Dr. Ghoneum, makes the following statements: Unlike most natural preparations, MGN-3 offers solid data collected from human clinical trials. This data offers compelling evidence that MGN-3 is a powerful biological response modifier that is free of toxicity or side effects. As such, it has enormous promise as an immunotherapy in the treatment of cancer and other diseases. (Pl.Ex. 32) (emphasis in original). This article has been distributed by Lane Labs to potential customers along with information about how to order MGN-3 and other Lane Labs’ products. Lane Labs has also used the “One Sizea-ble Step for Immunology” article to market its products as recently as 2002. Defendants paid to place that article, as well as an article by Emmalyn McAllister entitled “MGN-3: Cure or Curiosity? The Question Persists!”, as advertising supplements in various alternative health-related publications from January through June 2002, over three years after the Government filed the Complaint in this action. (See Pl.Ex. 34-37.) Defendants also paid to have business reply cards inserted into the same publications. Those business reply cards bear Dr. Ghoneum’s endorsement of MGN-3 and provide information on ordering MGN-3 from Lane Labs. Defendants claim that the materials written by Dr. Ghoneum and used by Lane Labs to market MGN-3 have not touted MGN-3 as a cure or treatment for cancer or HIV. Further, Defendants assert that Lane Labs has had no control over the content of those articles. Dr. Ghoneum testified at his deposition that he was not compensated by Lane Labs for use of the “One Sizeable Step for Immunology” article. Further, Dr. Ghoneum testified that no one from Lane Labs has made suggestions, corrections, additions or deletions to any of the abstracts or journal articles that he has published. Lane Labs contends that its use of Dr. Ghoneum’s “One Sizea-ble Step” article, and the placement of business reply cards in various alternative health magazines, complied with federal laws concerning marketing and promotion of dietary supplements. Lane Labs has also used Drs. Lane and Ghoneum’s names and endorsements to sell the Products in other ways. For example, Lane Labs sponsored a cocktail reception on July 14, 2001, in which Dr. Ghoneum, as well as Dr. Lane, discussed the results of clinical trials involving MGN-3. (Pl.Ex. 26.) In addition to abstracts and articles authored by Drs. Lane and Ghoneum, Lane Labs distributed other third-party promotional literature with its products. One example includes a article by Dr. David G. Williams (“Dr.Williams”) entitled “A New Chapter in Healing” from the September 1998 issue of Alternatives, a monthly newsletter published by Dr. Williams and disseminated to potential Lane Labs customers. This article contained ordering and pricing information for Lane Labs products. In “A New Chapter in Healing,” Dr. Williams promoted MGN-3 as a safe and effective treatment for cancer, and included statements such as the following: Unlike most forms of cancer treatment, MGN-3 is totally non-toxic. After years of use and continued toxicity tests, there have never been any indication [sic ] of toxicity and side effects whatsoever. Undoubtedly, this is because MGN-3’s primary function is to enhance the activity of the immune system rather than to attack cancer cells directly. (Pl.Ex. 23, Tab S at P13077) (discussing the results of various studies by Dr. Gho-neum). The article also made claims about the ability of MGN-3 to treat HIV and AIDS: ‘Work with AIDS patients has been limited, although all of the patients who have taken MGN-3 reported a noticeable difference in their well-being, and all have continued to use the product. Most felt MGN-3 was instrumental in helping them stabilize their disease.” (Id. at P13079.) In addition, Dr. Williams’ article discussed SkinAnswer as a “skin cancer cream” suggesting the product is an effective treatment for skin cancer. (Id. at P13074.) Lane Labs admits that it distributed the Alternatives newsletter containing Dr. Williams’ article but contends that it did not commission the article nor did Defendants exercise any control over the article. Furthermore, the article has not been disseminated by Lane Labs in over two years. The Government provides further examples of instances when Defendants have distributed other third-party materials to customers and potential customers along with information about the Products, as well as ordering information. Much of this material presents the Products as potentially effective treatments for cancer and HIV and discusses Drs. Lane and Ghone-um by name. These additional materials distributed by Lane Labs have included statements such as: Dr. Mamdooh Ghoneum of Charles Drew University of Medicine and Science in Los Angeles, compares current cancer treatment to battling terrorists .... ‘Chemotherapy, radiation or surgery are the cancer-equivalents of bombing,’ he says.... Even after bombing, however, some terrorists may survive, as do those cancer cells that are resistant to the usual therapies. Rather than bombing the city again, however, Dr. Ghoneum advocates sending in special forces to locate and eliminate the remaining terrorists one by one. Dr. Ghoneum’s development of a natural supplement called MGN-3 is meant to arm the body’s Natural Killer cells to seek and destroy dangerous invaders. (Pl.Ex. 32) (from “Winning the War Against Cancer (,) MGN-3: Mushroom Ammunition,” Alternative Medicine, May 1999 at 26-27). Defendants have also distributed a Health Professional Information Kit (“the Kit”) to medical doctors as recently as August 2001. At his deposition, Andrew Lane testified that one purpose behind Lane Labs’ distribution of the Kit was to help generate sales for Lane Labs’ products. (Pl.Ex. 2 at 101-182.) Included in the Kit were various articles by Dr. Gho-neum, including the “One Sizeable Step for Immunology Article,” as well as the McAl-lister article, “MGN-3: Cure or Curiosity?” Also included in the Kit was a newsletter entitled Health & Healing, edited by Dr. Julian Whitaker (“Dr.Whitaker”). In his newsletter, Dr. Whitaker discusses various studies involving alternative medicines and makes recommendations regarding effective brands for consumers to purchase. In one section entitled “Solutions to Common Skin Problems,” Dr. Whitaker writes: Any suspicious lesion should be examined by a physician to rule out melanoma, a fast-growing, potentially lethal form of skin cancer that requires immediate treatment. Basal cell and squamous cell carcinomas, however, as well as precancerous solar or actinic keratos-es, are slow spreading and less likely to metastasize. Before consenting to laser, chemical or surgical removal of such lesions, I recommend that you try a product that contains glycoalkaloids... .The glycoalkaloid product I recommend, Ski-nAnswer, is available in health food stores or by mail order from Compas-sioNet, 800/510-2010. (Pl.Ex. 53, Health & Healing at 6.) The Government claims that Defendants’ overall marketing strategy has been to associate their products with the oral and written statements and endorsements of Drs. Lane and Ghoneum, both through materials published by Drs. Lane and Gho-neum themselves, and by third-party materials that discuss the views of Drs. Lane and Ghoneum and promote Lane Labs products for the treatment, mitigation and cure of disease. Accordingly, the Government argues that the claims made by Drs. Lane and Ghoneum, and by the third-party materials discussing Drs. Lane and Ghone-um and distributed by Lane Labs to its customers, should be considered claims made by Defendants themselves. Defendants vociferously deny the Government’s contention that the informational materials distributed by Defendants promoted the Products as treatments for cancer and HIV. Defendants assert that the Products and accompanying, promotional material distributed by Defendants consisted of the type of material dietary supplement distributors are permitted to disseminate pursuant to DSHEA, 21 U.S.C. § 343-2(a), under which natural products companies are permitted to distribute third-party literature regarding their products. Furthermore, Defendants highlight that the articles and pamphlets distributed to customers often included the following disclaimer, or one like it: The approaches described in this brochure are not offered as cures, prescriptions, diagnosis, or means of diagnosis to different conditions. The information must be viewed as the personal experiences of the people portrayed herein. [The author and publisher] assume no responsibility in the correct or incorrect use of this information and no attempt should be made to use any of this information as a form of treatment without the approval and guidance of your doctor. (Pl.Ex. 23, Tab B at P12504.) Although Defendants contend that neither Dr. Lane nor Dr. Ghoneum is a paid “researcher-spokesperson” for Lane Labs, Defendants do concede that Drs. Lane and Ghoneum have in the past been compensated by Lane Labs to promote the Products and that Dr. Ghoneum receives as compensation a percentage of all Lane Labs’ sales of MGN-3. In a letter to Magistrate Judge Arleo regarding discovery issues, defense counsel wrote: “Whether Dr. Ghoneum, Dr. Lane and Cartilage Consultants have been compensated by Lane Labs for promoting Lane Labs’ products is not at issue. Defendants have acknowledged making such payments.... ” (Pl.Ex. 38 at 3, n. 1.) However, Defendants strenuously argue that there is no way the statements made by Drs. Lane and Ghone-um can be interpreted as promoting the cure and treatment of cancer and HIV. Defendants further contend that statements made by third-parties cannot be attributed to Lane Labs and therefore Defendants cannot be held accountable for the claims proffered in the promotional material. B. Lane Labs’ distribution network CompassioNet is a division of Lane Labs that markets and distributes Lane Labs’ products directly to consumers in the United States. Until November 2003, Defendants sold BeneFin, MGN-3 and SkinAnswer directly to consumers over the Internet through their website com-passionet.com. That website included a button called “Research,” which linked compassionet.com to another of Defendants’ websites, publishedresearch.com. According to the Government, publishe-dresearch.com is registered to the same location as Lane Labs, and Andrew Lane is the registrant for publishedre-search.com. As of May 2002, publishedre-search.com included numerous articles and abstracts discussing shark cartilage as a possible treatment for cancer and MGN-3 as a possible treatment for cancer and HIV. Many of these articles were written by Drs. Lane and Ghoneum. A consumer who visited publishedresearch.com via the “Research” hyperlink on compassion-et.com could return to the compassion-et.com website simply by hitting the “Back” button on his or her web browser. Until November 2003, consumers could purchase both BeneFin and MGN-3 from the compassionet.com website. Until at least 1999, Defendants’ com-passionet.com website included the following metatags: “alternative cancer therapies,” “non-toxic cancer therapy,” “cancer treatment,” “Brain Tumors,” “Breast Cancer,” “Cancer Patients,” “Colon Cancer,” “Gynecologic Cancers,” “Laryngeal Cancer,” “Leukemia,” “Lung Cancer,” “Lymphoma,” “Neuroblastoma,” “Ovarian Cancer,” “Prostate Cancer,” “Skin Cancer,” “Testicular Cancer,” “Thyroid Cancer,” “arthritis,” “osteoarthritis,” “rheumatoid arthritis,” “Kaposis sarcoma,” “cancer survivors,” “squamous cell carcinoma,” “melanoma,” “Dr. Lane,” “Dr. I. William Lane,” “Sharks Don’t Get Cancer,” and “The Skin Cancer Answer.” The Government claims that Defendants have used Dr. Lane’s company, Cartilage Consultants, both to promote the Products as treatments for disease and to superficially separate the sale of the Products from the sale of Dr. Lane’s books. Through an undercover investigation conducted by the FDA from 1997 to 1998, the Government found that consumers who called the 1-800 number for Lane Labs’ CompassionNet division were referred to Marian Murphy, then an employee of Cartilage Consultants, for information about BeneFin, MGN-3 and SkinAnswer. Ms. Murphy in turn made statements explicitly promoting the use of those products for the treatment of cancer and skin cancer. (Pl.Ex. 23, Tab A, Attach. 8 at 2-7, 11-12 & Attach. 18 at 2-3,12-13,16-19.) Furthermore, FDA investigators found that if a consumer called Lane Labs’ Com-passioNet division to order any of the Products and asked to purchase one of Dr. Lane’s books or videos, the consumer was told to call a Cartilage Consultants 1-800 number to purchase the promotional materials. Likewise, if a consumer called Cartilage Consultants’ 1-800 number and asked to purchase BeneFin, MGN-3 or SkinAnswer, he or she would be referred to the 1-800 number for CompassioNet. Defendants discontinued all of these practices, in addition to terminating Ms. Murphy, in May 2000, after this lawsuit was filed. IV. USE OF THE PRODUCTS AND FDA INVOLVEMENT The parties stipulate that cancer, HIV/ AIDS and skin cancer are all diseases not capable of self-diagnoses or self-treatment by a layperson. The FDA has not approved any of the Products at issue in this action for the treatment, cure or mitigation of disease. Specifically, BeneFin has not be approved by the FDA for use in the cure, mitigation, treatment or prevention of any form of cancer. MGN-3 has not been approved by the FDA for use in the cure, mitigation, treatment or prevention of either cancer or HIV. Likewise, SkinAn-swer has not been approved by the FDA for use in the cure, mitigation, treatment or prevention of any form of skin cancer. There is currently no approved new drug application or abbreviated new drug application on file with the FDA for Bene-Fin, MGN-3 or SkinAnswer. Furthermore, there is no investigational new drug application (“IND”) on file with the FDA for either MGN-3 or SkinAnswer. However, the National Cancer Institute is currently the sponsor of an IND for the study of BeneFin. The study is being conducted at the Mayo Clinic. The Government contends there are no adequate and well-controlled studies establishing the effectiveness of BeneFin for cancer, MGN-3 for cancer or HIV, or Ski-nAnswer for skin cancer. The Government further claims that the Products are not generally recognized, among qualified experts, as safe and effective treatments for the those diseases. Defendants dispute these contentions, agreeing only that the FDA has not approved the Products for these purposes. Further, Lane Labs claims that there is no evidence that Bene-Fin, MGN-3 and SkinAnswer are unsafe. The Government counters that without well-controlled and peer-reviewed studies, the relative safety of the Products cannot be ascertained. Defendants assert that there is no evidence that patients forgo traditional treatments for cancer or HIV/AIDS while using BeneFin, MGN-3 or SkinAnswer. In support of this proposition, Defendants cite to, inter alia, a declaration from Alexander Schauss, Ph.D. (“Dr.Schauss”), the President and Director of Natural and Medicinal Products Research in the Life Sciences Division of the American Institute for Bio-social and Medical Research, Inc. (“AIBMR”), a consulting company specializing in natural products research. Dr. Schauss reviewed various studies published in the Journal of the American Medical Association and other publications and determined that alternative medicines were not being used in lieu of traditional treatments for HIV/AIDS and cancer. (Defs.Ex. 3, ¶¶ 17-20, 41, 45.) Dr. Shauss testified: After reviewing over thirty-five published papers on the use of [alternative and complementary medicine] therapies, and all of the literature reviewed by the plaintiffs experts, I was unable to find any evidence suggesting a risk that patients will forego conventional care for cancer or HIV in favor of dietary supplements, neutraceuticals or the like. (Id. ¶ 20.) The Government maintains that consumers can and do use the Products offered by Lane Labs in lieu of more traditional treatments for cancer and HIV. (E.g. PL Ex. 67, Miller Decl. ¶ 35) (Government expert found that “patients with cancer who have read or heard about BeneFin can and do call directly and order BeneFin for the self-treatment of cancer.”). In addition, the Government points to the hundreds of emails and letter received by Lane Labs, and produced during discovery, in which Lane Labs customers laud the medicinal benefits of the Products. The following are only excerpts from the myriad of comments sent to Lane Labs: I was given 17 weeks to live and no hope of a treatment that would help or cure my grade iv gioblastoma brain tumor. That was in 1995, With the use of BE-NEFIN shark cartilage I am still alive with hope. If I can’t take benefin I will most certainly perish quickly.. .1 might add that I never did radiation or chemo, I belief that those treatments are what kill people with my diagnosis. (Pl.Ex. 85 at LL5088) (punctuation and spelling in original). I have used SkinAnswer for a small patch of skin cancer I had on my back. It is now gone. A friend of mine is now using MGN-3, instead of radiation and/or chemotherapy following surgery for colon cancer. He is doing just fine, thank you_Where would we be without these alternatives? Unlike prescription drugs, they have essentially no side effects.... {Id. at LL4620.) I think the lawsuit against Lane Labs is wrong. I was operated on Nov. 18, 1999 for colon cancer and after taking KEMO for 4 weeks I decided it was doing more harm than good, I started taking mgm-3 and Benefin from Lane Labs and when I took my last cat scan no CANCER or any sign of CANCER could be found. I am convinced the products works and that is the reason the FDA want control. {Id. at LL4725) (punctuation and spelling in original). Between June and November 1997, the FDA cautioned Lane Labs, both orally and in writing, against unlawful promotion of BeneFin and other products. Specifically, in September 1997, the FDA issued a warning letter to Defendants stating, in relevant part: Based on the claims made for these products and their intended uses, “Bene-Fin” and “SkinAnswer” are neither cosmetics nor dietary supplements. Under Section 201(g) of the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (the Act) [Section 201(g) ], they are drugs. They are also unapproved new drugs [Section 201(p) of the Act] and may not be legally marketed in the United States without approved New Drug Applications (§ 505).[¶] These drugs are also misbranded (§ 502(f)(1)) because the labeling fails to bear adequate directions for use.... This letter is not intended to be [an] all-inclusive review of all labeling and products your firm markets. It is your responsibility to ensure that all products marketed by your firm are in compliance with the Act and its implementing regulations. [¶]... Failure to promptly correct violations may result in enforcement action initiated by the Food and Drug Administration without further notice. (Pl.Ex. 44). The Government issued a final warning letter on September 22, 1999, warning of an impending lawsuit if Defendants did not cease their marketing activities. The Government brought suit against Defendants in December 1999. In June 2000, Lane Labs reached a settlement and entered into a consent decree with the Federal Trade Commission (“FTC”) in a related action for false advertising. See FTC v. Lane Labs-USA, Inc., et al., Civ. No. 00-3174 (D.N.J.)(WGB). The consent decree was subsequently entered by the Court on September 26, 2000 (“FTC Final Order”). On February 9, 2001, Lane Labs submitted a compliance report to the FTC without objection. Lane Labs has also offered information about settlement negotiations that took place between the Government and Defendants in this action both before and after the Government filed its Complaint. The admissibility of these statements is discussed more fully below. Y. LANE LABS’ CURRENT ACTIVITIES In its reply brief, the Government offers new evidence regarding alleged continuing violations of the FDCA by Lane Labs. Many of these factual contentions are strenuously disputed by Defendants. On September 17, 2003, this Court granted Defendants’ motion to file a sur-reply, thereby enabling Lane Labs to respond to the Government’s new factual contentions. In the sur-reply filed thereafter on October 3rd, Defendants countered many of the factual contentions presented by the Government in its reply brief. For example, the Government attached to its reply brief a declaration from Ann Stahl (“Stahl”), an investigator for the FTC. Stahl declared that she attended a Cancer Control Convention in Universal City, California on September 2, 2002. Stahl claimed she spoke to a representative at Lane Labs’ exhibit booth named “Joe” who made representations that MGN-3 is an effective treatment for cancer. The Government argues that this type of action, and continued false representations by Defendants, exhibits Lane Labs’ current and ongoing statutory violations. On sur-reply, Defendants filed a declaration from Joseph Bonneau (“Bonneau”), the inside sales director for Lane Labs. Bonneau declared that he had attended the Cancer Control Convention on September 2, 2002 with one other Lane Labs employee, Len Rubin, the former inside sales manager and current outbound sales manager for Lane Labs. Bonneau was the only individual named “Joe” representing Lane Labs at the Convention. Bonneau declared: I am confident I never told Ms. Stahl, or anyone else for that matter, that MGN-3 or any other Lane Labs product was an effective treatment for cancer or any other disease... .Andrew Lane and other Lane Labs representatives have repeatedly emphasized to me and other Lane Labs employees that not only must we refrain from giving any inference that we are promoting any Lane Labs product for the treatment of disease, but that if anyone approaches us and starts talking about cancer or any other disease, we must immediately advise them that we are prohibited from speaking to them about Lane Labs’ products in connection with the treatment of any disease. (Bonneau Deck, Defs. Ex. 33 ¶ 7.) One of the strongest pieces of evidence provided by the Government as to Lane Labs’ continued violations is presented in Exhibit 105, also attached to the Government’s reply brief. Exhibit 105 includes printouts dated September 14, 2002 from Lane Labs’ website, lanelabs.com. These web pages provide information about ordering the Products by phone, as well as links to compassionet.com. In addition, these printouts from Lane Labs’ website, contain the following information: (a) a press release announcing a Phase III clinical trial of BeneFin for the treatment of cancer and quoting Andrew Lane as saying “we’re confident that BeneFin will be proven effective in this trial” (Pl.Ex. 105 at 10); (b) a press release describing MGN-3 as able to “arrest tumor cell growth” based on an in vitro study conducted by Dr. Ghoneum (Id. at 11); (c) a press release claiming that a “new clinical study indicates that administrations of MGN3... may help reduce toxicity in patients undergoing treatment with.. .two common chemotherapy agents” (Id. at 10-11); and (d) an interview with Dr. Ghone-um discussing successful use of MGN-3 in terminal patients “to extend their lives beyond their doctors’ expectations” and claiming the product “will boost natural killer cell activity to destroy any remaining abnormal cells after surgery or adjuvant treatment.” (Id. at 83-34.) In its sur-reply, Lane Labs argues that the entirety of the information presented in Plaintiffs Exhibit 105 was improperly obtained from lanelabs.com and should not have been available to the public. Defendants provide a declaration from Russell Mendola (“Mendola”), who was the webmaster for Lane Labs from October 1999 to July 2003. Mendola declared that the materials presented in Plaintiffs Exhibit 105 “were downloaded from an area of the Lane Labs’ web site that was supposed to be secured and for media professionals only. The web site was designed so that a user who came to that area could not proceed any further without submitting a user name and password.” (Defs. Ex. 34 ¶ 6.) Mendola declared that a breakdown in the network had occurred such that the password system had become inadvertently deactivated. Upon realizing what had happened, Menodola claims he contacted the web host provider, which immediately reset the password protections. It is unclear from Mendola’s declaration who was supposed to have access to the information included in Exhibit 105. Mendola does not explain who the “media professionals” are to which his declaration refers. Given that much of the evidence supplied by the Government with its reply brief concerning Lane Labs’ more recent alleged violations is contested by Defendants, at oral argument on November 13, 2003, this Court requested that the Government supply additional information regarding Defendants’ alleged continuing violations up to that point. In response to this Court’s order, the Government provided additional evidence regarding an alleged pattern of conduct by Defendants that continued until at least January 2004. The Government has submitted extensive evidence of Defendants’ continued improper marketing of the Products. After oral argument on November 13, 2003, Defendants apparently took down the com-passionet.com website. (Taylor Decl. of 12/1/03 ¶ 3.) However, the Government contends that Defendants continue to make disease treatment claims for their Products through the lanelabs.com and publishedresearch.com websites, as well as through the dissemination of their Com-passioNet catalog to potential customers. For instance, as shown by the Declaration of Paige Taylor, Esq. of the FDA, as of November 11, 2003, the compassion-et.com website contained an interview with Dr. Ghoneum in which he explains the benefits of MGN-3 to patients who have been exposed to adjuvant treatments. (Taylor Decl. of 12/1/03 ¶ 2, Ex. A.) In fact, this is the very interview, attached as Exhibit 105 to Plaintiffs Reply Brief, that Lane Labs had claimed was mistakenly made available through an error on its website. Not only was the Government able to access this article in November 2003 on the compassionet.com website, the lanelabs.com website contained the text of this very same interview with Dr. Ghone-um as late as January 6, 2004. (Taylor Am. Second Decl. of 1/8/04, Ex. A.) In a declaration submitted in response to the Government’s allegations of continuing violations, Andrew Lane declared that Lane Labs had removed the offending lines from the interview with Dr. Ghoneum highlighted in the Government’s brief. (Lane Decl. of 12/18/04 ¶ 3.) However, as displayed by the January 6th Taylor Declaration submitted by the Government, the Ghoneum interview was still readily accessible to the public. Therefore, as late as January 2004, Defendants’ website contained statements regarding MGN-3’s effectiveness for patients who had undergone cancer treatments, statements that Andrew Lane had represented to the Court that it had removed from its websites. That is just one of many examples provided by the Government as to Defendants’ continued and systematic pattern of behavior. The Government also shows how, as of November 2003, Defendants’ websites continued to associate the Products with Drs. Lane and Ghoneum and continued to link lanelabs.com to publishe-dresearch.com, which contains many of Drs. Lane and Ghoneum’s articles and abstracts. These articles and abstracts contain various statements about cancer and HIV. As of November 2003, Lane Labs’ websites contained four articles co-authored by Dr. Lane. (Taylor Decl. of 12/1/03, Ex. F.) One article reported alleged favorable results in “29 end stage patients with various forms of cancer” who were treated with shark cartilage. (Id. at 15-16.) Another article by Dr. Lane claimed that “major responses” were seen in seven out of eight terminal cancer patients in a study conducted by Dr. Lane, and that 14 of the 29 terminal patients in a trial in Cuba “are completely well and cancer-free after 34 months.” (Id. at 30-40.) In addition, as of November 2003, the publishedresearch.com website contained at least 11 articles authored by Dr. Ghone-um. (Taylor Decl. of 12/1/03, Ex. F.) In one of the articles, Dr. Ghoneum wrote: “In addition to very encouraging results using MGN3 in the treatment of malignancies, other research suggests a promising role for MGN3 as a therapy for HIV, Hepatitis C and other viral infections ... [MGN-3] has enormous promise as an immunotherapy in the treatment of cancer and other diseases.” (Id. at 56-59.) Defendants do not deny the evidence presented by the Government. Rather, they contend that the information presented on their various websites does not run afoul of either the DHSEA or the FDCA. PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND The Government commenced this action on December 10, 1999. The Government brought its motion for summary judgment and request for statutory injunction after the parties conducted extensive discovery over a period of years. On August 30, 2002, this Court granted a motion brought by the American Association for Health Freedom (“AAHF”) for leave to file an amicus curiae brief in partial opposition to the Government’s motion for summary judgment. Thereafter, the Government was granted leave to file an omnibus brief in reply to Defendants’ opposition to the Government’s motion for summary judgment and in response to the amicus curiae brief. Defendants also filed a-separate motion to strike six (6) exhibits offered on reply or, alternatively, for permission to file a sur-reply in further opposition to the Government’s motion for summary judgment. On September 17, 2003, this Court granted Defendants’ motion to file a sur-reply, but limited the content of the sur-reply to only the factual issues presented in Plaintiffs exhibits 105, 106 and 111-114, the six exhibits to which Defendants objected. The Court specifically stated it would disregard any discussion or argument by Defendants in the sur-reply beyond the scope of those exhibits. On November 13, 2003, this Court held oral argument on the Government’s motion for summary judgment and request for injunctive and other equitable relief. At the conclusion of oral argument, the Court ordered supplemental briefing from the parties on two important issues. First, the Court ordered briefing on the issue of the restitution and disgorgement remedies requested by the Government. Second, as mentioned above, the Court requested briefing on alleged current and continuing violations of the FDCA by Lane Labs. The Court set dates by which the Government was to submit supplemental briefs on each of these issues as well as dates by which Defendants should file opposing briefs. On consent of the parties, and upon permission from the Court, these deadlines were extended, some until March 2004. In April 2004, the Government moved for leave to file a reply to Defendants’ supplemental brief opposing the Government’s request for restitution and disgorgement. Due to the complicated and novel legal questions this case presents with respect to the restitution and disgorgement issue, on April 14, 2004, the Court granted the Government’s motion for leave to file a reply brief, over the objection of Defendants. DISCUSSION I. SUMMARY JUDGMENT STANDARD Summary judgment is appropriate only if there is no genuine issue as to any material fact. Fed.R.Civ.P. 56(c). The applicable substantive law determines whether or not a fact is material. Anderson v. Liberty Lobby, Inc., 477 U.S. 242, 248, 106 S.Ct. 2505, 91 L.Ed.2d 202 (1986). An issue of fact is genuine only “if the evidence is such that a reasonable jury could return a verdict for the nonmoving party.” Id. at 248, 106 S.Ct. 2505 (citation omitted). In determining whether a genuine issue of material fact exists, all inferences must be drawn, and all doubts must be resolved, in favor of the non-moving party. Coregis Ins. Co. v. Baratta & Fenerty, Ltd., 264 F.3d 302, 305-306 (3d Cir.2001) (citing Anderson, 477 U.S. at 248, 106 S.Ct. 2505). The moving party has the initial burden of showing that no genuine issue of material fact remains. Celotex Corp. v. Catrett, 477 U.S. 317, 323, 106 S.Ct. 2548, 91 L.Ed.2d 265 (1986). If the moving party satisfies this requirement, the burden shifts to the nonmoving party to present evidence that there is a genuine issue for trial. Id. at 324, 106 S.Ct. 2548. II. REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR MARKETING AND DISTRIBUTING DRUGS AND DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS The core objective of the FDCA, codified at 21 U.S.C. §§ 301-397, “is to ensure that any product regulated by the FDA is ‘safe’ and ‘effective’ for its intended use.” Food and Drug Admin. v. Brown & Williamson Tobacco Corp., 529 U.S. 120, 133, 120 S.Ct. 1291, 146 L.Ed.2d 121 (2000) (citing 21 U.S.C. § 393(b)(2)). The FDCA grants the FDA the authority to regulate, among other items, “drugs.” Section 321(g)(1) defines the statutory meaning of the term “drug.” The term “drug” means (A) articles recognized in the official United States Pharmacopoeia, official Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia of the United States, or official National Formulary, or any supplement to any of them; and (B) articles intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease in man or other animals; and (C) articles (other than food) intended to affect the structure or any function of the body of man or other animals; and (D) articles intended for use as a component of any article specified in clause (A), (B), or (C). 21 U.S.C. § 321(g)(1) (emphasis added). In 1994, Congress amended the FDCA by enacting DSHEA, which established a new regulatory category for dietary supplements. The DSHEA amendments to the FDCA distinguish drugs from dietary supplements. Pursuant to DSHEA, the term “dietary supplement” is defined as: [A] product (other than tobacco) intended to supplement the diet that bears or contains one or more of the following dietary ingredients: (A) a vitamin; (B) a mineral; (C) an herb or other botanical; (D) an amino acid; (E) a dietary substance for use by man to supplement the diet by increasing the total dietary intake; or (F) a concentrate, metabolite, constituent, extract, or combination of any ingredient described in clause (A), (B), (C), (D), or (E). 21 U.S.C. § 321(H)(1). One purpose of DSHEA was “to narrow the reach of the FDA’s preauthorization scheme out of concern over excessive regulation of dietary supplements and the suppression of truthful information.” Nutritional Health Alliance v. Shalala, 144 F.3d 220, 224 (2d Cir.1998) (quotation marks and citation omitted). Prior to the enactment of DSHEA, the FDA had promulgated a complex set of regulations requiring that certain claims made on the labels of dietary supplement first be subjected to FDA scrutiny. See id. at 223-224 (citing 21 C.F.R. §§ 101.13-101.14,101.70). DSHEA expanded the types of claims dietary supplement manufacturers are permitted to place on their products without first obtaining approval from the FDA. The type of claims allowed by DSHEA include: (1) statements asserting “a benefit related to a classical nutrient deficiency disease and disclosing] the prevalence of such disease in the United States”; (2) statements commonly known as “structure-function claims” that “describe the role of a nutrient or dietary ingredient intended to affect the structure or function in humans [and] characterize the documented mechanism by which a nutrient or dietary ingredient acts to maintain such structure or function”; and (3) declarations of “general well-being from consumption of a nutrient or dietary ingredient.” 21 U.S.C. § 343(r)(6)(A). These types of claims are permissible under DSHEA only if the manufacturer of the dietary supplement has “substantiation” that the “statement is truthful and not misleading” and if the label contains the following disclaimer in boldface type: “This statement has not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. This product is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease.” 21 U.S.C. § 343(r)(6)(B)-(C). Although DSHEA permits these three types of claims without preapproval from the FDA, manufacturers are specifically prohibited from making any claim that the dietary supplement diagnoses, mitigates, treats, cures or prevents a specific disease or class of diseases. 21 U.S.C. § 343(r)(6). “If the manufacturer of a dietary supplement proposes to make [such] a statement. . .in the labeling of the dietary supplement, the manufacturer shall notify the Secretary no later than 30 days after the first marketing of the dietary supplement with such statement that such a statement is being made.” Id. DSHEA also permits natural products companies to publicize the health benefits of dietary supplements without prior FDA approval. Under DSHEA’s exemption for “third-party literature,” manufacturers may, “in connection with the sale of a dietary supplement,” provide consumers with publications such as articles, books or abstracts from scientific publications. 21 U.S.C. § 343-2. This type of material is not defined as labeling under the statute when it is used in connection with the sale of a dietary supplement to consumers and it: (1) is not false or misleading; (2) does not promote a particular manufacturer or brand of a dietary supplement; (3) is displayed or presented, or is displayed or presented with other such items on the same subject matter, so as to present a balanced view of the available scientific information on a dietary supplement; (4) if displayed in an establishment, is physically separate from the dietary supplements; and (5) does not have appended to it any information by sticker or any other method. 21 U.S.C. § 343-2(a). Assuming these five provisions are met, third-party literature provided to consumers regarding the health benefits of dietary supplements is permissible. Notwithstanding DSHEA’s attempt to clarify the types of claims dietary supplement manufacturers may make without FDA approval, some confusion arises when the language of § 343(r)(6) is compared to that of § 321(g)(1). Section 321(g)(1)(C) defines drugs as “articles (other than food) intended to affect the structure or any function of the body of man or other animals.” However, pursuant to § 343(r)(6)(A) of DSHEA, manufacturers -of dietary supplements may make structure-function claims describing how a particular nutrient or dietary supplement is “intended to affect the structure or function in humans.” From this language alone it is unclear how a dietary supplement may make a permissible structure-function claim pursuant to DSHEA without falling under FDCA’s definition of a drug. Section 321(g)(1) further explains these seemingly contradictory provisions. A food or dietary supplement for which a claim, subject to sections 343(r)(l)(B) and 343(r)(3) of this title or sections 343(r)(l)(B) and 343(r)(5)(D) of this title, is made in accordance with the requirements of section 343(r) of this title is not a drug solely because the label or the labeling contains such a claim. A food, dietary ingredient, or dietary supplement for which a truthful and not misleading statement is made in accordance with section 3h3(r)(6) of this title is not a drug under clause (C) solely because the label or the labeling contains such a statement. 21 U.S.C. § 321(g)(1) (emphasis added). Therefore, it does not follow that a product with a label that makes a permissible structure-function claim pursuant to § 343(r)(6)(A) is necessarily a drug under the definition in § 321(g)(1)(C). As long as the claim is “truthful and not misleading” under § 321(g)(1), and under a similar provision in § 343(r)(6)(B), manufactures of dietary supplements may make claims about how the supplement affects the structure or function of the body. However, given that § 343(r)(6) does specifically preclude manufacturers from claiming that a product diagnoses, mitigates, treats, cures, or prevents a specific disease or class of diseases, any claim of this sort necessarily places that product under the scope of the FDCA’s definition-of a drug. See 21 U.S.C. § 321(g)(1) (presenting an alternative definition of drugs as “articles intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease”); see also United States v. Writers & Research, Inc., 113 F.3d 8, 11 (2d Cir.1997) (finding a homeopathic substance is subject to FDCA requirements for drugs if it is promoted as a cure or treatment for an existing disease, such as cancer, AIDS or other diseases); United States v. Undetermined Quantities of Articles of Drug (Street Drug Alternatives), 145 F.Supp.2d 692, 698 (D.Md.2001). In sum, if this Court finds Defendants, in the process of marketing BeneFin, MGN-3 and SkinAnswer, limited their claims to permissible structure-function claims, and those claims are truthful and not misleading, this Court may consider Defendants’ argument that the Products are supplements pursuant to § 343(r)(6)(A) of DHSEA. If, however, this Court finds Defendants made claims that the Products diagnose, mitigate, treat, cure, or prevent a specific disease or class of diseases, the Products must be considered drugs under the FDCA. This distinction is important because drugs are subject to much stricter FDA compliance standards than are dietary supplements. E.g. 21 U.S.C. § 355 (FDCA mandates that any new drug be approved by the FDA before it is marketed); 21 U.S.C. § 352(f)(1) (FDCA requires the labels of all drugs to bear “adequate directions for use”). III. DID DEFENDANTS VIOLATE THE FDCA? The Government moves for summary judgment based on a three step argument. First, the Government contends that the Products should be considered drugs under the FDCA, because they were marketed to cure, mitigate, treat, diagnose or cure specific diseases, namely HIV/AIDS, cancer and skin cancer. Second, under the Government’s theory, since the Products are not dietary supplements under DSHEA, but are drugs under the FDCA, the Products should be classified as unapproved new drugs pursuant to 21 U.S.C. §§ 321 (p) & 355(a) and misbranded drugs within the meaning of 21 U.S.C. § 352(f)(1). Finally, the Government concludes that Defendants have therefore committed three prohibited acts under 21 U.S.C. §§ 331(a), (d) & (k) of the FDCA, which prohibit the introduction of a mis-branded or unapproved new drug into interstate commerce. A. Are BeneFin, MGN-S and SkinAn-swer Drugs within the meaning of 21 U.S.C. § 321(q)(l)? Before considering whether Defendants have violated the FDCA, this Court must first determine whether the FDCA applies to the Products as drugs, or whether DSHEA’s amendments apply to the Products as dietary supplements. If this Court find Defendants limited their claims to permissible structure-function claims, the Products may be considered dietary supplements pursuant to DSHEA. If, however, this Court finds Defendants claimed the Products treat or cure any disease, the Products must be considered drugs under the FDCA. 1. Standard for determining whether a product is a drug under § 321(g)(1)(B) is objective The Government’s summary judgment motion turns on whether Defendants intended to market the Products for use in the treatment or cure of disease. See 21 U.S.C. § 321(g)(1)(B) (defining drugs as “articles intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease”) (emphasis added). “[Cjourts have found that because the FDCA definitions of dietary supplements and drugs are not mutually exclusive, FDA regulations may properly focus on intent.” Whitaker v. Thompson, 239 F.Supp.2d 43, 51-52 (D.D.C.2003), aff'd 353 F.3d 947 (D.C.Cir.2004) (citation omitted). Defendants argue that Lane Labs’ intent is a material question of fact that cannot be resolved without the benefit of an evidentiary hearing. However, the cases cited by Defendants for this proposition are inapposite in that they do not involve the FDCA and instead address the general contention that subjective intent is a question of fact for the jury. As the Government correctly argues, the issue before this Court is not, as Defendants contend, Lane Labs’ subjective intent in marketing the Products. Rather, the “intended use” referred to within the FDCA framework contemplates “the objective intent of those persons legally responsible for the labeling of drugs.” 21 C.F.R. § 201.128 (emphasis added)(“The intent is determined by such persons’ expressions or may be shown by the circumstances surrounding the distribution of the article.”). Various other courts, when considering similar FDCA enforcement actions, have upheld this objective standard. E.g., United States v. Kasz Enterprises, Inc., 855 F.Supp. 534, 542 (D.R.I.1994), amended on other grounds, 862 F.Supp. 717 (D.R.I.1994) (holding “[i]t is the objective intent of the vendor, not the vendor’s subjective explanations and disclaimers, which determines the intended use of a product, as gleaned not only from the vendor’s statements, but from any relevant source, such as promotional material, advertising, labeling and other circumstances surrounding the distribution of the article.”) (emphasis in original); United States v. Storage Spaces Designated Nos. “8” & "9”, 777 F.2d 1363, 1366 (9th Cir.1985) (“[Ijntent may be derived or inferred from labeling, promotional material, advertising, or any other relevant source.”) (citation omitted). Defendants do not claim that the bulk of voluminous evidentiary materials submitted by the Government in support of its motion are inaccurate. Defendants do contest the Government’s characterization of that evidence and argue that the Court should view the evidence through a particular statutory lense. Importantly, Defendants do not dispute that the labels, websites, articles and other marketing material were in fact distributed by Lane Labs. Given that the standard for deciding whether a product is a drug under 21 U.S.C. § 321(g)(1)(B) is objective, determining Defendants’ intent, as gleaned from the bulk of evidence submitted pursuant to this motion, does not itself present an issue of material fact. By relying on all the factual material that is now before the Court, the Court may make a legal determination, pursuant to Section 321(g)(1)(B), whether Defendants intended to market the Products for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease. a. BeneFin & MGN-3 Lane Labs contends it has made appropriate structure-function claims for MGN-3 and BeneFin pursuant to DSHEA, 21 U.S.C. § 343(r)(6)(A). Defendants highlight the fact that the words cancer, HIV and AIDS do not appear on either the label or packaging for MGN-3 or BeneFin. Defendants further argue that the alleged disease claims to which the Government objects were included entirely in third-party literature, which Lane Labs contends it was allowed to distribute under DSHEA, 21 U.S.C. § 343-2(a). In the factual background section of this Opinion, this Court has outlined in some detail the marketing actions of Lane Labs over a five year period. Without rehashing the entire history of Lane Labs’ marketing and distribution practices, it is clear that the claims made by Defendants with regards to the Products have gone well beyond the structure-function claims permitted by § 343(r)(6)(A). A structure-function claim may “describe the role of a nutrient or dietary ingredient intended to affect the structure or function in humans.” 21 U.S.C. 343(r)(6)(A). However, Lane Labs did not limit the contents of its promotional material to statements of that nature. In fact, many of the materials at issue in this action blatantly claimed that the given product was an effective treatment for cancer or HIV/AIDS, both of which the parties stipulate are diseases not capable of self-diagnosis or self-treatment. For example, much of the material written by Dr. Lane, including his books and the “Having My Say” article, have espoused the theory that shark cartilage is an effective treatment for cancer. Defendants have used Dr. Lane’s name and picture in its packaging and have distributed his written work with the Products. In addition, Defendants have provided links to Dr. Lane’s articles and interviews through its publish-edresearch.com website. Lane Labs has similarly distributed mailings to customers and potential customers that include articles by Dr. Gho-neum, such as “One Sizeable Step for Immunology, One Giant Leap for Cancer Patients,” in which Dr. Ghoneum advocates that MGN-3 is a promising treatment for cancer and HIV/AIDS. Furthermore, Defendants have used Dr. Ghoneum’s endorsement on advertisements for its Products, specifically MGN-3. Defendants’ publishedre-search.com website also provides links to abstracts written by Dr. Ghoneum. In addition to the materials authored by Drs. Lane and Ghoneum, Defendants have distributed third-party promotional literature — such as the “A New Chapter in Healing