Full opinion text
OPINION & ORDER MARBLEY, District Judge. I. INTRODUCTION This matter is before this Court on numerous death penalty related motions filed by Defendant Thomas A. Henderson (“Defendant”). This Court conducted an oral hearing on these motions on March 9, 2007, and, based on those arguments and those set forth in memoranda submitted to this Court, rules as set forth below. II. BACKGROUND Defendant has been indicted for two counts of capital murder with accompanying weapons charges. Specifically, Defendant is charged with two counts of murder in retaliation for providing information to law enforcement and/or serving as a witness in a federal prosecution, 18 U.S.C. § 1513(a)(1)(B), and two counts of committing these crimes with a firearm, 18 U.S.C. § 924(c)(l)(A)(iii). The Government has given notice that it is been authorized by the Attorney General to seek the death penalty for Defendant and intends to do so. Defendant has filed several motions relating to the death penalty, discovery, and trial procedures, and the Government has responded. III. ANALYSIS A. Defendant’s Motion to Appear in Civilian Clothing at All Proceedings (Doc. # 42) Defendant asks this Court to order the United States Marshals in charge of transporting him to and from Court to permit him to change from his jail uniform into civilian clothes before appearing in any court proceedings, including pre-trial appearances. The Government does not object to Defendant’s request. Accordingly, Defendant’s Motion is GRANTED. Defendant has the burden of obtaining such civilian clothing and providing it in a timely manner to the U.S. Marshals’ Service, in advance of all court appearances. B. Defendant’s Motion to Appear at all Proceedings without Restraints (Doc. # 48) Defendant asks this Court to permit him to appear at all proceedings without restraints and to keep the jurors from viewing him in restraints. The Government does not object to any reasonable attempts to shield the jurors from viewing Defendant in restraints. The gravity of Defendant’s alleged crimes, in addition to this Court’s understanding of Defendant’s past convictions, militates in favor of restraints, so as to prevent any future violence or possibility of escape. Defendant’s suggested security alternative — additional security personnel — lacks practicality and safety. Courthouse security will already be substantially burdened by this trial’s length (four to six weeks) and by a potentially large number of trial observers. Furthermore, restraints provide a degree of assured safety not available through other means. To ensure that Defendant is not unduly prejudiced by this Court’s need to secure the courtroom, however, every effort will be made to minimize the jury’s awareness of the restraints. Defendant will be required to wear leg and belt restraints only, which will not be obvious to the jury. Moreover, Defendant will be escorted into the courtroom before the jury members take their seats, and he will leave the courtroom after the jury has departed, thus, eliminating the jury’s opportunity to see the restraints. Additionally, leg and belt restraints, as opposed to handcuffs, will allow Defendant to participate actively in his case as he will be free to take notes or bring something to his counsels’ attention. Thus, in light of Defendant’s alleged crimes and because of this Court’s need to protect the security of the courtroom, Defendant will wear leg and stun belt restraints, which will be shielded by a skirt around the table, during both the trial phase and the sentencing phase, if the latter is necessary. At all other times— for instance when Defendant is traveling to and from the courthouse — normal security measures will be utilized, including handcuffs. Accordingly, Defendant’s Motion to Appear at All Proceedings Without Restraints is GRANTED in part and DENIED in part. C.Defendant’s Motion to Exclude Other Acts Evidence (Docs. #44 and #96) Defendant moves this Court for an order prohibiting the Government from admitting any evidence relating to his pri- or criminal convictions or prior alleged criminal conduct for which Defendant is not indicted in the instant case. Specifically, Defendant asks this Court to prohibit reference to any of the following topics during trial: (1) Defendant’s prior conviction for bank robbery on or about April 27, 1973 in the Southern District of Ohio; (2) Defendant’s prior conviction of manslaughter on or about 1982 in Franklin County, Ohio; (3) Defendant’s prior conviction for drug distribution on or about April 29, 2002 in the Southern District of Ohio; (4) Defendant’s prior conviction of making a false statement in the acquisition of a firearm on or about April 29, 2002 in the Southern District of Ohio; (5) Defendant’s prior conviction for twelve counts of money laundering on or about April 29, 2002 in the Southern District of Ohio; (6) Defendant’s alleged participation in the intentional killing of Edward Boyd on or about June 26, 1981 in Franklin County, Ohio; and (7) Defendant’s alleged intentional killing of Ronald Beauford on or about May 30, 1981 in Franklin County, Ohio; (8) Defendant’s alleged intentional killing of Robert Catchings on or about May 30, 1981 in Franklin County, Ohio; (9) Defendant’s alleged participation in bank robberies other than the 1981 robbery of the Macon Bank & Trust Company in Macon, Georgia; and (10) Defendant’s alleged acts of intimidating, threatening or trying to influence the testimony of potential government witnesses in this case. In the alternative, Defendant requests that this Court conduct a pre-trial eviden-tiary hearing and require the Government to prove that any evidence of criminal convictions or alleged criminal conduct outside of the instant case offered by the Government satisfies one of the limited exceptions for admission under the Federal Rules of Evidence. Moreover, if this Court permits the Government to introduce such evidence, Defendant requests proper limiting instructions. The Government contends that some of the “other acts” evidence listed by Defendant will be appropriate for introduction during the trial phase. The Government asserts that it “does not anticipate” introducing evidence of the following during its case in chief in the trial phase: (1) Defendant’s prior conviction for bank robbery on or about April 27, 1973 in the Southern District of Ohio; (2) Defendant’s prior conviction of manslaughter on or about 1982 in Franklin County, Ohio; (3) Defendant’s prior conviction for drug distribution on or about April 29, 2002 in the Southern District of Ohio; (5) Defendant’s prior conviction for twelve counts of money laundering on or about April 29, 2002 in the Southern District of Ohio; (8) Defendant’s alleged intentional killing of Robert Catchings on or about May 30, 1981 in Franklin County, Ohio; and (9) Defendant’s alleged participation in bank robberies other than the 1981 robbery of the Macon Bank & Trust Company in Macon, Georgia. With respect to items (3), Defendant’s prior conviction for drug distribution, and (5), Defendant’s prior conviction of twelve counts of money laundering, however, the Government will offer numerous audiotapes of conversations conducted by Defendant while he has been in prison for such charges. The Government asserts that it will have to explain to the jury how law enforcement obtained these taped conversations, and will work with Defendant’s counsel before trial to minimize any unreasonable negative impact this evidence may present. The Government submits that the following items do not represent “other bad acts” evidence prohibited by Rule 404(b) of the Federal Rules of Evidence, but rather are integral to the offense conduct for which Defendant has been charged in this case: (4) Defendant’s prior conviction of making a false statement in the acquisition of a firearm on or about April 29, 2002 in the Southern District of Ohio; (6) Defendant’s alleged participation in the intentional killing of Edward Boyd on or about June 26, 1981 in Franklin County, Ohio; and (10) Defendant’s alleged acts of intimidating, threatening or trying to influence the testimony of potential government witnesses in this case. With respect to Defendant’s conviction for making a false statement in the purchase of a firearm, the Government intends to introduce evidence that would indicate that this firearm was the murder weapon. In addition, the Government asserts that Defendant’s ability to purchase a firearm while utilizing a false identification card also is relevant to the instant ease. The Government also argues that Defendant’s alleged participation on the intentional killing of Edward Boyd is directly related to the charged offenses. The Government explains that Boyd was also a potential witness for the 1981 Macon Georgia bank robbery for which Defendant was convicted, and which is the focus of the current indictment. Evidence of Boyd’s alleged killing, the Government argues, further supports the motive alleged for the murders charged in this case. Regarding Defendant’s alleged threats and efforts to influence the testimony of potential government witnesses in this case, the Government states that such spoliation of evidence, including threatening a witness, tends to establish consciousness of guilt without inferring to the character of Defendant, and therefore is relevant and admissible under the Federal Rules of Evidence. Fed.R.Evid. 402. Finally, the Government contends that the final item — (7) Defendant’s alleged intentional killing of Ronald Beauford on or about May 30, 1981 in Franklin County, Ohio-may become relevant at trial depending on the development of the case. The Government states that it will notify this Court and Defendant before any such evidence is introduced so a determination of admissibility can be made before any such testimony is presented to the jury. Defendant retorts that the Government provides no explanation of why this evidence is not prohibited under Fed.R.Evid. 404(b), or why it is an integral part of the offense conduct with which Defendant is charged. During oral arguments on this Motion, the parties submitted to this Court that the primary dispute over the “other acts evidence” rests in the evidence of Defendant’s alleged participation in the murder of Edward Boyd (aka Henry Lee Phillips) (hereinafter, “Boyd”) on June 26, 1981. This Court ordered further briefing on this issue to address the due process concerns Defendant raised in oral arguments. The parties have complied. According to the Government, the factual background surrounding the Boyd murder is as follows. Boyd and Stanley Humphrey (“Humphrey”) drove Defendant back from Macon, Georgia to Columbus, Ohio after Defendant committed a bank robbery in Macon. The Government alleges that because Defendant was concerned that Boyd would provide information to law enforcement about the robbery, Defendant solicited Humphrey to kill Boyd. The Government claims that the day after returning from Macon, June 24, 1981, Defendant drove Humphrey to Boyd’s residence where Humphrey killed Boyd and seriously injured Boyd’s girlfriend, Geraldine Thompson (“Thompson”). Humphrey was later convicted of Boyd’s murder and Thompson’s attempted murder. The Government claims that evidence of Defendant’s alleged participation in these crimes is intimately related to the Indictment here because Defendant is charged with killing Ecolia Washington and Robert Bass, the victims in this case, for their assistance in the prosecution of Defendant for the Macon, Georgia robbery. Because the motive for killing Boyd is the same, the Government claims, evidence of the offenses is relevant and admissible. Defendant argues that, for the following reasons, due process requires that the Government be prohibited from introducing such evidence in the trial phase: (1) Henderson has never been charged or indicted for Boyd’s murder or Thompson’s attempted murder; (2) The offense occurred more than 25 years ago, and in the passage of time, witnesses and physical evidence in Defendant’s defense are no longer accessible; (3) Defendant’s name is not mentioned by either party during Humphrey’s prosecution and Thompson testified that the only individual responsible for the shootings was Humphrey; (4) The introduction of such evidence at this point in time is tantamount to an unconstitutional pre-indictment delay. Rule 404(b) of the Federal Rules of Evidence forbids admission of evidence of other crimes or acts when offered “to prove the character of a person in order to show that he acted in conformity therewith.” Evidence of other crimes or acts may, however, be admissible for other purposes “such as proof of motive, opportunity, intent, preparation, plan, knowledge, identity, or absence of mistake or accident.” Fed.R.Evid. 404(b). The list of permissible uses of evidence of other crimes or acts set forth in Rule 404(b) is neither exhaustive nor conclusive. United, States v. Mendez-Ortiz, 810 F.2d 76, 79 (6th Cir.1986). Rule 404(b) admits evidence of other crimes or acts if the evidence is not offered to prove the conduct of a person by resorting to an inference as to his character, regardless of whether it fits within one of the listed uses. Id. Although relevant— and properly admissible under the 404(b) exceptions — “evidence may be excluded if its probative value is substantially outweighed by the danger of unfair prejudice, confusion of the issues, or misleading the jury, or by considerations of undue delay, waste of time, or needless presentation of cumulative evidence.” Fed.R.Evid. 403. Therefore, this Court must determine whether the evidence offered by the Government here is relevant to the case and whether the probative value of the evidence is not substantially outweighed by the danger of unfair prejudice to Defendant. This Court finds that, while evidence of the Boyd murder and Thompson attempted murder may be relevant to support further Defendant’s motive for killing those who may provide, or have provided, information to law enforcement relating to the Macon robbery, the evidence is substantially outweighed by the danger of unfair prejudice. First, the alleged offenses against Boyd and Thompson are too remote in time and their introduction would deny Defendant his right to present a meaningful and effective defense against such accusations because relevant evidence is likely to be lost or untraceable. See United States v. Tolley, 1999 WL 137620, 173 F.3d 431 (6th Cir.1999) (stating that in order for past acts evidence to be admissible, “the evidence must deal with conduct substantially similar and reasonably near in time to the offenses for which the defendant is being tried”) (citing United States v. Feinman, 930 F.2d 495, 499 (6th Cir.1991)); United States v. Green, 151 F.3d 1111, 1113 (8th Cir.1998) (stating that, under 404(b), evidence is admissible if it is relevant to a material issues and not overly remote in time); United States v. Norman, 1993 WL 425964, at *5, 8 F.3d 32 (9th Cir.1993) (same). Second, this Court agrees with Defendant’s analogy to pre-indictment delay. These offense are uncharged, unindicted crimes for which Defendant could now be punished should the Government be permitted to introduce relevant evidence. “[U]nreasonable delay between formal accusation and trial threatens to produce more than one sort of harm, including ... ‘the possibility that the [accused’s] defense will be impaired by dimming memories and loss of exculpatory evidence.” Doggett v. United States, 505 U.S. 647, 654, 112 S.Ct. 2686, 120 L.Ed.2d 520 (1992) (quoting Barker v. Wingo, 407 U.S. 514, 532, 92 S.Ct. 2182, 33 L.Ed.2d 101 (1972)). While Defendant has not been formally accused of these offenses, and thus pre-indictment delay doctrine does not apply, the probative value of such evidence would unfairly prejudice Defendant and his ability to defend the accusations. For these reasons, Defendant’s Motion to exclude the introduction of evidence relating to the Boyd murder and Thompson attempted murder, during the trial phase of the prosecution, is GRANTED. Defendant’s Motion with respect to the remaining evidence set forth above is MOOT, in light of the parties’ agreements and representations to this Court. Should further “other acts” evi-dentiary issues arise at trial, this Court will address them at that time. D. Defendant’s Motion in Limine to Exclude Photographs of the Deceased (Doc. # 45) Defendant requests that this Court conduct a pretrial hearing to preview the Government’s photographs of both of the victims taken during forensic examinations and issue an order in limine preventing the Government from admitting any of these photographs into evidence. Defendant claims that none of the photographs of the forensic examinations of the victims’ remains is relevant because they do not reliably reveal the time, place, or manner of death. In addition, Defendant claims that any probative value the photographs may contain is outweighed by the prejudicial impact the pictures would have on the jurors. The Government opposes Defendant’s motion, and asserts that the photographs are relevant and necessary to the Government’s case. The Government asserts that at least 45 days prior to trial, it will inform Defendant of the specific photographs the Government intends to use. Therefore, the Government claims, Defendant will have adequate time to object and no pretrial hearing is necessary. Due to the anticipated graphic nature of the photographs, and sensitivity of the subject matter, and to ensure the orderly presentation of evidence at trial, this Court orders the Government to provide Defendant with all photographs it intends to use at trial. If, after viewing the photographs, Defendant has any objections, Defendant is to file a motion to exclude those photographs. This Court will then, if necessary, hold a pretrial hearing in which the Government will explain the relevance of the opposed photographs and Defendant can present his objections. Until that time, however, this Court will not issue an order preventing the Government from admitting any of these photographs into evidence. This Court will take the current arguments under advisement and will issue an order, if necessary, after all objections have been resolved. Defendant’s Motion is GRANTED in part and DENIED in part. E. Defendant’s Motion to Prohibit any References to the First Phase of These Proceedings as the “Guilt Phase” (Doc. # 46) Defendant asks this Court to prohibit the Government and this Court itself from referring to the first phase of this proceeding as the guilt phase or to otherwise use the word “guilt” as a descriptor for the first part of these proceedings during which Defendant is adjudicated guilty or not guilty. The Government does not object to this request. Accordingly, the first phase of the trial shall be referred to as the “trial phase,” not as the “guilt phase” so as to avoid any undue influence on the jurors. In addition, if necessary, the second phase of the trial shall be called the “eligibility phase” and the third and final stage will be referred to as the “sentencing phase.” Defendant’s motion is GRANTED. F. Defendant’s Motion for Individual Sequestered Voir Dire on Death Penalty, Publicity, and Other Issues (Doc. # 47) Defendant requests that this Court question each juror, individually, regarding his or her stance on, or experience with: publicity, the death penalty, the likelihood of reversal on appeal or parole in the event of a life sentence, a defendant’s right to not testify, mental illness, child abuse, job loss, substance abuse, neglect, and any other sensitive or prejudicial matters relevant to this case. While this Court recognizes that there is a due process right to an impartial jury, Morgan v. Illinois, 504 U.S. 719, 726-27, 112 S.Ct. 2222, 119 L.Ed.2d 492 (1992), this Court also notes that it retains great latitude in conducting voir dire. As the Supreme Court explained in Rosales-Lopez v. United States, 451 U.S. 182, 101 S.Ct. 1629, 68 L.Ed.2d 22 (1981): Despite its importance, the adequacy of voir dire is not easily subject to appellate review. The trial judge’s function at this point in the trial is not unlike that of the jurors later on in the trial. Both must reach conclusions as to impartiality and credibility by relying on their own evaluations of demeanor evidence and of responses to questions. Id. at 188,101 S.Ct. 1629. This Court, while mindful of its duty to employ a system that creates a reasonable assurance that prejudice would be discovered if present, will utilize its discretion to conduct voir dire in groups of five jurors. United States v. Saimiento-Rozo, 676 F.2d 146, 148 (5th Cir.1982); Trujillo v. Sullivan, 815 F.2d 597, 607 (10th Cir.1987). Should this Court find this small group system unworkable for any reason, for example, if this Court finds that jurors are being less than candid in light of other panel members’ presence, this Court will modify its approach. Therefore, Defendant’s Motion for Individual Sequestered Voir Dire on Death Penalty, Publicity, and Other Issues is DENIED in part and GRANTED in part. G. Defendant’s Motion to Exclude Ve-nire Persons Who Cannot Fairly Consider Mitigating Evidence and/or Who Would Automatically Vote for Death upon a Finding of Guilt in the Culpability Phase; and Defendant’s Motion to Enforce Standards of Witherspoon v. Illinois and Wainwright v. Witt for Removing Death Scrupled Jurors For Cause (Docs. # 48 and # 49) Defendant requests that this Court excuse for cause all venire persons who cannot fairly consider mitigation evidence and/or who would automatically sign a death verdict after a sentencing hearing based on a finding of guilt in the trial phase. In addition, Defendant asks that this Court use the constitutional standards enunciated by the United States Supreme Court in Witherspoon v. Illinois and Wainwright v. Witt for removing death scrupled jurors for cause. In other words, Defendant asks this Court to apply the standard constitutional jury selection principles to remove jurors whose death penalty views would prevent or substantially impair the performance of their duties as jurors to be fair and impartial. The Government does not oppose Defendant’s Motions to the extent that the Motions simply reiterate the appropriate legal standards for jury selection. Accordingly, this Court GRANTS Defendant’s Motions and will exclude for cause all venire persons who would not be able faithfully and impartially to follow the law applicable to capital trials. H. Defendant’s Motion to Prohibit the Government’s Use of Peremptory Challenges to Exclude Venire Persons with Concerns About Imposing the Death Penalty (Doc. # 50) Defendant asks this Court to prohibit the Government from excluding, through the use of peremptory challenges, any prospective juror who expresses concern over the imposition of the death penalty and/or capital punishment in general. The Government objects, pointing out that Defendant fails to cite any cases precluding the Government from exercising peremptory challenges on potential jurors who express opposition to the death penalty- The essential nature of peremptory challenges is that they may be exercised by the Government and Defendant without a reason stated, without inquiry, and without being subject to the court’s control. McCoy v. Goldston, 652 F.2d 654, 657-58 (6th Cir.1981) (citing Swain v. Alabama, 380 U.S. 202, 220, 85 S.Ct. 824, 13 L.Ed.2d 759 (1965)). “While challenges for cause permit rejection of jurors on a narrowly specified, provable and legally cognizable basis of partiality, the peremptory permits rejection for a real or imagined partiality that is less easily designated or demonstrable.” Id. (quoting Swain, 380 U.S. at 220, 85 S.Ct. 824). While the United States Supreme Court has recognized two exceptions to unbridled ability to exercise peremptory challenges, see Batson v. Kentucky, 476 U.S. 79, 106 S.Ct. 1712, 90 L.Ed.2d 69 (1986) (prohibiting use of peremptory challenges to exclude a prospective jury member on the basis of race); J.E.B. v. Alabama, 511 U.S. 127, 114 S.Ct. 1419, 128 L.Ed.2d 89 (1994) (prohibiting use of peremptory challenges to exclude a prospective jury member on the basis of gender), otherwise eligible jurors who express concerns about capital punishment in general — not rising to the level of for cause dismissal — do not fall within this ambit. The United States Courts of Appeals for the Fourth, Fifth, Seventh, and Eighth Circuits have held that opposition to the death penalty is an acceptable and race-neutral reason for the Government’s exercise of a peremptory challenge. United States v. Barnette, 211 F.3d 803, 812 (4th Cir.2000), vacated on other grounds, — U.S.-, 126 S.Ct. 92, 163 L.Ed.2d 32; United States v. Webster, 162 F.3d 308, 348-50 (5th Cir.1998); United States v. Cooper, 19 F.3d 1154, 1160-62 (7th Cir.1994); United States v. Moore, 149 F.3d 773, 780 (8th Cir.1998). Just as the Government has no power to preclude Defendant from preempting otherwise death eligible jurors who express strong feedings in favor of the death penalty, Defendant has no power to preclude the Government from preempting otherwise death eligible jurors who express strong feelings against the death penalty. Defendant’s Motion is DENIED. I. Defendant’s Motion to Require the Jurors to Answer Interrogatories Regarding the Manner in Which they Weigh the Aggravating Factors and the Mitigating Factors (Doc. # 51) Defendant moves this Court for leave to submit “appropriate interrogatories” to the jurors during the sentencing phase requiring them to articulate the basis for their sentencing verdict. Defendant asserts that without a means to determine the precise aggravating factors and mitigating circumstances considered by the jury, “a reviewing court will have no way of knowing whether the decision is rational or arbitrary, appropriate or improper.” Defendant does not offer any proposed interrogatories, but notes that interrogatories were “appropriately and successfully used” in another case tried before this Court, United States v. May hew, Case No. 2:03-cr-165, and asks this Court to “follow the procedure and use of interrogators as the Court did in May hew.” The Government objects to Defendant’s Motion and states that this Court, in May-hew, used special finding verdict forms, not in-depth interrogatories which Defendant’s motion contemplates. The Government objects to a detailed analysis of the deliberative process by the jury, as it is in violation of Rule 606(b) of the Federal Rules of Evidence which forbids inquiry into the deliberative process, except for whether extraneous prejudicial information or improper outside influences played a role in the deliberations and improperly influenced the verdict. At the March 9, 2007 hearing, Defendant clarified that his Motion merely requests the same special finding forms used by this Court in the Mayhew case and not more in-depth interrogatories. The Government does not object to such form. Defendant’s motion is, therefore GRANTED and special finding verdict forms will be issued to the jury. J. Defendant’s Motion for Second Voir Dire Prior to Sentencing Phase (Doc. # 52) Defendant requests this Court to order a second voir dire of the already death-qualified jury prior to the sentencing phase should Defendant be found guilty at the conclusion of the trial phase. Defendant asserts that jurors may develop views over the course of the trial that would impair their ability to fairly consider mitigating evidence, and that voir dire questions are more likely to “elicit a realistic and honest response when asked prior to the penalty phase after the jurors have heard the evidence of the crime, rather than as an abstract hypothetical question during the pretrial voir dire.” The Government opposes Defendant’s Motion. As the Supreme Court observed in Morgan v. Illinois, 504 U.S. 719, 729, 112 S.Ct. 2222, 119 L.Ed.2d 492 (1992), “[t]he Constitution ... does not dictate a catechism for voir dire, but only that the defendant be afforded an impartial jury.” Dennis v. Mitchell, 354 F.3d 511, 523-24 (6th Cir.2003) (quoting Morgan). Inherent in the Sixth Amendment right to an impartial jury, however, “is an adequate voir dire to identify unqualified jurors.” Id. Thus, a Court must excuse for cause a juror who would not be able to follow the law regarding mitigating circumstances and would automatically impose death upon a finding of guilt. The purpose and protection of Morgan, therefore, requires this Court to ascertain the jurors’ basic beliefs and core values about the death penalty before entering any phase of the trial in order to ensure their ability to be fair and impartial. A second voir dire is unnecessary and would, in fact, undermine the initial voir dire because this Court will have previously determined that each sitting member of the jury panel is death qualified. Each panel member will have answered a detailed questionnaire about numerous issues, including capital punishment, and members will be subjected to an extensive questioning period during voir dire regarding each juror’s views on the death penalty. Both parties will have ample time to question the jurors, and before being selected, each juror will assure this Court and all counsel that he or she will be able to consider fairly aggravating and mitigating factors and weigh them accordingly, regardless of whether the evidence showed beyond a reasonable doubt that Defendant was guilty. Defendant’s Motion, therefore, is DENIED. K. Defendant’s Motion to Permit the Defense to Admit all Relevant Mitigating Evidence in the Sentencing Phase (Doc. # 53) Defendant moves this Court to permit him to introduce any evidence that is “relevant and mitigating whether or not it fits within one of the specifically enumerated subsections of 18 U.S.C. § 3592(a).” The Government does not object to the admission of relevant evidence, but contends that any evidence that fails to fall within § 3592(a) is irrelevant under Rule 401 of the Federal Rules of Evidence and should, therefore, be excluded. Title 18, Section § 3592(a) of the United States Code states that “[i]n determining whether a sentence of death is to be imposed on a defendant, the finder of fact shall consider any mitigating factor, including the following:” impaired capacity, duress, minor participation, equally culpable defendants, no prior criminal record, disturbance, victim’s consent, and other factors. 18 U.S.C. § 3592(a) (emphasis added). Section 3592(a)(8), the catch-all provision, allows the introduction of “[o]ther factors in the defendant’s background, record, or character or any other circumstance of the offense that mitigate against the imposition of the death sentence.” In addition, § 3593(c), which discusses proof of mitigating and aggravating factors at the sentencing hearing, states that “[t]he defendant may present any information relevant to a mitigating factor.” Information offered during the sentencing hearing is admissible “regardless of its admissibility under the rules governing admission of evidence at criminal trials except that information may be excluded if its probative value is outweighed by the danger of creating unfair prejudice, confusing the issues, or misleading the jury.” 18 U.S.C. § 3593(c). The Government concedes that as long as the proffered mitigation evidence is relevant, it is admissible under 18 U.S.C. §§ 3592(a) and 3593(c). This Court holds that Defendant may introduce all relevant mitigating evidence during the sentencing phase and GRANTS Defendant’s motion. L. Defendant’s Motion to Allow Allo-cution Without Cross-Examination During Penalty Phase (Doc. #54) Defendant, pursuant to Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 32(i)(4) and the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment, moves this Court for an order permitting him to allocute before the jury, in an unsworn statement and without cross-examination, prior to sentencing, should this case reach such stage. The Government maintains that no statute or rule permits him to do so. The Supreme Court has not addressed the constitutionality of a Defendant’s right to allocution. See McGautha v. California, 402 U.S. 183, 218 n. 22, 91 S.Ct. 1454, 28 L.Ed.2d 711 (1971). The Government, however, concedes that allocution is a well-established procedural right. Defendant relies upon Fed.R.Crim.P. 32(i)(4)(ii) to support his motion. That rule provides: “Before imposing sentence, the court must ... (ii) address the defendant personally in order to permit the defendant to speak or present any information to mitigate the sentence.” The Government retorts that under such rule, allocution takes place before the court imposes the sentence, not before a jury retires to determine the sentence in a capital case. Additionally, the Government states that because a defendant has a right to testify during either or both the trial and sentencing phases, an unsworn declaration by Defendant is not warranted or authorized, as he may still be heard, but must do so subject to the same rules as any other mitigation witness. The Government argues that the Fourth, Fifth, and Eighth Circuits have each concluded that no right of unsworn allocution exists. See United States v. Purkey, 428 F.3d 738 (8th Cir.2005) (stating that: (1) the defendant did not have a statutory right to make statements to the jury during the sentencing phase without being subject to cross-examination; (2) the district court satisfied Rule 32 when it allowed the defendant to speak “before imposing sentence;” and (3) although under 18 U.S.C. § 3594 the defendant’s allocution could not have mitigated his sentence because the court followed the jury’s recommendation of the death penalty, “nowhere does Rule 32 grant [the defendant] a right to allocution before a jury; Rule 32 speaks only of ‘the court.’ ”); United States v. Barnette, 211 F.3d 803, 820 (4th Cir.2000), vacated on other grounds, — U.S.-, 126 S.Ct. 92, 163 L.Ed.2d 32 (2005) (distinguishing a denial of a defendant’s request to allocute to the state sentencing court, which is a denial of due process, from a denial of a defendant’s request to allocute to the sentencing jury, which is not a denial of due process); United States v. Hall, 152 F.3d at 391-96 (5th Cir.1998) (“The text of [32(i)(4)(ii) ] provides no basis for concluding that the defendant has a right to make a statement to the jury prior to the jury’s arriving at its sentencing recommendation. Compliance with the strict language of the rule is achieved when ... the district court allows the defendant to make a statement to the court after the jury returns its recommendation but before the district court imposes sentence.”), cert. denied, 526 U.S. 1117, 119 S.Ct. 1767, 143 L.Ed.2d 797 (1999). For the following reasons, this Court finds that Defendant has a right to allocute before the sentencing jury subject to an appropriate limiting instruction. First, the Government’s argument that Rule 32 only permits allocution before the imposition of the sentence is inconsistent with the plain language of the Rule when read in its entirety. The rule states, “Before imposing sentence, the court must ... (ii) address the defendant personally in order to permit the defendant to speak or present any information to mitigate the sentence.” The Government focuses on the first part (“before imposing the sentence”) but the last part demonstrates that the purpose of allocution is to present any information to mitigate the sentence. Allowing Defendant to speak only after the sentence has been decided by the jury, but before this Court merely imposes the sentence, does not allow Defendant to present information to mitigate the sentence. A right to allo-cute only before the judge reads the jury’s sentence would be an empty formality. Second, under 18 U.S.C. § 3593, the defendant may present “any information relevant to a mitigating factor.” In addition, such information is admissible “regardless of its admissibility under the rules governing admission of evidence at criminal trials except that information may be excluded if its probative value is outweighed by the danger of creating unfair prejudice, confusing the issues, or misleading the jury.” Id. Therefore, Defendant may offer an un-sworn, un-cross-examined statement to the jury before it deliberates on his sentence. Of course, the Government may argue that the probative value of such statement is outweighed by the danger of unfair prejudice, and this Court may exclude Defendant’s statement on that basis, if necessary. This Court may, however, also cure such danger with a limiting instruction, reminding the jurors that they should carefully consider the credibility of such statements, given that they are not sworn or cross-examined. Third, the defense makes a compelling argument to dispute United States v. Bar-nette, which distinguished a denial of a defendant’s request to allocute to the state sentencing court, (a denial of due process) from a denial of a defendant’s request to allocute to the sentencing jury, (not a denial of due process). Defendant rather cogently argues that it is illogical, on the one hand, to allow a defendant to present allo-cution before a sentencing judge in a non-capital case, where the judge can actually consider such statement before sentencing, yet on the other hand, in a capital case, only to allow a defendant to speak after the sentencing jury has made its decision. In effect, if a defendant waives his right to a jury trial, he will be permitted to present allocution before the sentencing decision-maker. By exercising such jury trial right, however, under the Government’s view, the defendant then waives his right to allocute before the decision-maker-a right that the Government concedes is a well-established procedural right. This Court will not apply a rule in such a way that would have a chilling effect on Defendant’s exercise of his fundamental right to a jury trial. " Finally, this Court notes that the textual definition of allocution supports Defendant’s Motion. Black’s Law Dictionary defines “allocution” as: An unsworn statement from a convicted defendant to the sentencing judge or jury in which the defendant can ask for mercy, explain his or her conduct, apologize for the crime, or say anything else in an effort to lessen the impending sentence. This statement is not subject to cross-examination. Black’s Law Dictionary (8th ed.2004) (emphasis added). Without reaching the question of whether Defendant has a constitutional right to allocution, this Court recognizes that it has discretion to permit Defendant to allocute pursuant to Rule 32. Defendant’s motion is GRANTED. M. Defendant’s Motion to Instruct on the Specific Mitigating Factors Raised by Defense During the Sentencing Phase, and to Prohibit the Prosecution from Arguing Statutory and Nonstatutory Mitigating Factors Not Raised by the Defense (Doc. # 55) Defendant moves this Court to instruct the jury regarding all statutory and non-statutory mitigation factors that he presents and to prohibit the Government from raising or arguing mitigating factors not raised, thereby highlighting matters Defendant did not raise. The Government does not object to this Court instructing the jury on the mitigating factors that Defendant raises as long as the factors have been established by some evidence and the instructions are not redundant. Further, the Government states that it will not mention mitigating factors that are not raised by Defendant, and this Court accepts the Government’s contention in this regard. This Court, therefore, GRANTS Defendant’s Motion to instruct the jury on all mitigating factors that he presents, both statutory and nonstatutory. N. Defendant’s Motion in Limine to Limit Scope of Any Rebuttal Evidence Offered by the Government in the Sentencing Phase (Doc. # 56) Defendant moves this Court for an order limiting the Government’s presentation of rebuttal evidence to evidence that actually rebuts mitigating evidence presented by Defendant during the sentencing phase. Specifically, Defendant requests that this Court impose the following restrictions on the Government in the event that the Government seeks to admit rebuttal evidence in the sentencing hearing that may be held in this case: 1. The opportunity to rebut arises only when Defendant has placed in issue the mitigating factor, as it is Defendant who has the right to present and argue the mitigating factors, if he does not do so, no comment on any factors not raised by him is permissible. 2. The Government may rebut mitigation evidence offered by the defendant where the prosecutor has a good faith basis for believing that such evidence is false, or incomplete. 3. The right to rebut is limited to those instances where the defense offers a specific assertion, by a mitigating witness or by the defendant, that misrepresents the mitigating factor. 4. To avoid prejudice to the defense, and the possibility of a mistrial, the Government shall proffer such rebuttal evidence to the judge away from the hearing of the jury. 5. In certain instances where the potential for prejudice and inflaming of passions is significant, the proffered rebuttal evidence will be admitted only-under the following evidentiary standard: that the probative value of each piece of evidence outweighs the danger of prejudice to the defendant. The Government states that it is aware of the boundaries of proper rebuttal evidence and does not believe that Defendant’s motion is necessary or appropriate. This Court holds that the Government’s rebuttal evidence must stay within the parameters set forth by 18 U.S.C. § 3593(c), which clearly permits the Government to rebut any mitigation evidence set forth by Defendant, and by various courts interpreting the statute’s rebuttal provision. The relevant provision, reads in pertinent part as follows: The government and the defendant shall be permitted to rebut any information received at the hearing, and shall be given fair opportunity to present argument as to the adequacy of the information to establish the existence of any aggravating or mitigating factor, and as to the appropriateness in the case of imposing a sentence of death. 18 U.S.C. § 3593(c). Additionally, the court in United, States v. Jackson, 327 F.3d 273, 305-07 (4th Cir.2003) outlined the proper scope of rebuttal testimony. There, the Fourth Circuit found the district court’s decision to admit a videotape in error because portions of the videotape, which were supposedly introduced to refute the defendant’s mother’s mitigation testimony, had no connection to the underlying testimony. The court explained: “[Rjebuttal evidence must be reasonably tailored to the evidence it seeks to refute. Rebuttal evidence is defined as ‘evidence given to explain, repel, counteract, or disprove facts given in evidence by the opposing party; that which tends to explain or contradict or disprove evidence offered by the adverse party.’ ” Id. at 305 (citing United States v. Stitt, 250 F.3d 878, 897 (4th Cir.2001)). Moreover, the court found that “there must be a nexus between the purported rebuttal evidence and the evidence that the purported rebuttal evidence seeks to rebut.” Id. (citations omitted). In short, this Court agrees with Defendant’s argument that the Government should only be permitted to rebut mitigation evidence if Defendant has opened the door to that particular issue. Moreover, all rebuttal evidence must be sufficiently connected to the underlying testimony. Both the statute and the very definition of rebuttal evidence require as much. Any specific evidentiary objections or requests for limiting instructions will be ruled upon during the sentencing hearing. This Court finds premature, however, Defendant’s request that this Court hold a preliminary sidebar before the government offers each piece of rebuttal evidence. Although this Court is not averse to doing so, this Court will not make a blanket ruling in the abstract. The Court is far better equipped to handle sidebar requests and various evidentiary objections on a case-by-case basis during the sentencing phase. This Court is well aware of its role as gatekeeper and its statutory powers to exclude inadmissible evidence. 18 U.S.C. § 3593(c) (“[Ijnformation may be excluded if its probative value is outweighed by the danger of creating unfair prejudice, confusing the issues, or misleading the jury.”). In sum, this Court GRANTS Defendant’s Motion to the extent it requests compliance with 18 U.S.C. § 3593(c). Further, this Court expects both parties to remain within the statutory parameters of rebuttal evidence, and all specific objections and sidebar requests will be ruled upon during the sentencing phase. 0. Defendant’s Motion for Restrictions on Admission of Victim Impact Evidence (Doc. # 57) Defendant’s motion seeks to limit the Government’s victim impact testimony to one adult member of each victim’s family. Defendant further requests that the victim impact witness be limited to reading his or testimony from a prepared written statement approved by this Court in advance of the testimony of the witness, and that each witness be admonished in advance that he or she will not be allowed to testify if unable to control personal emotions. Further, Defendant requests that this Court strictly limit the Government’s comments on the victim impact testimony to the confines of what has been read by the witnesses. The Government objects to Defendant’s specific request, but offers to present restrictively victim impact evidence. The Government contends that testimony will be limited to the personal characteristics of the victims (Robert Bass and Ecolia Washington) as well as the impact of these murders upon each witness. Additionally, the Government states that each witness will be instructed not to give their opinion about the crime or the appropriate punishment, and it will require each witness to submit his or her testimony, in writing, after a verdict in the trial phase should the Government prevail. The Government has no objection submitting these statements to this Court ex parte for the Court’s advance approval. At the March 9, 2007 hearing, the parties represented to this Court that they reached an agreement regarding limitations on victim impact evidence. Should this matter reach the sentencing phase, the Government will have each of its victim witnesses prepare a written statement. This Court will then conduct an ex parte in camera review of the statements for admissibility in light of 18 U.S.C. §§ 3593(a) and (c) (stating that the government may present any evidence relevant to any aggravating factor listed in the notice of intent to seek the death penalty which “may include factors concerning the effect of the offense on the victim and the victim’s family, and may include oral testimony, a victim impact statement that identifies the victim of the offense and the extent and scope of the injury and loss suffered by the victim and the victim’s family”) and Supreme Court precedent. See Payne v. Tennessee, 501 U.S. 808, 825-27, 111 S.Ct. 2597, 115 L.Ed.2d 720 (1991) (holding that the admission of victim impact evidence is permissible but noting that the defendant’s due process rights can be infringed where the victim impact evidence introduced is “so unduly prejudicial that it renders the trial fundamentally unfair”). Once this Court has conducted its review, redacted any statements which it deems irrelevant or prejudicial, this Court will permit the Government’s victim impact witnesses to read their statements verbatim but will not allow those witnesses to deviate from their written statements. The Government is to instruct those witnesses to refrain from reflecting excessive emotion and that the witnesses’ failure to do so might result in the Court’s decision to terminate their testimony. Defendant’s motion for restrictions is, therefore MOOT, in light of the parties’ agreement. P. Defendant’s Motion to Strike Notice of Intent to Seek the Death Penalty Due to the Unconstitutionality of the Federal Death Penalty Act of 1994 (Docs. # 58 and # 88) Defendant argues that the Federal Death Penalty Act (“FDPA”) is unconstitutional because it: (1) permits the prosecution to define nonstatutory aggravating factors; (2) authorizes the weighing of nonstatutory aggravating factors; (3) limits Defendant’s right to present mitigating evidence; (4) fails to provide a standard for the jury to employ when balancing aggravating and mitigating factors; (5) fails to provide for meaningful appellate review in the event of a conviction and sentence of death; (6) authorizes the Government to offer evidence of aggravating circumstances under a relaxed evidentiary standard; (7) fails to significantly narrow the class of murderers for which the death penalty may be imposed; (8) deprives Defendant of the opportunity to rebut the Government’s argument at the sentencing phase of trial; (9) requires the judge to accept the jury’s verdict of death; (10) prohibits Defendant from waiving a jury trial on the issue of sentencing without the Government’s consent under 18 U.S.C. § 3593(b); (11) violates the double jeopardy clause of the Fifth Amendment through its remand provision, 18 U.S.C. § 3595(c)(2)(B); (12) allows the Government to file a Notice of Intent to seek death when Defendant has not been indicted for a capital crime; (13) violates the Ninth and Tenth Amendments to the Constitution; and (14) authorizes the death penalty, which is cruel and unusual punishment under all circumstances. Consequently, Defendant maintains that this Court should strike the Government’s Notice of Intent to seek the death penalty. In sum, Defendant mounts numerous facial attacks upon the FDPA. The Government contends that courts considering Defendant’s arguments have uniformly found that such arguments lack merit. After providing a brief overview of the FDPA’s sentencing phase, this Court will address each attack asserted by Defendant. 1. Overview of FDPA’s Sentencing Phase The FDPA, 18 U.S.C. §§ 3591-3598, establishes procedures for imposing the death penalty for over sixty offenses. As an initial matter, the Government must serve a defendant with a pretrial notice of the Government’s intent to seek the death penalty, a document which lists both the statutory and nonstatutory aggravating factors the prosecution intends to prove. 18 U.S.C. § 3593(a). In this case, the Government filed its Notice of Intent (“NOI”) on December 8, 2006. Under the FDPA, the death sentence can only be imposed if the jury first determines that the defendant is guilty of the underlying death-eligible crimes. If the defendant is found guilty, the sentencing phase begins, and the jury must find unanimously and beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant was 18 years of age or more at the time of the offense, and that he had the requisite mental state when he committed the offense. 18 U.S.C. §§ 3591(a) and 3591(a)(2)(A)-(D). Third, the jury must find, unanimously and beyond a reasonable doubt, that at least one statutory aggravating factor exists. Only if the jury finds both the requisite mental state and the existence of one statutory aggravating factor does the defendant become death eligible. Fourth, the jury considers that aggravating factor, plus any additional statutory aggravating factors and nonstatutory aggravating factors that the Government has set forth, and weighs them against any mitigating factors the jury has found to be present. 18 U.S.C. § 3593(e) (“[T]he jury ... shall consider whether all the aggravating factor or factors found to exist sufficiently outweigh all the mitigating factor or factors found to exist to justify a sentence of death, or, in the absence of a mitigating factor, whether the aggravating factor or factors alone are sufficient to justify a sentence of death.”). Under 18 U.S.C. § 3591, the jury may recommend death, life imprisonment, or a lesser sentence, if it does so by a unanimous vote. If the jury is deadlocked, the court must sentence the defendant. Finally, although § 3593(e) uses the word “recommend” in describing the jury’s decision to impose a death sentence, § 3594 indicates that the court “shall” sentence in accordance with the jury’s verdict. Id. 2. Nonstatutory Aggravating Factors Under the FDPA Defendant argues that the FDPA violates the nondelegation doctrine by allowing the prosecution, a part of the Executive branch, to choose arbitrarily as many nonstatutory aggravating factors as it deems appropriate. Defendant asserts that this power to allege various nonstatutory aggravators constitutes an improper delegation of an inherently legislative authority. In addition, Defendant argues that, by permitting the weighing of “an unlimited number of unguided nonstatutory aggravating circumstances,” the FDPA invites use of “vague and other constitutionally troublesome factors to be added to the cauldron from which a sentence of life or death will ultimately emerge.” Such assertions have been summarily and persuasively rejected by the Eighth, Fifth, and Tenth Circuits. The nondelegation doctrine arises from the constitutional principle of separation of powers, specifically Article 1, § 1, which provides that “all legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States.” See Touby v. United States, 500 U.S. 160, 165, 111 S.Ct. 1752, 114 L.Ed.2d 219 (1991); United States v. Mistretta, 488 U.S. 361, 371, 109 S.Ct. 647, 102 L.Ed.2d 714 (1989). Under the nondelegation doctrine, Congress may not constitutionally delegate its legislative power to another branch of government. See Mistretta, 488 U.S. at 372, 109 S.Ct. 647. Congress may seek aid, however, from coordinate branches of government. Delegation of congressional power, in the sentencing realm, is permissible “[s]o long as Congress shall lay down by legislative act an intelligible principle to which the person or body authorized to [exercise the delegated authority] is directed to conform.” United States v. Jones, 132 F.3d 232, 239 (5th Cir.1998) (citing Mistretta, 488 U.S. at 390, 109 S.Ct. 647 (internal citations omitted)). The Jones court explained that the “authority to define nonstatutory aggravating factors falls squarely within the Executive’s broad prosecutorial discretion, much like the power to decide whether to prosecute an individual for a particular crime.” . In so holding, the Court noted that the legislature, acting alone, could not have adequately anticipated the various circumstances of each crime. Id. The Jones Court also emphasized that this delegation of power is constitutional because it is circumscribed by four factors that, when taken together, form an “intelligible principle” that adequately limits prosecutorial power. First, the prosecution must give prior notice to the defendant with regard to all aggravating factors. Id. at 240; see 18 U.S.C. § 3593(a). Second, “the death penalty jurisprudence devised by the Supreme Court guides the prosecution in formulating nonstatutory aggravating factors.” Id. Third, the district court retains its function as “gatekeeper” excluding information it deems irrelevant or too prejudicial. Id.; see 18 U.S.C. § 3593(c). Fourth, the nonstatuto-ry aggravators are not even contemplated by the jury unless the jury has already found the requisite mens rea and at least one statutory aggravating factor beyond a reasonable doubt. Id.; see 18 U.S.C. § 3593(d). Thus, a prosecutor’s power to promulgate nonstatutory aggravating factors is not without an intelligible principle; rather, the prosecution must act within con-gressionally mandated and court-imposed constraints. See United States v. Paul, 217 F.3d 989, 1003 (8th Cir.2000) (finding no violation of the separation of powers because “the prosecution was adequately limited in its power” by the factors listed in Jones); United States v. McCullah, 76 F.3d 1087, 1106-07 (10th Cir.1996) (finding the notice requirement, the court’s power to exclude certain information, and the requirement that the jury first find mens rea and a statutory aggravating factor adequately guided the prosecution’s choice of nonstatutory aggravators); see also United States v. Fell, 360 F.3d 135 (2d Cir. 2004) (citing Jones with approval, but without discussion); United States v. Qui-nones, No. 00 CR.761, 2004 WL 1234044, at *2 (S.D.N.Y. June 3, 2004) (“Similarly, allowing the prosecution to present non-statutory factors does not offend the non-delegation doctrine since ‘the sentencing function long has been a peculiarly shared responsibility among the Branches of Government and has never been thought of as the exclusive constitutional province of any one Branch.’ ”) (citing Zant, 462 U.S. at 878, 103 S.Ct. 2733). This Court agrees with the reasoning set forth in the above cases and holds that because the prosecution’s power is limited by an intelligible principle, the FDPA does not violate the nondelegation doctrine by allowing the prosecution to choose nonstatutory factors. In addition, because such power is circumscribed by the factors listed above, the weighing of nonstatutory aggravating factors is not unconstitutionally vague. 3. Defendant’s Right to Present Mitigating Evidence Under the FDPA Defendant argues that the FDPA attempts to limit the mitigating evidence that a capital defendant can offer at the sentencing phase of trial. Defendant points to “restrictive” language contained in the mitigating circumstances defined in 18 U.S.C. § 3592(a), such as “significant” impairment or “severe” emotional disturbance. Section 3592(a) states that the “finder of fact shall consider any mitigating factor.” (Emphasis added). In addition to the seven factors listed in § 3592(a), which Defendant cites as using “restrictive” language, Defendant is also permitted to introduce “[o]ther factors in the Defendant’s background, record, or character or any other circumstance, of the offense that mitigate against imposition of the death sentence.” 18 U.S.C. § 3592(a)(8). Clearly, then, the FDPA does not limit the mitigating evidence Defendant may produce. Defendant alternatively contends that 18 U.S.C. § 3593(f) limits the mitigating evidence he may produce because that section requires this Court to instruct the jury that: in considering whether a sentence of death is justified, it shall not consider the race, color, religious beliefs, national origin, or sex of the defendant or of any victim and that the jury is not to recommend a sentence of death unless it has concluded that it would recommend a sentence of death for the crime in question no matter what the race, color, religious beliefs, national origin, or sex of the defendant or of any victim may be. In the case sub judice, Defendant is an African-American male. Hence, Defendant argues that the statute improperly limits his right to offer any evidence that is relevant and pertains to his character or background. This Court concludes that neither the Constitution nor the FDPA prevents the jury from considering the “effects and experiences” of the protected factors found within § 3593(f). As the Fifth Circuit noted: Although race per se is an irrelevant and inadmissible factor, the effects and experiences of race may be admissible [during sentencing]. If a defendant can show that his life has been marked by discrimination or some other set of experiences, irrespective of whether the result, in part, of his race, then that properly might be admissible as relevant mitigating background or character evidence. But this is a far cry from using race in and of itself as a proxy for such a set of beliefs and experiences. Pigmentation does not define a person’s character or background; the life that a person has led and the t