Full opinion text
MEMORANDUM DuBOIS, District Judge. TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION 486 II. BACKGROUND...........................................................437 A. Procedural History.....................................................437 B. Factual Background....................................................438 1. Penny Allison......................................................438 2. Zoran Hocevar.....................................................439 3. Plaintiff Class......................................................439 III. STANDARD OF REVIEW .................................................440 IV. DISCUSSION.............................................................440 A. Legal Standard for Assessing the Constitutionality of Custodial Strip Searches Under the Fourth Amendment................................440 1. Fourth Amendment Rights Generally.................................440 2. Fourth Amendment Rights in Custodial Facilities.......................442 3. Bell Standard for Custodial Strip Searches ............................443 B. Defendant’s Arguments that Bell No Longer Applies.......................444 1. Inmates’ Fourth Amendment Rights in Custodial Facilities Under Hudson v. Palmer................................................444 2. The Turner v. Safley Standard of Review for Prison Regulations.........446 C. The Constitutionality of Suspicionless Arrestee Strip Searches in Custodi- al Facilities .........................................................448 1. The Constitutionality of Contact Visit Strip Searches Under Bell v. Wolfish.........................................................449 2. Circuit Court Rulings on Arrestee Strip Searches in Custodial Facilities........................................................451 a. The Invasion of Rights that the Search Entails.....................452 b. The Need for the Particular Search...............................454 c. Reasonableness and Reasonable Suspicion Standard................455 3. Powell v. Barrett and Defendant’s Powell-Based Arguments.............456 a. The Source of the Reasonable Suspicion Standard Identified by Powell......................................................457 b. Powell’s Rejection of the Misdemeanor-Felony Distinction and the Distinction between Contact Visit Strip Searches and Arrestee Strip Searches.......................................459 c. Fourth Amendment Analysis Absent a Factual Record..............461 D. Plaintiffs’ Fourth Amendment Claims.....................................462 VI. CONCLUSION............................................................463 I. INTRODUCTION In this litigation, plaintiffs, detained arrestees at custodial facilities operated by defendant The GEO Group, Inc. (“GEO”), challenge the legality of strip searches conducted by defendants. GEO and John Does 1 — 100. Plaintiffs allege that the searches were performed pursuant to a blanket policy of strip searching all arrestees and that such a policy violates the Fourth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States. This Memorandum addresses the issues presented by defendant GEO’s Motion for Judgment on the Pleadings which seeks to dismiss Counts I, II, and III of plaintiffs’ Amended Complaint, those that allege Fourth Amendment violations, for failure to state a claim upon which relief may be granted. Plaintiffs’ cause of action is based on Bell v. Wolfish, 441 U.S. 520, 99 S.Ct. 1861, 60 L.Ed.2d 447 (1979), the Supreme Court’s seminal case on the rights of pretrial detainees. Among other rulings, Bell established the Fourth Amendment standard for determining the constitutionality of strip search policies in custodial facilities. Applying that standard to a blanket policy which mandated strip searches for all inmates returning from contact visits, the Supreme Court upheld the policy as reasonable under the Fourth Amendment. Following Bell, other courts have used the Bell standard to assess the constitutionality of custodial strip search policies in various contexts. Plaintiffs’ claims rely on those cases which, in assessing custodial strip searches in the arrestee context, strike down blanket polices and the suspicionless searches conducted under those blanket polices as unreasonable and, therefore, unconstitutional. Defendant’s Motion for Judgment on the Pleadings advances three alternative grounds for dismissal. First, defendant argues that plaintiffs’ Fourth Amendment claims must fail because, under Hudson v. Palmer, 468 U.S. 517, 104 S.Ct. 3194, 82 L.Ed.2d 393 (1984), inmates in custodial facilities do not possess Fourth Amendment rights. Second, in the event that the Court rejects defendant’s Hudson argument, defendant argues that the Court should adjudicate and dismiss plaintiffs’ claims according to the standard of review articulated in Turner v. Safley, 482 U.S. 78, 107 S.Ct. 2254, 96 L.Ed.2d 64 (1987), for prison regulations which impinge on inmates’ constitutional rights, and not according to Bell’s Fourth Amendment standard. Finally, defendant asserts that, even if the Court rejects both of the foregoing arguments and, instead, applies the Bell standard, the outcome in this case is governed by the outcome in Bell, in which the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of a blanket strip search policy. In arguing for this application of Bell, defendant relies almost exclusively on Powell v. Barrett, 541 F.3d 1298 (11th Cir.2008) (en banc), a recently issued en banc opinion by the Eleventh Circuit which runs directly counter to the holdings of nine other circuits on this issue. Although the issues before the court have been addressed by many circuit courts, the Third Circuit has never ruled on the constitutionality of strip searches in detention facilities. This Court must, therefore, look to other circuits for persuasive authority. For the reasons stated in this Memorandum, the Court rejects defendant’s Hudson and Turner arguments and declines to adopt the Eleventh Circuit’s holding in Powell. This Court concludes that under the persuasive authority of nine courts of appeals, plaintiffs have stated a claim for relief. Accordingly, defendant’s Motion for Judgment on the Pleadings must be denied. II. BACKGROUND A. Procedural History Plaintiffs commenced this action by filing a Complaint against GEO and John Does 1-100 in their official and individual capacities on January 30, 2008. On March 28, 2008, plaintiffs filed an Amended Complaint against the same defendants. The Amended Complaint asserts the following causes of action against all defendants: Count I: Monetary damages for Fourth Amendment violations pursuant to 42 U.S.C. § 1983 Count II: Demand for declaratory judgment as to Fourth Amendment violations Count III: Demand for preliminary and permanent injunction as to Fourth Amendment violations Count IV: Battery CountV: Negligence Count VI: Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress Count VII: Negligent Infliction of Emotional Distress On May 2, 2008, GEO filed an unopposed Motion to Dismiss Counts IV, VI, and VII of Plaintiffs’ Amended Complaint. By Order dated May 30, 2008, the Court dismissed those Counts with prejudice. Defendant’s motion to dismiss did not challenge any of plaintiffs’ federal claims (Counts I — III) or plaintiffs’ state law negligence claim (Count V). On June 19, 2008, GEO filed an Answer to the remaining Counts of plaintiffs’ Amended Complaint, and the parties proceeded to conduct discovery. On September 18, 2008, soon after the issuance of Powell v. Barrett, 541 F.3d 1298 (11th Cir.2008) (en banc) on September 4, 2008, GEO filed the instant motion for judgment on the pleadings. In conjunction with the motion for judgment on the pleadings, defendant filed a Motion for a Protective Order and Stay of Discovery. By Order dated October 10, 2008, the Court granted in part and denied in part defendant’s Motion for a Protective Order and Stay of Discovery, partially staying discovery pending the Court’s ruling on the Motion for Judgment on the Pleadings. B. Factual Background GEO, a Florida corporation, manages numerous correctional, detention, mental health, and residential treatment facilities in the United States (“Facilities”), including the George W. Hill Correctional Facility in Thornton, Pennsylvania (“Hill Facility”). (Am. Compl. ¶¶ 15-16, 26, 36.) Plaintiffs aver that in operating its Facilities, defendant has a written or de facto policy of strip searching “all individuals placed into the custody of the Facilities” including recently arrested individuals and pretrial detainees. (Id. ¶ 22.) The searches are allegedly conducted regardless of the existence of reasonable suspicion or probable cause that any particular individual is carrying weapons or contraband on his person. (Id. ¶¶ 22-23.) Plaintiffs Penny Allison (“Allison”) and Zoran Hocevar (“Hocevar”) each allege that they were subjected to strip searches that were not based on reasonable suspicion. Plaintiffs further allege that a class of similarly situated individuals were subjected to strip searches under similar circumstances, in accordance with the blanket policy and without reasonable suspicion. (Id. ¶¶ 23, 45.) The facts, as they pertain to each named plaintiff and the putative plaintiff class, are as follows. 1. Penny Allison Plaintiff Allison was arrested -and charged with driving under the influence (“DUI”) in November 2005. (Am. Compl. ¶ 25.) In lieu of formal prosecution, Allison was placed in a pretrial diversion program known as Accelerated Rehabilitative Disposition (“ARD”). (Id.) In or around July 2006, Allison failed to appear for one of her ARD-related court dates, and a bench warrant issued. (Id. ¶¶ 25-26.) On July 25, 2006, police officers in Springfield, Pennsylvania stopped Allison for driving with an expired registration sticker and arrested her on the outstanding bench warrant. (Id. ¶ 26.) Following arrest, Allison was transferred to the Hill Facility. (Id.) As part of the intake process, a female officer escorted Allison to a private room and instructed her to remove her clothing, squat, and cough. (Id. ¶ 27.) Allison remained in custody for eight days. (Id. ¶¶ 27-28.) At Allison’s next court date, her attorney explained her failure to appear at the earlier court date, and the court ordered that she be released from detention at the Hill Facility. (Id. ¶ 28.) In or around December 2007, Allison pled guilty to a second DUI charge and was sentenced to fifteen weekends of incarceration. At the time the Amended Complaint was filed, Allison had begun serving her sentence by reporting each weekend to the Hill Facility. On each occasion, Allison was ushered into a room along with all of the other female weekend inmates. One by one, a corrections officer strip searched each inmate in front of the others. (Id. ¶ 29.) 2. Zoran Hocevar In or around March 2005, Plaintiff Hocevar was arrested on charges arising out of a domestic dispute. All but one of the related charges were dismissed some time between March 2005 and June 2006. Thinking that all of the charges had been resolved, Hocevar mistakenly failed to appear for a scheduled court date in June 2006. A bench warrant issued. (Am. Compl. ¶ 38.) Police officers in Montgomery County stopped Hocevar’s vehicle in July 2007. (Id. ¶ 34.) Upon discovering the outstanding bench warrant, the officers took Hocevar into custody and transported him to the Hill Facility. (Id.) During his admission to the Hill Facility, Hocevar was strip searched in the presence of other individuals. (Id.) 3. Plaintiff Class Plaintiffs define the proposed class as: All persons who have been or will be placed into the custody of one or more of the Facilities after being detained for misdemeanors, summary offenses, or other crimes that do not involve the possession or distribution of drugs, possession of weapons, or violent felonies, and who were or will be strip searched upon their admission into one or more of the Facilities pursuant to Defendants’ ... uniform practice and procedure of strip searching all pre-trial detainees who enter the Facilities, regardless of the crime or violation for which they are detained, and without making the legally required determination of whether reasonable suspicion exists to justify a strip search. (Am. Compl. ¶¶ 1, 45.) The salient features of the putative class, for the purposes of ruling on the instant motion are as follows. First, class plaintiffs are minor offenders and/or non-violent, non-drug offenders. Second, class plaintiffs are detained arrestees or pretrial detainees. Finally, class plaintiffs are subjected to strip searches which are conducted pursuant to a blanket policy and lack individualized reasonable suspicion. (Id. ¶¶ 22-23.) The Court also notes that plaintiffs do not describe the nature of the strip searches mandated by the blanket policy or specify whether the policy requires the inspection of body cavities. III. STANDARD OF REVIEW A motion for judgment on the pleadings under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 12(c) is analyzed under the same standard as a motion to dismiss under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 12(b)(6). See Shelly v. Johns-Manville Corp., 798 F.2d 93, 97 n. 4 (3d Cir.1986): Regalbuto v. City of Phila., 937 F.Supp. 374, 376 (E.D.Pa.1995). A motion for judgment on the pleadings will only be granted where “the plaintiffs would not be entitled to relief under any set of facts that could be proved.” Green v. Fund Asset Mgmt., L.P., 245 F.3d 214, 220 (3d Cir.2001). In determining whether a plaintiff has stated a claim for relief, the court must view the facts and inferences to be drawn from the pleadings in the light most favorable to the non-moving party. Inst. for Scientific Info., Inc. v. Gordon & Breach, Sci. Publishers, Inc., 931 F.2d 1002, 1005 (3d Cir.1991). A motion for judgment on the pleadings, like a motion to dismiss, tests the legal sufficiency of a claim in light of the facts pled in the complaint. To survive such a motion, “a civil plaintiff must allege facts that ‘raise a right to relief above the speculative level Victaulic Co. v. Tieman, 499 F.3d 227, 234 (3d Cir.2007) (quoting Bell Atl. Corp. v. Twombly, 550 U.S. 544, 127 S.Ct. 1955, 1965, 167 L.Ed.2d 929 (2007)). In other words, a claim must contain “ ‘enough factual matter (taken as true) to suggest’ ” the elements of the claims asserted. Phillips v. County of Allegheny, 515 F.3d 224, 234 (3d Cir.2008) (quoting Twombly, 127 S.Ct. at 1965); accord 5 Wright & Miller, Federal Practice and Procedure § 1216, at 236 (3d ed. 2004) (“[T]he pleading must contain something more [than] a statement of facts that merely creates a suspicion [of] a legally cognizable right of action.”), quoted in Twombly, 127 S.Ct. at 1965. IV. DISCUSSION Defendant’s three grounds for dismissal implicate the legal standard to be applied to plaintiffs’ claims and the application of that standard. The Court begins by providing a brief summary of relevant Fourth Amendment principles and then addresses each of defendant’s arguments in turn. A. Legal Standard for Assessing the Constitutionality of Custodial Strip Searches Under the Fourth Amendment 1. Fourth Amendment Rights Generally The fundamental purpose of the Fourth Amendment is to “safeguard the privacy and security of individuals against arbitrary invasions” at the hands of the government. Camara v. Mun. Ct. of S.F., 387 U.S. 523, 528, 87 S.Ct. 1727, 18 L.Ed.2d 930 (1967). To differentiate between unconstitutional invasions and constitutionally permissible searches, the Fourth Amendment “impose[s] a standard of ‘reasonableness’ upon the exercise of discretion by government officials.” Delaware v. Prouse, 440 U.S. 648, 653-54, 99 S.Ct. 1391, 59 L.Ed.2d 660 (1979). Reasonableness, an inherently flexible standard, generally requires balancing the “intrusion on the individual’s Fourth Amendment interests” against the “promotion of legitimate government interests.” Id. at 654, 99 S.Ct. 1391. The standard “is not capable of precise definition or mechanical application.” Bell, 441 U.S. at 559, 99 S.Ct. 1861. In each case, the court must determine whether the challenged search is reasonable under the particular facts and circumstances before the court. Id.; Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 21, 88 S.Ct. 1868, 20 L.Ed.2d 889 (1968). In broad terms, the Fourth Amendment has two areas of application. The first, and more common, context involves the individualized search of a person or his belongings, typically in relation to a criminal investigation. In such cases, “the reasonableness standard usually requires, at a minimum, that the facts upon which an intrusion is based be capable of measurement against ‘an objective standard,’ whether this be probable cause or a less stringent test.” Prouse, 440 U.S. at 654, 99 S.Ct. 1391; accord City of Indianapolis v. Edmond, 531 U.S. 32, 37, 121 S.Ct. 447, 148 L.Ed.2d 333 (2000). In a later opinion, the Court ruled that there are only two objective standards for the purposes of the Fourth Amendment — probable cause and reasonable suspicion. United States v. Montoya de Hernandez, 473 U.S. 531, 540-41, 105 S.Ct. 3304, 87 L.Ed.2d 381 (1985). The second context involves suspicion-less searches conducted pursuant to search policies. “In [some] situations ... the balance of interests precludes insistence upon ‘some quantum of individualized suspicion.’” Prouse, 440 U.S. at 654-55, 99 S.Ct. 1391; accord Hudson v. Palmer, 468 U.S. 517, 537-38, 104 S.Ct. 3194, 82 L.Ed.2d 393 (O’Connor, J., concurring) (“In some contexts .... the Court has rejected the case-by-case approach to the ‘reasonableness’ inquiry in favor of an approach that determines the reasonableness of contested practices in a categorical fashion.”). These searches are often referred to as “special needs” searches because they serve interests “other than the ordinary needs of law enforcement.” Chandler v. Miller, 520 U.S. 305, 313, 117 S.Ct. 1295, 137 L.Ed.2d 513 (1997); Skinner v. Ry. Labor Executives’ Ass’n, 489 U.S. 602, 619, 109 S.Ct. 1402, 103 L.Ed.2d 639 (1989). The instant case requires this Court to rule on whether the strip searches alleged by plaintiffs belong to “the closely guarded category of constitutionally permissible suspicionless searches.” Chandler v. Miller, 520 U.S. 305, 309, 117 S.Ct. 1295, 137 L.Ed.2d 513 (1997). By virtue of plaintiffs’ status as detained arrestees, there are two categories under which the challenged strip searches might fall — searches incident to arrest or searches in detention facilities. The parties, by pleading and motion, have only disputed the law governing the latter category. The scope of searches incident to arrest remains relevant, however, for determining what is reasonable in the arrestee context. In a quartet of cases, the Supreme Court discussed the extent of searches incident to lawful arrest. In United States v. Robinson, 414 U.S. 218, 94 S.Ct. 467, 38 L.Ed.2d 427 (1973), the Court held that a search incident to arrest would not be limited to a frisk for weapons but could include a “full search” of the person for both weapons and evidence. Id. at 227-30, 94 S.Ct. 467. The Robinson Court described the full search as a “relatively extensive exploration of the person.” Id. at 227, 94 S.Ct. 467 (quoting Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 25-26, 88 S.Ct. 1868, 20 L.Ed.2d 889 (1968)); see also id. at 221-23, 94 S.Ct. 467 (describing the search at issue in Robinson). In two subsequent cases, the Court clarified that clothing and possessions could also be searched incident to arrest. Illinois v. Lafayette, 462 U.S. 640, 646-47, 103 S.Ct. 2605, 77 L.Ed.2d 65 (1983) (upholding an inventory search of an arrestee’s personal property at the stationhouse); United States v. Edwards, 415 U.S. 800, 802-04, 94 S.Ct. 1234, 39 L.Ed.2d 771 (1974) (upholding the confiscation of an arrestee’s clothing as evidence at the stationhouse). In Lafayette, the Court clarified Edwards, stating “[w]e were not addressing in Edwards, and do not discuss here, the circumstances in which a strip search of an arrestee may or may not be appropriate.” Lafayette, 462 U.S. at 645-46 & n. 2, 103 S.Ct. 2605. Finally, in Schmerber v. California, 384 U.S. 757, 86 S.Ct. 1826, 16 L.Ed.2d 908 (1966), a case decided several years before Robinson, the Court ruled that the Fourth Amendment does not permit searches incident to arrest which involve “intrusions beyond the body’s surface,” such as the drawing of blood. Id. at 769, 86 S.Ct. 1826. Instead, such searches must be based on probable cause and, absent exigent circumstances, a warrant. Id. at 770-71, 86 S.Ct. 1826; see also Montoya de Hernandez, 473 U.S. at 540-1,105 S.Ct. 3304. No Supreme Court case discusses the constitutionality of strip searches incident to arrest, which appear to fall between the “full searches” considered by Robinson and the “intrusions beyond the body’s surface” considered by Schmerber. Nevertheless, several circuit courts have ruled that strip searches are not included in the category of permissible searches incident to arrest. Fuller v. M.G. Jewelry, 950 F.2d 1437, 1447-50 (9th Cir.1991); Mary Beth G. v. City of Chicago, 723 F.2d 1263, 1268-71 (7th Cir.1984): cf. Burns v. Loranger, 907 F.2d 233, 236 (1st Cir.1990). As this precedent demonstrates, plaintiffs’ status as arrestees, standing alone, did not provide a constitutional basis for the suspicionless strip searches alleged in the Amended Complaint. Defendants argue, however, that plaintiffs’ status as arrestees who were detained in a custodial facility did provide such a basis. 2. Fourth Amendment Rights in Custodial Facilities Detention and incarceration necessarily require certain limitations on otherwise protected civil liberties. Hudson v. Palmer, 468 U.S. 517, 524, 104 S.Ct. 3194, 82 L.Ed.2d 393 (1984); Bell v. Wolfish, 441 U.S. 520, 545-46, 99 S.Ct. 1861, 60 L.Ed.2d 447 (1979). In custodial facilities, “[t]he curtailment of certain rights is necessary, as a practical matter, to accommodate a myriad of ‘institutional needs and objectives.’” Hudson, 468 U.S. at 524, 104 S.Ct. 3194. For this reason, the Fourth Amendment rights of inmates are measured differently from those enjoyed by persons who have not been lawfully detained or incarcerated. In fact, because custodial facilities necessarily provide little in the way of personal privacy, Fourth Amendment rights, which only exist where a person has a reasonable expectation of privacy that society is willing to recognize, are significantly diminished in custodial settings. See Hudson, 468 U.S. at 525-28, 104 S.Ct. 3194; Bell, 441 U.S. at 557, 99 S.Ct. 1861. Courts necessarily play a “limited role” in the administration of detention facilities. Block v. Rutherford, 468 U.S. 576, 584-85, 104 S.Ct. 3227, 82 L.Ed.2d 438 (1984). As the Bell Court recognized, a “detention facility is a unique place fraught with serious security dangers.” Bell, 441 U.S. at 559, 99 S.Ct. 1861. Crafting policies which both address the complex issues of a secure residential institution and resolve the day-to-day problems of a high-risk population is a difficult managerial task and one to which courts are ill-suited. Lewis v. Casey, 518 U.S. 343, 387 n. 8, 116 S.Ct. 2174, 135 L.Ed.2d 606 (1996); Thornburgh v. Abbott, 490 U.S. 401, 407-08, 109 S.Ct. 1874, 104 L.Ed.2d 459 (1989) (“[T]he judiciary is ‘ill equipped’ to deal with the difficult and delicate problems of prison management .... ”). For this reason, “[pjrison administrators ... should be accorded wide-ranging deference in the adoption and execution of policies and practices that in their judgment are needed to preserve internal order and discipline and to maintain institutional security.” Bell, 441 U.S. at 547-48, 99 S.Ct. 1861 (noting not only that prison administrators have “a better grasp of [this] domain” than reviewing judges but also that “the operation of our correctional facilities is peculiarly the province of the Legislative and Executive Branches”). In affording due deference to prison administrators, courts must not, however, abdicate their duty to protect individuals from government overreaching. “[P]risons are not beyond the reach of the Constitution,” Hudson, 468 U.S. at 523, 104 S.Ct. 3194, and courts must ensure that the actions and policies of prison officials do not deprive inmates of those constitutional rights that have been recognized to exist in custodial facilities. One such right is the Fourth Amendment protection from unreasonable custodial strip searches. 3. Bell Standard for Custodial Strip Searches In Bell v. Wolfish, 441 U.S. 520, 99 S.Ct. 1861, 60 L.Ed.2d 447 (1979), the Supreme Court addressed the constitutionality of two types of searches conducted in custodial facilities: cell searches which inmates were not permitted to observe and strip searches following contact visits. For both searches, the Court assumed without deciding that “inmates, both convicted prisoners and pretrial detainees, retain some Fourth Amendment rights upon commitment to a corrections facility.” Id. at 557, 558, 99 S.Ct. 1861. The Court upheld both searches as reasonable under the Fourth Amendment. Id. In reviewing the strip search policy, the Court provided the following Fourth Amendment standard. Noting that the Fourth Amendment prohibits “unreasonable searches” and that the “test of reasonableness ... requires a balancing of the need for the particular search against the invasion of personal rights that the search entails,” the Court proceeded to state four factors which courts must consider: “[1] the scope of the particular intrusion, [2] the manner in which it is conducted, [3] the justification for initiating it, and [4] the place in which it is conducted.” Id. at 559, 99 S.Ct. 1861. The Fourth Amendment standard that Bell articulated for custodial strip searches is not unique to Bell. The Court affirmed the same balancing approach that it had applied in other Fourth Amendment contexts. Delaware v. Prouse, 440 U.S. 648, 654, 99 S.Ct. 1391, 59 L.Ed.2d 660 (1979). Further, the Court identified the relevant factors by reference to other cases which questioned the validity of routine, non-investigatory searches and seizures. See, e.g., Prouse, 440 U.S. 648, 99 S.Ct. 1391 (striking down random, suspicionless car stops); United States v. Ramsey, 431 U.S. 606, 97 S.Ct. 1972, 52 L.Ed.2d 617 (1977) (upholding suspicionless border searches generally and for international mail); United States v. Martinez-Fuerte, 428 U.S. 543, 96 S.Ct. 3074, 49 L.Ed.2d 1116 (1976) (upholding suspicionless car stops made at reasonably located, permanent checkpoints near the border); United States v. Brignoni-Ponce, 422 U.S. 873, 95 S.Ct. 2574, 45 L.Ed.2d 607 (1975) (striking down suspicionless car stops made by roving patrols near the border); Camara v. Mun. Ct. of S.F., 387 U.S. 523, 87 S.Ct. 1727, 18 L.Ed.2d 930 (1967) (requiring “area” warrants for building code inspections, but upholding suspicionless searches of individual residences located within the area covered by warrant); Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 88 S.Ct. 1868, 20 L.Ed.2d 889 (1968) (upholding limited “stop and frisk” procedure on less than probable cause, but requiring reasonable suspicion). B. Defendant’s Arguments that Bell No Longer Applies Since Bell, most courts faced with challenges to the constitutionality of custodial strip searches have relied on the standard articulated in Bell. See, e.g., Powell v. Barrett, 541 F.3d 1298, 1302-03 (11th Cir. 2008) (en banc); Swain v. Spinney, 117 F.3d 1, 6 (1st Cir.1997); Masters v. Crouch, 872 F.2d 1248,1253 (6th Cir.1989); Jones v. Edwards, 770 F.2d 739, 740 (8th Cir.1985); Stewart v. Lubbock County, 767 F.2d 153, 156 (5th Cir.1985); Hill v. Bogans, 735 F.2d 391, 393 (10th Cir.1984); Mary Beth G. v. City of Chicago, 723 F.2d 1263, 1271 (7th Cir.1983); Logan v. Shealy, 660 F.2d 1007, 1013 (4th Cir.1981). Nevertheless, defendant now argues that two Supreme Court cases following Bell, Hudson v. Palmer, 468 U.S. 517, 104 S.Ct. 3194, 82 L.Ed.2d 393 (1984), and Turner v. Safley, 482 U.S. 78, 107 S.Ct. 2254, 96 L.Ed.2d 64 (1987), have so undermined Bell’s Fourth Amendment approach to custodial strip searches that Bell no longer controls the adjudication of plaintiffs’ claims. For the reasons that follow, this Court rejects both of defendant’s arguments. 1. Inmates’ Fourth Amendment Rights in Custodial Facilities Under Hudson v. Palmer The first question before the Court is whether persons who are detained or incarcerated in custodial facilities enjoy the protection of the Fourth Amendment at all. For the contact visit strip searches of pretrial detainees in Bell, the Supreme Court “assume[d without deciding] that inmates, both convicted prisoners and pretrial detainees, retain some Fourth Amendment rights upon commitment to a corrections facility.” Bell, 441 U.S. at 558, 99 S.Ct. 1861. Five years later, in Hudson v. Palmer, 468 U.S. 517, 526, 104 S.Ct. 3194, 82 L.Ed.2d 393 (1984), the Court revisited the issue of inmates’ Fourth Amendment rights in the context of a cell search challenged by a convicted prisoner. The Hudson Court held that “society is not prepared to recognize as legitimate any subjective expectation of privacy that a prisoner might have in his prison cell and that, accordingly, the Fourth Amendment proscription against unreasonable searches does not apply within the confines of the prison cell.” Hudson, 468 U.S. at 526, 104 S.Ct. 3194. Defendant relies on Hudson’s broadest language to argue that the Hudson holding effectively overrules Bell by rendering all Fourth Amendment claims by inmates non-eognizable. Plaintiffs argue that Hudson is limited to cell searches and does not, therefore, disturb Bell. The parties’ arguments bring into focus the distinction between cell searches and strip searches in custodial facilities. In Hudson, the Court considered a cell search challenged by a convicted inmate and questioned whether the inmate had a reasonable expectation of privacy in his cell which would entitle him to Fourth Amendment rights. Hudson, 468 U.S. at 522, 104 S.Ct. 3194. The Court concluded that the “recognition of privacy rights for prisoners in their individual cells simply cannot be reconciled with the concept of incarceration and the needs and objectives of penal institutions.” Id. at 526, 104 S.Ct. 3194 (emphasis added). In reaching this conclusion, the Hudson Court cited Bell with approval and at no point overruled Bell’s holding or analysis. Moreover, Hudson does not stand alone. It is one of a pair of opinions issued the same day on the constitutionality of cell searches. In the other case, Block v. Rutherford, 468 U.S. 576, 104 S.Ct. 3227, 82 L.Ed.2d 438 (1984), the Court considered a cell search challenged by a pretrial detainee. While Hudson does not mention Bell’s Fourth Amendment assumption, Block specifically affirms it with regard to pretrial detainee cell searches. Block, 468 U.S. at 586, 104 5.Ct. 8227 (upholding Bell’s conclusion that prison cell searches do not violate pretrial detainees’ presumed Fourth Amendment rights). The majority of circuit courts that have considered the relationship between Hudson and Bell have limited Hudson to cell searches and have held, either explicitly or implicitly, that Hudson did not disturb Bell’s Fourth Amendment approach to analyzing the constitutionality of strip searches conducted in custodial settings. See Elliott v. Lynn, 38 F.3d 188, 191 n. 3 (5th Cir.1994) (holding that inmates’ Fourth Amendment protection from unreasonable strip searches survives Hudson); Watsy v. Ames, No. 87-1660, 1988 WL 24978, at *2 (6th Cir.1988) (ruling Hudson inapplicable in a strip search case because it “dealt with the search of a cell as opposed to the search of an individual”); Forbes v. Trigg, 976 F.2d 308, 312 (7th Cir.1992) (stating that “prison inmates retain protected privacy rights in their bodies, although these rights do not extend to their surroundings” and citing Hudson and Bell); Thompson v. Souza, 111 F.3d 694, 699 (9th Cir.1997) (holding that incarcerated prisoners have Fourth Amendment-protected privacy interests after Hudson and despite Hudson’s broad language); Dunn v. White, 880 F.2d 1188, 1191 (10th Cir. 1989) (holding that even after Hudson, “the prisoner’s privacy interest in the integrity of his own person is still preserved under [Bell]”); Covino v. Patrissi, 967 F.2d 73, 78 (2d Cir.1992) (“While we acknowledge the clear teaching of the Supreme Court’s holding in Hudson with respect to prison spaces, we believe that maintenance of prison security is not burdened unduly by the recognition that inmates do retain a limited right to bodily privacy.”); see also Kent v. Johnson, 821 F.2d 1220, 1226 (6th Cir.1987) (limiting the Hudson holding to prison cells and assessing whether plaintiff prisoner had a reasonable expectation of privacy with regard to her person entitling her to Fourth Amendment protection); Bonitz v. Fair, 804 F.2d 164, 170 & n. 6 (1st Cir.1986), overruled on other grounds by Unwin v. Campbell, 863 F.2d 124 (1st Cir.1988) (applying Bell’s Fourth Amendment analysis to a strip search but denying plaintiffs cell search claim under Hudson); Nicholas v. Goord, 430 F.3d 652, 675-76 (2d Cir.2005) (recognizing the distinction between Hudson which denied the availability of Fourth Amendment rights as applied to cell searches and Bell which held that the strip searches after contact visits in that case did not violate the Fourth Amendment). But see Johnson v. Phelan, 69 F.3d 144, 146 (7th Cir.1995) (holding that Hudson overruled Bell’s assumption and abrogated convicted prisoners’ Fourth Amendment rights); Jones v. Murray, 962 F.2d 302, 306 (4th Cir.1992) (erroneously attributing to Bell the holding that “persons lawfully arrested on probable cause and detained lose a right of privacy from routine searches of the cavities of their bodies”). Although none of the cases cited above explain the Bell-Hudson relationship in much detail, the vast majority clearly distinguish Hudson from Bell and support the continuing validity of Bell with regard to the constitutionality of custodial strip searches. This Court agrees with that distinction. Strip searches of the body, such as those at issue in Bell, inflict a much greater invasion of privacy than searches of prison cells. This fact suggests that the Hudson Court would not overrule, sub silentio, Bell’s implied assumption that pretrial detainees have a reasonable expectation of privacy with regard to their own bodies. Although the Supreme Court’s Bell holding is based on an assumption that the Fourth Amendment governs strip searches in custodial facilities, that assumption survives Hudson and controls the Court’s review of plaintiffs’ claims. In reaching this conclusion, the Court is particularly mindful of the Supreme Court’s caution in approaching claims that the Fourth Amendment is inapplicable in a given context, Hudson, 468 U.S. at 525, 104 S.Ct. 3194, and of the Supreme Court’s admonition that “[i]f a precedent of this Court has direct application in a case, yet appears to rest on reasons rejected in some other line of decisions, [lower courts] should follow the case which directly controls, leaving to this Court the prerogative of overruling its own decisions.” Rodriguez de Quijas v. Shearson/Am. Express, Inc., 490 U.S. 477, 484, 109 S.Ct. 1917, 104 L.Ed.2d 526 (1989); accord Hohn v. United States, 524 U.S. 236, 252-53, 118 S.Ct. 1969, 141 L.Ed.2d 242 (1998); Agostini v. Felton, 521 U.S. 203, 237, 117 S.Ct. 1997, 138 L.Ed.2d 391 (1997). In light of the foregoing, this Court rejects defendant’s argument that plaintiffs’ claims should be dismissed on the ground that Hudson deprives inmates of Fourth Amendment rights. 2. The Turner v. Sañey Standard of Review for Prison Regulations Defendant next argues that this Court should employ the standard articulated in Turner v. Safley, 482 U.S. 78, 89-91, 107 S.Ct. 2254, 96 L.Ed.2d 64 (1987), for assessing the constitutionality of prison regulations generally, instead of the more specific Fourth Amendment test that Bell applied to strip searches. According to the Turner standard, defendant’s strip search policy would be constitutional as long as “it is reasonably related to legitimate penological interests.” Turner, 482 U.S. at 89, 107 S.Ct. 2254. The Supreme Court elaborated on the standard by enumerating four relevant factors: “whether the regulation has a valid, rational connection to a legitimate governmental interest; whether alternative means are open to inmates to exercise the asserted right; what impact an accommodation of the right would have on guards and inmates and prison resources; and whether there are ready alternatives to the regulation.” Overton v. Bazzetta, 539 U.S. 126, 132, 123 S.Ct. 2162, 156 L.Ed.2d 162 (2003) (citing Turner, 482 U.S. at 89-91, 107 S.Ct. 2254) (internal quotations omitted). The Turner plaintiffs, inmates of a correctional institution in Missouri, challenged certain prison regulations under the First and Fourteenth Amendments of the United States Constitution. Turner, 482 U.S. at 81, 107 S.Ct. 2254. The district court and the court of appeals applied a strict scrutiny standard to plaintiffs’ claims and held the regulations unconstitutional. Id. at 83, 107 S.Ct. 2254. The “task” facing the Supreme Court was “to formulate a standard of review for prisoners’ constitutional claims.” Id. at 85, 107 S.Ct. 2254. The Supreme Court, rejecting the appropriateness of strict scrutiny for reviewing the constitutionality of prison regulations, reversed the lower court holdings and substituted the modified rational basis standard quoted above. Id. at 81, 89-91, 107 S.Ct. 2254. Turner, and the Supreme Court eases which apply Turner, concern First and Fourteenth Amendment challenges to prison regulations, not Fourth Amendment challenges. Overton v. Bazzetta, 589 U.S. 126, 123 S.Ct. 2162, 156 L.Ed.2d 162 (2003); O’Lone v. Estate of Shabazz, 482 U.S. 842, 107 S.Ct. 2400, 96 L.Ed.2d 282 (1987); Washington v. Harper, 494 U.S. 210, 110 S.Ct. 1028, 108 L.Ed.2d 178 (1990); Turner, 482 U.S. 78, 107 S.Ct. 2254. Indeed, the standards of review discussed in Turner have never had any application in the Fourth Amendment context because the Fourth Amendment mandates a different standard — reasonableness. Although a number of courts, including most courts of appeals, have ruled on the constitutionality of strip searches in custodial facilities, defendant has cited no case which applies the Turner test instead of the Bell test in circumstances similar to those at bar involving arrestees. In fact, only two courts of appeals, the Second and Ninth Circuits, have even addressed Turner ’s applicability to custodial strip search cases. This Court is not persuaded by the analysis of those circuits. The Ninth Circuit, in Michenfelder v. Sumner, 860 F.2d 328 (9th Cir.1988), stated that Turner “set forth the standard for reviewing alleged infringements of prisoners’ constitutional rights,” id. at 331, and purportedly applied that standard to the plaintiffs claim that he was unconstitutionally strip searched at the Nevada state prison. The Michenfelder court’s analysis, however, relied almost exclusively on the balancing test set forth in Bell. Id. at 331-33. After evaluating the reasonableness of the prison’s strip search policy with regard to each of Bell’s four factors, the court concluded by invoking the language of the Turner test. Id. at 333 (affirming the district court’s finding that the prison’s “strip search policy was reasonably related to legitimate penological interests”). Subsequent Ninth Circuit cases have continued Michenfelder’s practice of applying Bell through Turner to strip searches in prisons. See Thompson v. Souza, 111 F.3d 694 (9th Cir.1997); Cuffle v. Agnos, No. 93-16499, 1994 WL 245935 (9th Cir. 1994); Thompson v. City of Los Angeles, 885 F.2d 1439 (9th Cir.1989). The Michenfelder approach has not been adopted by other courts of appeals and, in any case, does not support the more deferential review that defendant seeks by arguing for the application of Turner in this case. The Second Circuit applies both Bell and Turner to claims involving custodial strip searches but differentiates based on the type of facility. It restricts Turner to cases involving prison regulations, Iqbal v. Hasty, 490 F.3d 143, 171-72 (2d Cir.2007), and analyzes strip search policies in jails using the Bell balancing test, Shain v. Ellison, 273 F.3d 56, 65-66 (2d Cir.2001). The Second Circuit developed the distinction between “prisons” and “jails” to reconcile its own prior treatment of custodial strip search cases, and it provides little support for defendant’s argument that this Court should apply Turner in the instant case. See Iqbal, 490 F.3d at 172; Shain v. Ellison, 273 F.3d at 65-66. Indeed, other Second Circuit cases express doubt as to the appropriateness of the Turner test for evaluating Fourth Amendment claims and claims by pretrial detainees, regardless of the type of facility. N.G. v. Connecticut, 382 F.3d 225, 235 (2d Cir.2004) (“[Tjhere is some basis for doubting that the Turner standard applies to a claim of constitutional protection from, state action such as a strip search. Turner concerned prisoners’ assertion of affirmative rights [under the First and Fourteenth Amendments].”); Benjamin v. Fraser, 264 F.3d 175, 187 n. 10 (2d Cir.2001) (questioning whether Turner ’s focus on “penological interests” provides an “appropriate guide” for assessing constitutional claims by pretrial detainees). The Second Circuit decisions on this issue do not persuade this Court to apply Turner to the facts at bar. Ultimately, defendant’s Turner argument fails for the same reason that defendant’s Hudson argument failed. Like Hudson. Turner cited Bell with approval and did not at any point suggest that Bell’s approach to Fourth Amendment claims should no longer be controlling law. Turner, 482 U.S. at 87, 107 S.Ct. 2254 (citing to the portions of Bell which discussed petitioners’ First Amendment claims). This Court will not disregard controlling Supreme Court precedent that has not been specifically overruled by subsequent Supreme Court cases. See Powell, 541 F.3d at 1302 (declining to apply the Turner test to custodial strip searches on this ground); cf. Johnson v. California, 543 U.S. 499, 509-10, 125 S.Ct. 1141, 160 L.Ed.2d 949 (2005) (holding that Turner did not “cast doubt on” the Court’s previous holding that strict scrutiny applies to racial classifications in prisons). Like the many courts that have addressed the constitutionality of custodial strip searches, this Court is guided by Bell and its progeny- C. The Constitutionality of Suspicionless Arrestee Strip Searches in Custodial Facilities Having determined that Bell’s Fourth Amendment standard is the appropriate test by which to measure the viability of plaintiffs’ claims, the Court now turns to the constitutionality of suspicionless arrestee strip searches under that standard. Prior to the issuance of Powell v. Barrett, 541 F.3d 1298 (11th Cir.2008) (en banc), the numerous opinions of nine other circuit courts clearly established that the Fourth Amendment prohibits suspicionless arrestee strip searches. See, e.g., Chapman v. Nichols, 989 F.2d 393, 397-99 (10th Cir. 1993) (rejecting defendant’s qualified immunity claim); Masters v. Crouch, 872 F.2d 1248, 1257 (6th Cir.1989) (same); Weber v. Dell, 804 F.2d 796, 803-04 (2d Cir.1986) (same); Jones v. Edwards, 770 F.2d 739, 742 n. 4 (8th Cir.1985) (same). The consensus was that arrestee strip searches in custodial facilities must be based on reasonable suspicion. See, e.g., Weber v. Dell, 804 F.2d 796, 802 (2d Cir. 1986); Giles v. Ackerman, 746 F.2d 614, 617 (9th Cir.1984) (per curiam), overruled on other grounds by Hodgers-Durgin v. de la Vina, 199 F.3d 1037 (9th Cir.1999). Dismissing the virtually unanimous circuit precedent on this issue, the Eleventh Circuit, in Powell, ruled that suspicionless arrestee strip searches do not violate the Fourth Amendment and that all opinions to the contrary misread Bell. Powell, 541 F.3d at 1302, 1306-1307. Defendant now argues that this Court should “join Powell in standing against [the] litany of incorrectly[ ]decided cases.” (Def. Reply at 10.) After conducting a thorough review of Bell, the circuit court cases following Bell, and Powell, this Court is unconvinced by the reasoning of the Eleventh Circuit and rejects defendant’s argument that plaintiffs have failed to state a claim under Bell and its progeny. To fully explain its rejection of the Powell opinion, this Court must describe, at some length, the Supreme Court’s holding in Bell and the reasoning of the circuit opinions which followed Bell. 1. The Constitutionality of Contact Visit Strip Searches Under Bell v. Wolfish The Bell opinion primarily concerns the Due Process right “to be free from punishment” during pretrial detention and the Supreme Court’s assessment of whether particular prison practices constitute punishment. Bell, 441 U.S. at 534, 99 S.Ct. 1861. In addition, however, the Supreme Court ruled on practices that were alleged to violate various express guarantees of the Constitution, including the practice of strip searching all pretrial detainees after contact visits which was alleged to violate the Fourth Amendment. The Supreme Court’s analysis of the challenged strip search policy, a subject of significant controversy after Powell, is outlined below. The important questions, for present purposes, are (1) whether the Court approved suspicionless searches or required some level of individualized suspicion and (2) whether the Court’s holding applies to all custodial strip search policies and not just the contact visit strip search policy at issue in Bell. Bell began as a class action petition which challenged certain conditions of confinement at the Metropolitan Correctional Center (MCC), a custodial facility in New York City. Bell, 441 U.S. at 523, 99 S.Ct. 1861. The Bell petitioners were federal pretrial detainees who had been detained pursuant to a determination by a federal judge that no less drastic means could reasonably ensure their presence at trial. Id. at 524, 99 S.Ct. 1861 (citing the Bail Reform Act of 1966, Pub.L. No. 89-465, § 3, 80 Stat. 214, 214). The MCC also housed convicted prisoners, persons in protective custody, and persons incarcerated for contempt, but they were not parties to the Supreme Court proceeding. Id. at 524, 529-30, 99 S.Ct. 1861. The petition “served up a veritable potpourri of complaints that implicated virtually every facet of the institution’s conditions and practices,” including the MCC’s policy and practice of strip searching inmates after each contact visit. Id. at 527-28, 558, 99 S.Ct. 1861. These searches involved both the removal of all clothing and the visual inspection of body cavities. Id. at 558 & n. 39, 99 S.Ct. 1861 At trial on the constitutionality of the MCC’s contact visit strip searches, the district court approved the blanket policy with regard to the observation of inmates’ naked bodies but held that it was unconstitutional to the extent that it authorized visual body cavity searches absent probable cause to believe that the inmate was concealing contraband. United States ex rel. Wolfish v. Levi, 439 F.Supp. 114, 148 (S.D.N.Y.1977). The Second Circuit affirmed. Wolfish v. Levi, 573 F.2d 118, 131 (2d Cir.1978). Consequently, the question before the Supreme Court was “whether visual body-cavity inspections as contemplated by the MCC rules [for contact visit strip searches] can ever be conducted on less than probable cause.” Bell, 441 U.S. at 560, 99 S.Ct. 1861 (emphasis in original). The Court answered that question in the affirmative, holding that the MCC’s blanket policy of searching all inmates after contact visits was reasonable. The Court began its analysis of the strip search issue by admitting that “this practice instinctively gives us the most pause.” Bell, 441 U.S. at 558, 99 S.Ct. 1861. The Court then proceeded to assess the reasonableness of the challenged search policy by balancing “the need for the particular search against the invasion of personal rights that the search entail[ed].” Id. at 559, 99 S.Ct. 1861. The Court considered “the scope of the particular intrusion, the manner in which it is conducted, the justification for initiating it, and the place in which it is conducted.” Id. As discussed in Part IV.A of this Memorandum, the above standard is a version of the test that the Supreme Court has developed for assessing the reasonableness of “special needs” searches — those which can be conducted without the Fourth Amendment’s default requirement of individualized suspicion. With regard to the scope of the intrusion, the Bell Court described the searches as follows: “If the inmate is a male, he must lift his genitals and bend over to spread his buttocks for visual inspection. The vaginal and anal cavities of female inmates also are visually inspected. The inmate is not touched by security personnel at any time during the visual search procedure.” Bell, 441 U.S. at 558 n. 39, 99 S.Ct. 1861 (emphasis in original). The Court stated that it did “not underestimate the degree to which these searches may invade the personal privacy of inmates” and quoted the Second Circuit’s view that such searches represent a “ ‘gross violation of personal privacy.’ ” Id. at 558, 560, 99 S.Ct. 1861 (quoting Wolfish v. Levi, 573 F.2d 118, 131 (2d Cir.1978)). With regard to the manner of the searches, the Court observed that the district court had found some evidence of abuse. Id. at 560, 99 S.Ct. 1861. Declaring that “[s]uch an abuse cannot be condoned,” the Court restricted its review to searches conducted in an appropriate manner pursuant to the MCC policy. Id. On the other side of the equation were the needs of the institution. The Court characterized detention facilities as “unique place[s] fraught with serious security dangers” and described the risks posed by the smuggling of money, drugs, and weapons. Bell, 441 U.S. at 559, 99 S.Ct. 1861. Corrections officials justified the searches by stating that they were necessary both to detect contraband exchanged and concealed during contact visits and to deter the smuggling of contraband during contact visits. Id. at 558, 99 S.Ct. 1861. At trial, the evidence showed that the MCC strip searches had successfully detected contraband only once, but the Court found this evidence inconclusive because it could “be more a testament to the effectiveness of this search technique as a deterrent than to any lack of interest on the part of the inmates to secrete and import such items when the opportunity arises.” Id. at 559, 99 S.Ct. 1861. Despite the highly intrusive nature of the searches, the Court found that the inmates’ privacy interests were outweighed by the “significant and legitimate security interests of the institution” and upheld the MCC’s contact visit strip search policy as reasonable. Bell, 441 U.S. at 558, 560, 99 S.Ct. 1861. In upholding a blanket policy, the Court concluded that custodial strip searches could “be conducted on less than probable cause” and, indeed, that they could be conducted without any individualized assessment of cause. Id. at 560, 99 S.Ct. 1861. Essentially, the Court placed the MCC’s contact visit strip searches in the “closely guarded category of constitutionally permissible suspicion-less searches,” Chandler, 520 U.S. at 309, 117 S.Ct. 1295, which are reasonable based on the government needs at stake and not because the government has cause for each individual search. Because the Court determined that the blanket policy was reasonable on the facts before it, it had no occasion to rule on what factual circumstances might make a custodial strip search policy unreasonable. It also had no reason to require a particular level of individualized suspicion — reasonable suspicion or probable cause — in order to uphold custodial strip searches that would be unreasonable if suspicionless. 2. Circuit Court Rulings on Arrestee Strip Searches in Custodial Facilities By the time the Eleventh Circuit decided Powell, nine other circuits had applied the Bell standard in cases involving recently arrested persons who were subjected to suspicionless strip searches upon admission to a custodial facility and ruled that such searches were unconstitutional. Powell correctly notes that while these decisions “vary in detail around the edges, the picture they paint is essentially the same.” Powell, 541 F.3d at 1309. In each case, a person is arrested on charges which do not involve narcotics or violence. In some cases, the charges were relatively minor. See, e.g., Walsh v. Franco, 849 F.2d 66, 67 (2d Cir.1988) (failure to pay parking tickets); Stewart v. Lubbock County, 767 F.2d 153, 154 n. 1 (5th Cir. 1985) (public intoxication and issuance of a bad check); Jones v. Edwards, 770 F.2d 739, 740 (8th Cir.1985) (leash law violation). In other cases, the charges were more serious. See, e.g., Logan v. Shealy, 660 F.2d 1007, 1009 (4th Cir.1981) (DUI); Kennedy v. Los Angeles Police Dep’t, 901 F.2d 702, 704 (9th Cir.1990), overruled on other grounds by Hunter v. Bryant, 502 U.S. 224, 112 S.Ct. 534, 116 L.Ed.2d 589 (1991) (grand theft). After arrest, the person is taken to a police station, jail, or other detention facility. At that facility, the person is strip searched as part of the intake or admission process. The scope of the strip searches varied. See, e.g., Hill v. Bogans, 735 F.2d 391, 393 (10th Cir.1984) (arrestee instructed to drop pants and shorts); Giles v. Ackerman, 746 F.2d 614, 615 (9th Cir.1984) (per curiam), overruled on other grounds by Hodgers-Durgin v. de la Vina, 199 F.3d 1037 (9th Cir.1999) (visual observation of arrestee’s naked body); Mary Beth G. v. City of Chicago, 723 F.2d 1263, 1266-67 (7th Cir.1984) (visual body cavity inspection). Soon thereafter, the person is released. Although it is difficult to precisely characterize the collective holdings of these cases, especially considering the fact-sensitive nature of reasonableness analysis, suffice it to say that all nine circuits found suspicionless strip searches of recently arrested persons unreasonable and therefore unconstitutional. Swain v. Spinney, 117 F.3d 1, 7 (1st Cir.1997); Masters v. Crouch, 872 F.2d 1248, 1255 (6th Cir.1989); Weber v. Dell, 804 F.2d 796, 802 (2d Cir. 1986); Jones v. Edwards, 770 F.2d at 741-42; Stewart, 767 F.2d at 156-57; Giles v. Ackerman, 746 F.2d at 617; Hill v. Bogans, 735 F.2d at 394-95; Mary Beth G., 723 F.2d at 1273; Logan v. Shealy, 660 F.2d at 1013. These courts held that, to be reasonable, custodial strip searches of detained arrestees must be predicated on reasonable suspicion. The “[Reasonable suspicion may be based on such factors as the nature of the offense, the arrestee’s appearance and conduct, and the prior arrest record.” Giles v. Ackerman, 746 F.2d at 617. In none of the cases cited above did the court determine that Bell’s reasonableness ruling with regard to the MCC’s contact visit strip searches controlled the reasonableness of custodial strip searches in other contexts. Rather, each court recited Bell’s Fourth Amendment standard and then proceeded to apply that standard to the facts before it. In balancing “the need for the particular search against the invasion of rights that the search entails,” courts considered the factors identified by Bell (“the scope of the particular intrusion, the manner in which it is conducted, the justification for initiating it, and the place in which it is conducted”) and considered the Bell Court’s analysis of those factors. Bell, 441 U.S. at 559, 99 S.Ct. 1861. From the ample authority provided by numerous circuit courts, this Court draws the following conclusions. a. The Invasion of Rights that the Search Entails In Bell, the contact visit strip searches involved visual body cavity inspection. Subsequent cases have noted that strip searches, regardless of the particular procedures used, constitute extremely invasive government action. Giles v. Ackerman, 746 F.2d at 617 (stating that a skin search invaded plaintiffs privacy “in a frightening and humiliating manner”); Logan v. Shealy, 660 F.2d at 1013 (describing a visual strip search as “the ultimate invasion of personal rights”); Thompson v. City of Los Angeles, 885 F.2d 1439, 1446 (9th Cir.1989) (“The feelings of humiliation and degradation associated with forcibly exposing one’s nude body to strangers for visual inspection is beyond dispute.”). Because a more invasive strip search can be “demeaning, dehumanizing, undignified, humiliating, [and] repulsive,” it constitutes “one of the most grievous offenses against personal dignity and common decency.” Bell, 441 U.S. at 576-77, 99 S.Ct. 1861 (Marshall, J., dissenting); accord Mary Beth G. v. City of Chicago, 723 F.2d 1263, 1272 (7th Cir.1983). Strip searches are more intrusive than searches of arrestees incident to arrest. See Mary Beth G., 723 F.2d at 1268-71; Swain v. Spinney, 117 F.3d 1, 5-6 (1st Cir.1997); Giles v. Ackerman, 746 F.2d at 616. Strip searches are also considerably more intrusive than “the limited search of the outer clothing for weapons” authorized by Terry v. Ohio on an officer’s reasonable suspicion, which the Supreme Court described as “a severe, though brief, intrusion upon cherished personal security, [which] must surely be an annoying, frightening, and perhaps humiliating experience.” Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 24-25, 88 S.Ct. 1868, 20 L.Ed.2d 889 (1968). Strip searches differ qualitatively from other intake procedures which entail some incidental nudity but do not involve visual inspection of the naked body. Cf. Stanley v. Henson, 337 F.3d 961, 967 (7th Cir.2003) (upholding a clothing exchange procedure and distinguishing the “relatively narrow intrusion” of the procedure from the more intrusive strip searches described in the cases following Bell); Wood v. Hancock County Sheriffs Dep’t, 354 F.3d 57, 62-64 (1st Cir.2003) (defining a strip search as involving “visual inspection” of the naked body for the purpose of determining whether the jail’s clothing exchange and shower procedure amounted to a strip search). The exposure of the naked body to scrutiny by government officers is what makes strip searches more invasive than other admission procedures at a custodial facility. The intrusiveness of the search must also be considered in light of the circumstances and context of the search. For offenses that are relatively minor, a strip search represents a grossly disproportionate consequence of arrest. Few people would think that their right of privacy in their own body, a “cherished value of our society,” Schmerber, 384 U.S. at 772, 86 S.Ct. 1826, could be jeopardized by the failure to pay parking tickets, shoplifting, or driving without a license. Police officers arrest and temporarily detain individuals for offenses that carry minimal statutory penalties. See, e.g., Stewart, 767 F.2d at 154-55; Hill v. Bogans, 735 F.2d 391, 392-93 (10th Cir.1984). Under a blanket policy, custodial facilities search all of these arrestees without regard to the severity of their offenses or likelihood of conviction. For minor offenders unfamiliar with the incidents of detention, strip searches add shock and unexpected humiliation to the already frightening experience of arrest. b. The Need for the Particular Search In Bell, the Court identified two reasons why the contact visit strip search policy at issue in that case which involved visual body cavity inspection advanced the defendants’ institutional security interests. First, the policy enabled prison officers to discover contraband smuggled during contact visits, and second, the blanket policy deterred the smuggling of contraband during contact visits. Bell, 441 U.S. at 559, 99 S.Ct. 1861. Courts that st