Full opinion text
OPINION & ORDER JOHN F. KEENAN, District Judge. Currently pending in this multi-district litigation (“MDL”) are omnibus Dauberb motions filed by the Plaintiffs Steering Committee (“PSC”) and Defendant Merck & Co., Inc. (“Merck”). For the following reasons, the Court rules as follows. I. Background Merck makes and distributes Fosamax (alendronate), an FDA-approved drug widely prescribed for the treatment or prevention of osteoporosis. Fosamax belongs to a class of drugs called bisphosphonates. Bisphosphonate drugs have become standard treatment for various metabolic and oncologic diseases related to abnormalities in the bone remodeling cycle. Also referred to as bone turnover, the bone remodeling cycle is a continuous process of renewal in which old or damaged bone is broken down (resorbed) and then replaced with new bone. The process starts by activation of the osteoclast, which is the cell responsible for resorption. The osteoclast breaks down a small amount of bone, leaving an excavated pit that becomes the bone remodeling unit. A bone-building cell called an osteoblast then fills the bone remodeling unit with organic bone matrix that, once mineralized, becomes new bone. The living bone cell itself is called the osteocyte. The rate of bone remodeling varies depending on the skeletal site. Osteoporosis is a disease that afflicts more than 10 million Americans over the age of 50, 80% of whom are women. In healthy young adults, bone resorption and formation are balanced. With aging, bone turnover can become unbalanced due to relative decreases in osteoblast activity or increases in osteoclast activity. In addition, as women age, the decline in estrogen levels after menopause can stimulate osteoclast activity and resorption. The uneven remodeling cycle produces net bone loss. Over time, this leads to reduced bone density and quality and an increased risk of fracture. An additional 84 million Americans have low bone mass and are considered at risk for osteoporosis, a state referred to as osteopenia. The high incidence of fracture in persons with osteoporosis is a major public health concern. Several other diseases are related to abnormalities in bone turnover. Paget’s disease of bone is characterized by accelerated turnover that results in the production of new bone that is structurally defective. In metastatic bone disease, tumors metastasize into the skeleton and stimulate osteoclast activity, causing hypercalcemia and bone pain. One form of osteopetrosis, which is a group of disorders characterized by very dense bone, involves defective osteoclast function. Bisphosphonates are synthetic analogues of inorganic pyrophosphate. At the tissue level, the primary effect of all bisphosphonates is to inhibit bone resorption. Because bone resorption and formation are linked, bisphosphonates also have a secondary effect of decreasing formation and remodeling. In addition, bisphosphonates are known to inhibit angiogenesis, which is the sprouting of new blood vessels from existing ones. The first generation bisphosphonates, developed in the 1960s and 1970s, were relatively weak. The new generations have a nitrogen-containing amino side chain that greatly enhances their anti-resorptive potency. At the cellular level, bisphosphonate binds to the surface of bone mineral, accumulating preferentially in areas with a high rate of bone turnover. At active sites of resorption, the bisphosphonate is released from bone and taken up into the osteoclast. There, it inhibits enzymes necessary for the osteoclast’s function and survival. Nitrogen-containing bisphosphonate that is not released during resorption remains in the bone and has a half-life of ten or more years. The FDA approved Fosamax in 1995 for the treatment of osteoporosis and Paget’s disease and in 1997 for the prevention of osteoporosis. Fosamax was the first of three nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates approved for oral administration to treat these conditions. Since their market introduction, oral bisphosphonates have been prescribed by doctors over 225 million times. The efficacy of these drugs in arresting bone loss and reducing the risk of fracture in osteoporotic persons is well-established. Also on the market are two nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates which are intravenously administered for the treatment of metastatic bone disease and multiple myeloma. These intravenous (“IV”) bisphosphonates are prescribed in higher doses and are more potent than the ones taken orally for osteoporosis. In addition, oral bisphosphonates are poorly absorbed into the bloodstream. Therefore, they have lower bioavailability for incorporation into bone than IV bisphosphonates. Since October 2003, there have been published reports of bisphosphonate users developing a rare condition called osteonecrosis of the jaws (“ONJ”). ONJ is characterized clinically by an area of dead jawbone that becomes exposed to the oral cavity. Symptoms can include pain, swelling, and purulent secretion. The vast majority of ONJ cases since 2003 have been reported in patients taking IV bisphosphonates. However, there have been reports of ONJ in patients taking oral bisphosphonates. The condition usually develops after an invasive dental procedure, such as a tooth extraction, but has presented spontaneously in some cases. In August 2004, the FDA issued a Post-Marketing Safety Review concluding that ONJ may be a class effect of all bisphosphonates, rather than limited to IV bisphosphonates. In July 2005, at the FDA’s request, Merck updated the Fosamax label to make reference to ONJ. ONJ can occur in the absence of bisphosphonate use, but its background rate in the population is not known. It has been reported to occur with radiation therapy to the head and neck, osteomyelitis (inflammation/infection of bone marrow), osteopetrosis, herpes zoster virus infection, chemotherapy, and major trauma. The risk of developing ONJ is increased by factors such as periodontal disease, poor oral hygiene, and trauma. As reports of ONJ in bisphosphonate users increased, many medical, dental, and oral maxillofacial organizations commissioned expert panels to study the problem. They have issued guidelines and recommendations for diagnosing, preventing, and treating what is now commonly referred to as “bisphosphonate-associated ONJ (‘BON’)” or “bisphosphonate-related ONJ (‘BRONJ’).” For example, under a working definition promulgated by the American Academy of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgeons (“AAOMS”), a person can be diagnosed with BRONJ if the following three conditions are met: (1) current or previous treatment with a bisphosphonate, (2) exposed, necrotic bone in the maxillofacial region that has persisted for more than eight weeks, and (3) no history of radiation therapy to the jaws. The AAOMS also devised a staging system that categorizes patients with BRONJ into stage 0, stage 1, stage 2, or stage 3, depending on their clinical signs and symptoms. In severe cases, regions of necrotic bone must be surgically removed. By all estimates, the risk of developing ONJ while taking an oral bisphosphonate for osteoporosis is very small. According to Merck, the worldwide reporting rate among Fosamax users is less than what Merck refers to as 1 in 100,000 patient-treatment years. This number is consistent with a study conducted in Germany that found the prevalence to be 3.8 in 100,000 patients (.00038%). Other studies have found the prevalence to be substantially higher. A survey conducted in Australia, published in 2007, calculated the rate to be between 0.01% to 0.04% for all oral bisphosphonate users and 0.09% to 0.34% for those who had dental extractions. A recent FDA-approved database study by Kaiser Permanente found it to be 0.09% for oral bisphosphonate users. Since 2006, approximately 800 federal actions have been filed by plaintiffs who allege that Fosamax caused them to develop ONJ. Pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 1407, these cases were consolidated in this Court for pretrial coordination. The parties recently completed generic fact and expert discovery, as well as case-specific discovery in a sample of cases. The first of three “bellwether” or test trials is scheduled to commence on August 11, 2009. The strict products liability and negligence claims asserted by plaintiffs in this MDL are predicated primarily on a failure to warn theory. The substantive state law that governs these claims varies. In general, the plaintiffs will have to prove, among other things, that Fosamax is capable of causing ONJ (general causation) and that Merck should have known of this risk and provided a warning. On behalf of all plaintiffs, the PSC has designated seven witnesses who have proffered expert testimony relevant to these common issues. Merck has designated a number of witnesses who would offer opposing expert testimony. On May 8, 2009, each side filed a motion challenging the other’s experts pursuant to Federal Rule of Evidence 702. The Court has considered the voluminous submissions presented on the motions, including the export reports, curriculum vitae, and deposition testimonies of the challenged witnesses. Earlier this month, five witnesses were examined at a hearing pursuant to Federal Rule of Evidence 104, otherwise known as a Daubert hearing. See Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharms., Inc., 509 U.S. 579, 113 S.Ct. 2786, 125 L.Ed.2d 469 (1993). The Court’s role on these motions is not to decide whether Fosamax can cause ONJ or whether Merck acted as a reasonably prudent drug manufacturer. That task is assigned to the jury. As discussed below, the Court’s duty is to ensure that the proffered expert testimony is reliable enough to be admitted at trial as evidence for the jury to consider. II. Applicable Law Federal Rule of Evidence 702 governs the admissibility of expert testimony and provides: If scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge will assist the trier of fact to understand the evidence or to determine a fact in issue, a witness qualified as an expert by knowledge, skill, experience, training, or education, may testify thereto in the form of an opinion or otherwise, if (1) the testimony is based upon sufficient facts or data, (2) the testimony is the product of reliable principles and methods, and (3) the witness has applied the principles and methods reliably to the facts of the ease. Fed. Rule Evid. 702. Essentially, the witness must be qualified as an expert, the testimony must be reliable, and the testimony must assist the trier of fact. Qualification as an expert is viewed liberally and may be based on “a broad range of knowledge, skills, and training.” In re TMI Litig., 193 F.3d 613, 664 (3d Cir.1999); In re Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (“MTBE”) Prods. Liab. Litig., No 1-00-1898, 2008 WL 1971538, at *5 (S.D.N.Y. May 7, 2008) (stating that “[cjourts within the Second Circuit have liberally construed expert qualification requirements” (internal quotation marks omitted)). A witness’s qualifications “can only be determined by comparing the area in which the witness has superior knowledge, skill, experience, or education with the subject matter of the witness’s testimony.” Carroll v. Otis Elevator Co., 896 F.2d 210, 212 (7th Cir.1990) (quoting Gladhill v. General Motors Corp., 743 F.2d 1049, 1052 (4th Cir.1984)). Rule 702’s three reliability-based requirements were added in 2000 to codify Daubert and its progeny, Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael, 526 U.S. 137, 119 S.Ct. 1167, 143 L.Ed.2d 238 (1999), and General Elec. Co. v. Joiner, 522 U.S. 136, 146, 118 S.Ct. 512, 139 L.Ed.2d 508 (1997). See Fed.R.Evid. 702 advisory committee’s note. In Daubert, the Supreme Court held that the traditional “general acceptance” test enunciated in Frye v. United States, which required that a scientific technique be generally accepted in the relevant scientific community to be admissible, was superseded by the Federal Rules of Evidence and inconsistent with their liberal standards of admissibility. Daubert, 509 U.S. at 585-89, 113 S.Ct. 2786; see also Amorgianos v. National R.R. Passenger Corp., 303 F.3d 256, 266 (2d Cir.2002). The Court interpreted Rule 702 to require district courts to act as gatekeepers by ensuring that expert scientific testimony “both rests on a reliable foundation and is relevant to the task at hand.” Daubert, 509 U.S. at 597, 113 S.Ct. 2786. This requires “a preliminary assessment of whether the reasoning or methodology underlying the testimony is scientifically valid and of whether that reasoning or methodology properly can be applied to the facts in issue.” Id. at 592-93, 113 S.Ct. 2786; see also Kumho Tire, 526 U.S. 137, 119 S.Ct. 1167 (holding that this gate-keeping function applies to all expert testimony, whether based on scientific, technical or other specialized knowledge). To be scientifically valid, the subject of expert testimony need not be “known to a certainty” because, “arguably, there are no certainties in science.” Daubert, 509 U.S. at 590, 113 S.Ct. 2786. Rather, the testimony must rest on “good grounds, based on what is known.” Id. (internal quotation marks omitted). Daubert set forth a non-exclusive list of factors that courts might consider in gauging the reliability of scientific testimony. Id. at 593-95, 113 S.Ct. 2786. These factors are: (1) whether the theory has been tested; (2) whether the theory has been subject to peer review and publication; (3) the known or potential rate of error and whether standards and controls exist and have been maintained with respect to the technique; and (4) the general acceptance of the methodology in the scientific community. Id. Whether some or all of these factors apply in a particular ease depends on the facts, the expert’s particular expertise, and the subject of his testimony. Kumho Tire, 526 U.S. at 138, 119 S.Ct. 1167. A district court has broad discretion both in determining the relevant factors to be employed in assessing reliability and in determining whether that testimony is in fact reliable. Kumho Tire, 526 U.S. at 153, 119 S.Ct. 1167; Zuchowicz v. United States, 140 F.3d 381, 386 (2d Cir.1998). The requirement that expert testimony “assist the trier of fact” goes primarily to relevance. Daubert, 509 U.S. at 591, 113 S.Ct. 2786. Relevance can be expressed as a question of “fit” — “whether expert testimony proffered in the case is sufficiently tied to the facts of the case that it will aid the jury in resolving a factual dispute.” Id. (quoting United States v. Downing, 753 F.2d 1224, 1242 (3d Cir.1985)). In addition, expert testimony is not helpful if it simply addresses “lay matters which the jury is capable of understanding and deciding without the expert’s help.” United States v. Lumpkin, 192 F.3d 280, 289 (2d Cir.1999). Finally, the testimony is not helpful if it “usurpfs] either the role of the trial judge in instructing the jury as to the applicable law or the role of the jury in applying that law to the facts before it.” United States v. Duncan, 42 F.3d 97, 101 (2d Cir.1994) (quoting United States v. Bilzerian, 926 F.2d 1285, 1294 (2d Cir.1991)). To fulfill its gate-keeping function, the district court must “undertake a rigorous examination of the facts on which the expert relies, the method by which the expert draws an opinion from those facts, and how the expert applies the facts and methods to the case at hand,” in order to ensure that each step in the expert’s analysis is reliable. Amorgianos, 303 F.3d at 267. However, in accordance with the liberal admissibility standards of the Federal Rules of Evidence, only serious flaws in reasoning or methodology will warrant exclusion. Id. “As long as an expert’s scientific testimony rests upon ‘good grounds, based on what is known,’ it should be tested by the adversary process-competing expert testimony and active crossexamination-rather than excluded from jurors’ scrutiny for fear that they will not grasp its complexities or satisfactorily weigh its inadequacies.” Ruiz-Troche v. Pepsi Cola of Puerto Rico Bottling Co., 161 F.3d 77, 85 (1st Cir.1998) (quoting Daubert, 509 U.S. at 596, 113 S.Ct. 2786); see also Amorgianos, 303 F.3d at 267. If an expert’s testimony lies within “the range where experts might reasonably differ,” the jury, and not the trial court, should “decide among the conflicting views of different experts.” Kumho Tire, 526 U.S. at 153, 119 S.Ct. 1167. The Daubert analysis focuses on the principles and methodology underlying an expert’s testimony, not on the expert’s conclusions. 509 U.S. at 595, 113 S.Ct. 2786. However, the Supreme Court in Joiner recognized that “conclusions and methodology are not entirely distinct from one another.” 522 U.S. at 146, 118 S.Ct. 512. Therefore, “[a] court may conclude that there is simply too great an analytical gap between the data and the opinion proffered.” Id. (stating that “nothing in either Daubert or the Federal Rules of Evidence requires] the admission of opinion evidence connected to existing data only by the ipse dixit of the expert.”) The ultimate object of the court’s gate-keeping role under Rule 702 is to “make certain that an expert, whether basing testimony upon professional studies or personal experience, employs in the courtroom the same level of intellectual rigor that characterizes the practice of an expert in the relevant field.” Kumho Tire, 526 U.S. at 152, 119 S.Ct. 1167. “The flexible Daubert inquiry gives the district court the discretion needed to ensure that the courtroom door remains closed to junk science while admitting reliable expert testimony that will assist the trier of fact.” Amorgianos, 303 F.3d at 267. Finally, like all evidence, expert testimony may be excluded under Rule 403 if its “probative value is substantially outweighed by the danger of unfair prejudice, confusion of the issues or misleading the jury, or by considerations of undue delay, waste of time, or needless presentation of cumulative evidence.” Fed.R.Evid. 403. With these general principles in mind, the Court now turns to the various challenges the parties have raised to each other’s experts. III. The Present Motions Merck brings the following motions: (1) Motion to Exclude General Causation Witnesses Dr. Robert E. Marx, Dr. John W. Hellstein, Dr. Alastair N. Goss, and Dr. Mahyar Etminan; (2) Motion to Exclude Dr. Suzanne Parisian; (3) Motion to Exclude Dr. Curt D. Furberg; and (4) Motion to Exclude Dr. Gordon Guyatt. In addition, Merck raises several Daubert challenges on specific issues or parts of the witnesses’ proposed testimony. The PSC moves for an order (1) precluding eight of Merck’s designated experts from offering an opinion on general causation and/or medical issues relating to bisphosphonates; and (2) placing certain restrictions on testimony by any Merck witness about the anti-fracture efficacy of Fosamax. A. Merck’s Motions 1. Motion to Exclude Expert Testimony about General Causation Plaintiffs have designated three oral maxillofacial experts and one epidemiologist to opine on general causation. Dr. Robert E. Marx is the Chief of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery and the Director of Research at the University of Miami School of Medicine. He proposes to testify that all bisphosphonates, including Fosamax, cause what he refers to as bisphosphonate-induced ONJ by over-suppressing bone remodeling in the jaws. He further would testify that bisphosphonate-induced ONJ is clinically distinct from other forms of ONJ and does not respond to typical ONJ treatments. Furthermore, he finds the clinical presentation of bisphosphonate-induced ONJ to be nearly identical to ONJ seen with osteopetrosis, a disease involving impaired osteoclastic function. In addition, Dr. Marx would testify that there is no durational threshold before a Fosamax user is at risk for BRONJ, altering his prior, oft-repeated opinion that there is minimal or no risk until there has been three years of continuous use. Dr. John W. Hellstein is a Clinical Professor at the University of Iowa, College of Dentistry, where he is also the Director of the Surgical Oral Pathology Laboratory. Similar to Dr. Marx, Dr. Hellstein offers an opinion that bisphosphonate-associated ONJ is a clinically distinct pathology caused by bisphosphonates, primarily through the over-suppression of bone turnover. He also opines that the condition is similar to other diseases characterized by reduced osteoclastic function. In addition, he likens bisphosphonate-associated ONJ to “phossy jaw,” an exposed jaw necrosis observed in the 19th and early 20th century in factory workers exposed to white phosphorus. Dr. Alastair N. Goss is a Professor of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery at the University of Adelaide, Australia, and also serves as the Director of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery at two Adelaide hospitals. The PSC has retained him to opine that there is a causal relationship between bisphosphonate drugs, including Fosamax, and ONJ. He further would testify that there is no time-to-onset threshold that allows the conclusion that a person is not at risk of developing ONJ before three years of use. At a de benne esse deposition taken in Adelaide, Dr. Goss also presented photographs of patients with bisphosphonate-associated ONJ and opined that the mechanism underlying the disease is the over-suppression of bone turnover. Dr. Mahyar Etminan is an Assistant Professor of Medicine at the University of British Columbia and a research scientist at the Center for Clinical Epidemiology and Evaluation in Vancouver. He holds a Doctor of Pharmacy and a Masters Degree in Clinical Epidemiology. He would offer the opinion that epidemiological studies are not always necessary to establish causation, especially when the adverse event in question is very rare. Based upon his application of the Bradford Hill criteria, he would testify that there is reliable scientific data establishing a causal relationship between bisphosphonates, including Fosamax, and ONJ. a. Merck’s Position Merck moves to exclude testimony on general causation by all four of plaintiffs proposed experts on the subject. Merck argues that the scientific consensus, reflected in several position papers issued by reputable scientific bodies, is that the current level of evidence is insufficient to support the conclusion that oral bisphosphonates can cause ONJ. Merck notes that no randomized controlled trials or epidemiological studies demonstrate that Fosamax users suffer an increased risk of ONJ over nonusers. According to Merck, the opinions of plaintiffs experts lack a reliable foundation because they are based upon mere case reports and case series, prevalence studies, adverse event reports, inapplicable animal studies, and unproven hypotheses about the mechanism or mechanisms through which Fosamax supposedly causes ONJ. Merck also identifies additional factors that it believes undermine the reliability of the proffered general causation opinions. Merck contends that plaintiffs’ oral maxillofacial experts are unable to clinically distinguish ONJ allegedly caused by bisphosphonates from other conditions involving exposed necrotic bone and delayed healing. Merck also argues that Dr. Etminan cannot utilize the Bradford Hill factors to assess causality because those factors may be applied only after a controlled epidemiological study demonstrates a statistically significant association between an exposure and a disease. Merck further claims that Dr. Etminan is not qualified to apply the Bradford Hill criteria and that, in any event, applying them does not support the view that Fosamax causes ONJ. b. PSC’s Position The PSC responds that its experts have applied proper methodology in forming their general causation opinions because they relied on the totality of the available scientific evidence. According to the PSC, multiple lines of reliable evidence provide a sufficient foundation for its experts’ opinions. That evidence consists of biologic plausibility, three prevalence studies, hundreds of peer-reviewed and published case reports and case series, adverse event reports, several animal studies, evidence showing that other bisphosphonates cause ONJ, and, for certain experts, their own published studies and/or clinical experience. The PSC claims that its experts are eminently qualified to appreciate the causation significance of this evidence. Furthermore, according to the PSC, experts are entitled to reach general causation opinions in the absence of evidence from epidemiological studies. The PSC argues that the clinical trials for Fosamax were not designed or large enough to detect rare and unexpected adverse events like ONJ and that Merck’s own scientists concluded that epidemiologic studies were not feasible. Finally, the PSC argues that the association between Fosamax and ONJ is well-established and admitted by two of Merck’s experts, that several position papers and medical treatises reflect a general consensus on causality, and that the position papers cited by Merck are not authoritative. c. Court’s Ruling The arguments presented by both sides overlook the different methodologies employed on the one hand by the PSC’s three oral maxillofacial experts, Drs. Marx, Hell-stein, and Goss, and on the other hand by its epidemiology expert, Dr. Etminan. These differences are important because admissibility under Rule 702 turns on whether the “expert employs in the courtroom the same level of intellectual rigor that characterizes the practice of an expert in the relevant field.” Kumho Tire, 526 U.S. at 152, 119 S.Ct. 1167. i. The Oral Maxillofacial Experts The testimony of Drs. Marx, Hell-stein, and Goss on general causation is admissible under Rule 702. Each is a leading expert in the field of oral maxillofacial pathology and on the topic of ONJ. In forming their opinions on general causation, they rely upon their clinical experience in treating ONJ, understanding of the physiology of the jaws and the pharmacology of bisphosphonates, and review of the available scientific literature and evidence. Their theory on the mechanism of causation is generally accepted as biologically plausible. In addition, they formed their opinions independently of litigation, have published them in leading peer-reviewed journals, and frequently are cited by others in the field. The Court first addresses Merck’s argument about the absence of evidence from controlled studies. It is well-settled that an expert on medical causation need not always base his opinion on epidemiological studies. McCullock v. H.B. Fuller Co., 61 F.3d 1038, 1043-44 (2d Cir.1995); Benedi v. McNeil-P.P.C., Inc., 66 F.3d 1378 (4th Cir.1995); Kennedy v. Collagen Corp., 161 F.3d 1226 (9th Cir.1998); Norris v. Baxter Healthcare Corp., 397 F.3d 878, 882 (10th Cir.2005). Such a requirement would “doom from the outset all cases in which the state of research on the specific ailment or on the alleged causal agent was in its early stages.” Heller v. Shaw Indus., Inc., 167 F.3d 146, 155 (3d Cir.1999). It also would be inconsistent with Daubert because it would “effectively resurrect a Nn/e-like bright-line standard, not by requiring that a methodology be ‘generally accepted,’ but by excluding expert testimony not backed by published (and presumably peer-reviewed) studies.” Amorgianos v. Nat’l R.R. Passenger Corp., 303 F.3d 256, 267 (2d Cir.2002) (quoting Heller, 167 F.3d at 155). There can be no question that the state of research on the link between oral bisphosphonates and ONJ is in its early stages. Before October 2007, there was no International Classification of Diseases (“ICD-9”) code for ONJ, a testament to its relative obscurity until recent years. (PX 8.0004.) This made epidemiologic study infeasible, which is one of the professed reasons that Merck decided not to conduct any study. (PX 30009: 41:20-46:19; 1.0400.) The absence of ONJ reports in the Fosamax clinical trials does not end the debate. The PSC’s epidemiology experts have offered persuasive testimony that clinical trials can miss very rare, unexpected, and sometimes late-occurring adverse events. (Etminan Rep. at p. 4, 7-8; Furberg Rep. at 28; see also AAOMS Position Paper on Bisphosphonate-Related Osteonecrosis of the Jaw-2009 Update (DX 42) at 3 (“The low prevalence of BRONJ in osteoporosis patients poses a significant challenge for future clinical trials aimed at establishing accurate incidence data.”)); In re Zyprexa Prods. Liab. Litig., 493 F.Supp.2d 571, 575 (E.D.N.Y.2007) (observing that clinical trials often fail to uncover important adverse effects for widely marketed prescription drugs). Merck’s scientists have recognized that ONJ cases may have been unreported or misreported during the clinical trials for several different reasons. (PX 1.0073; 1.0424.) A few controlled database studies have attempted to use surrogates for ONJ. While these add to the body of scientific knowledge, they have limitations and the Court finds them to be inconclusive on the issue of causation. One study examined medical claims data for 255,757 cancer patients, using jaw surgery as a surrogate for ONJ. (DX 48.) The study found that IV bisphosphonates strongly increased the risk for jaw surgery. Oral bisphosphonates were found to increase the risk by 15%, but the association was not statistically significant. When first approached by one of the study’s authors, Merck decided not to participate in or sponsor the study because it believed that “not much could be done with epidemiology” due to the coding problems. (PX 1.0400; 1.0522.) The same author published a subsequent study examining medical claims data for over 700,000 people, using various jaw problems as surrogates. (DX 50.) The study found that IV bisphosphonates increased the risk for adverse jaw outcomes but that oral bisphosphonates actually reduced it. Despite the favorable results, one of Merck’s top scientists internally dismissed them because the study had an unacknowledged enrollment bias. (PX 1.0575; 3.0006: 217:13-218:2.) The PSC, for its part, points to a database study by Dr. Etminan finding a statistically significant association between oral bisphosphonate use and reports of asceptic osteonecrosis. (PX 2.0272.) However, the study concedes that most of the reports likely were of necrosis of the hip, not ONJ, and that the study “could not establish causality.” (Id.) Considering the early state of the research, the lack of evidence from controlled epidemiological studies is not fatal. Under Daubert, an expert need not base his or her opinion on the best possible evidence, regardless of availability, but upon “good grounds, based on what is known.” 509 U.S. at 590, 113 S.Ct. 2786. In McCullock v. H.B. Fuller Co., the Second Circuit affirmed the admission of a doctor’s testimony that plaintiffs exposure to glue fumes caused her respiratory ailment, even though the doctor “could not point to a single piece of medical literature” that specifically supported this conclusion. 61 F.3d at 1043-44. The Court found that the testimony rested on good science because the doctor based his opinion on a range of factors, including his care and treatment of plaintiff, her medical history, pathological studies, review of the substance’s material safety data sheet, his training and experience, use of a scientific analysis known as differential etiology (which requires listing possible causes, then eliminating all causes but one), and reference to various scientific and medical treatises. Id. In Zuchowicz v. United States, the Second Circuit approved the admission of a pulmonary medical expert’s opinion that a negligent overdose of a drug caused a fatal pulmonary disease. 140 F.3d at 386-87. The doctor based his opinion on the temporal relationship between the overdose and the start of the disease, the deceased’s apparent good health prior to the overdose, and the differential etiology method of excluding other possible causes. Id. at 385. He also relied on the fact that the illness was similar in onset, timing and course of development to other cases of pulmonary diseases known to have been caused by other classes of drugs. Id. at 385-86. Although there had been no scientific studies of the drug at the high dosage ingested by the deceased, the Court affirmed the district court’s conclusion that the doctor based his opinion on methods reasonably relied upon in his field. Id. at 387. A third decision, Amorgianos v. Nat’l R.R. Passenger Corp., signaled the continuing authority of McCullock and Zuchowicz by repeatedly citing and relying on them. 303 F.3d at 266-67. The Court stated that an expert need not always “back his or her opinion with published studies that unequivocally support his or her conclusions.” Id. at 266. It also cited decisions from other circuits holding that an opinion on medical causation need not be based on evidence from controlled epidemiological studies. Id. at 266-67 (citing Bonner, 259 F.3d at 929; Heller, 167 F.3d at 155). In Ruggiero v. Warner-Lambert Co., 424 F.3d 249 (2d Cir.2005), the Court of Appeals affirmed the exclusion of a doctor’s testimony that the drug Rezulin caused cirrhosis of the liver. The doctor apparently based his opinion on a differential diagnosis, but “was unable to point to any studies or, for that matter, anything else” that supported his conclusion. Id. at 252. The Court held that a differential diagnosis generally is insufficient by itself to support an opinion on general causation, except perhaps in rare cases due to the “the rigor of differential diagnosis performed, the expert’s training and experience, the type of illness or injury at issue, or some other case-specific circumstance.” Id. at 254. The Court explained that, “[wjhere an expert employs differential diagnosis to rule out other potential causes for the injury at issue, he must also rule in the suspected cause, and do so using scientifically valid methodology.” Id. The Court also stated that, in light of Joiner and Amorgianos, a district court must ensure that the expert’s conclusion is supported at each step by the data and methodology upon which he or she relies. Id. at 255. In this case, as detailed below, the PSC’s oral maxillofacial experts do not base their general causation opinions on a single differential diagnosis, but upon many conducted over several years. They back up their conclusions with valid scientific evidence, albeit not from controlled studies. Merck implies that, after Ruggiero, a doctor must rely on such studies to “rule in” a suspected cause. This proposition is contrary to the precedent of this and several other circuits. McCullock, 61 F.3d at 1043-44; Bonner, 259 F.3d at 929; Benedi, 66 F.3d at 1384; Heller, 167 F.3d at 155; Kennedy, 161 F.3d at 1228-29. More fundamentally, it is incompatible with the principle that a testifying expert is held to the standard of an expert in the relevant field. Kumho Tire, 526 U.S. at 152, 119 S.Ct. 1167. In the actual practice of medicine, physicians do not wait for conclusive, or even published and peer-reviewed, studies to make diagnoses to a reasonable degree of medical certainty. Such studies of course help them to make various diagnoses or to rule out prior diagnoses that the studies call into question. However, experience with hundreds of patients, discussions with peers, attendance at conferences and seminars, detailed review of a patient’s family, personal, and medical histories, and thorough physical examinations are the tools of the trade.... Heller, 167 F.3d at 155, cited in Amorgianos, 303 F.3d at 266-67; see also Kassirer et al. Inconsistency in Evidentiary Standards for Medical Testimony, JAMA, Sept. 18, 2002-Vol. 288 No. 11 (PX 2.1001) at 1384 (“In clinical medicine, a biologically plausible relationship, physiological studies of a drug, or even a handful of case reports can be useful in individual cases in helping a practitioner make judgments about cause and effect relationships.”). The following example illustrates the point. Merck’s oral pathology expert, Dr. Ellen Eisenberg, believes that radiation therapy can cause ONJ. (04/15/09 Eisenberg Dep. Tr. 16:6-17:17, 21:23-24:17.) She bases her opinion upon years of clinical experience, case reports, and biologic plausibility, though she is not aware of a single study that demonstrates a statistical association between radiation therapy and ONJ. (Id.) This is not an unreliable methodology for a physician to rule in radiation therapy as a potential cause of ONJ. The Court now turns to the reliability of the opinions of the PSC’s oral maxillofacial experts and finds it established by the following factors. (1) Qualifications and Professional Stature The strength of an expert’s qualifications provides circumstantial evidence of reliability. See Ambrosini v. Labarraque, 101 F.3d 129, 140 (D.C.Cir.1996); United States v. Downing, 753 F.2d 1224, 1239 (3d Cir.1985). “[T]he more qualified the expert, the more likely that expert is using reliable methods in a reliable manner-highly qualified and respected experts don’t get to be so by using unreliable methods or conducting research in an unreliable manner.” Malletier v. Dooney & Bourke, Inc., 525 F.Supp.2d 558, 616 (S.D.N.Y.2007). Dr. Marx is the Chief of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery and the Director of Research at the University of Miami School of Medicine. He serves as an editor or on the editorial review board of eight journals, including the New England Journal of Medicine and the Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. He has published three textbooks on oral maxillofacial diseases, one of which won the American Medical Writers Best Book of the Year Award in 2002. He has contributed to over 31 other textbooks and authored or co-authored more than 55 peer-reviewed articles on topics including osteoradionecrosis, osteomyelitis, and “bisphosphonateinduced ONJ.” He frequently is invited to medical conferences around the country to speak on the topic of ONJ. In September 2006, Merck’s scientists invited him to be the featured speaker at an expert consultants meeting on the topic. Dr. Goss is a Professor of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery at the University of Adelaide, Australia, and serves as the Director of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery at the largest maxillofacial surgery facility in Adelaide. He has published approximately 200 peer-reviewed articles in his field, several of which are on the relationship between bisphosphonates and ONJ. He also has published a nationwide study sponsored by the Australian health authority on the prevalence of ONJ among bisphosphonate users. Since 2003, he has devoted about half of his research efforts to bisphosphonates and ONJ. He too was invited by Merck to the 2006 consultant’s meeting on ONJ. Dr. Hellstein is a Clinical Professor at the University of Iowa, College of Dentistry, where he is also the Director of the Surgical Oral Pathology Laboratory. He is board-certified in oral pathology. The American Dental Association (“ADA”) selected him to serve on its Expert Panel on Oral Bisphosphonates, which was convened to study bisphosphonate-associated ONJ. Dr. Hellstein has published numerous book chapters and peer-reviewed articles in leading journals, including several on the relationship between bisphosphonates and ONJ. He too was invited by Merck to the 2006 meeting as an expert on ONJ. (2) Clinical Experience Dr. Marx has 25 years of clinical experience at a national referral center for complex oral maxillofacial pathologies. Over the years, he frequently has managed ONJ in patients suffering from osteoradionecrosis, osteopetrosis, and, more rarely, osteomyelitis. (Marx Rep. ¶ 16.) Beginning in 1999, he began to receive far more referrals of patients with exposed necrotic jawbone, the cause of he could not identify. (Id. ¶ 26.) He ruled out radiation therapy, osteopetrosis, and chemotherapy as alternative causes. (Id. ¶¶ 26-28.) The condition did not respond to treatments that had been proven effective to treat other forms of ONJ, such as that seen with osteomyelitis. (Id. ¶ 28.) Dr. Marx realized that only patients taking a bisphosphonate developed this unexplained ONJ. (Id. ¶ 29.) He noted that the clinical presentation was nearly identical to the exposed necrotic bone seen with osteopetrosis. (Id.) It made sense to him that a therapy that inhibits osteoclast function would lead to a condition also found in individuals whose osteoclast function is impaired by a genetic disorder. (Id.) As of September 2008, Dr. Marx has diagnosed and treated a total of 182 cases of bisphosphonate-associated ONJ: 129 cases in patients using IV bisphosphonates, and 53 cases in patients using oral bisphosphonates. (Id. ¶ 38.) Practicing in Australia, Dr. Goss had a similar experience. In 2003, he saw a small cluster of patients who had areas of dead jawbone that would not heal. (3/27/09 Goss Dep. Tr. at 17.) He determined it to be a new disease that he had never before seen in 43 years of practice. (Id. at 18, 81.) He realized that the common link among the cases was the use of a bisphosphonate. (Id. at 17-18.) He has received communications from oral maxillofacial surgeons throughout the country describing a similar experience. (Id. at 86-87.) As of March 2009, he has seen approximately 100 cases of bisphosphonate-related ONJ, about half of which involved the use of oral bisphosphonates. (Id. at 81.) Dr. Hellstein concurs that reports of ONJ have exploded in recent years and that the use of bisphosphonates is the only consistent factor in these cases. (Hellstein Rep. at 17-20.) He bases this upon his clinical and laboratory experience at the University of Iowa, discussions with colleagues, and review of medical and dental literature. Over his career, Dr. Hellstein has treated patients with exposed bone from radiation therapy, osteomyelitis and, more rarely, spontaneous sequestration. (Id. at 18-19.) He also has been referred patients with bisphosphonate-assoeiated ONJ and has managed their treatment. (Id. at 4.) He finds that these cases differ in clinical features and course of healing from other forms of ONJ. (Id. at 12, 18-19.) According to all three witnesses, bisphosphonate-associated ONJ is a distinct disease with a unique set of clinical features. Each describes the objective factors that permit him to distinguish and diagnose the disease. Namely, the area of exposed necrotic bone is very slow to heal or never heals and is unresponsive or even worsened by surgical and other treatments that have proven effective on other forms of ONJ. That bisphosphonate-assoeiated ONJ can be specifically diagnosed appears to have attained some measure of consensus among practitioners. In 2006, the AAOMS drafted a working definition for “bisphosphonate-related ONJ (‘BRONJ’)” intended to “distinguish BRONJ from other delayed healing conditions.” (DX 42.) The working definition has remained unchanged. One of the criteria for a BRONJ diagnosis is exposed bone that has persisted for more than 8 weeks. The paper also reports that patients with BRONJ respond less predictably to surgical treatment than patients with osteoradionecrosis or osteomyelitis. Without citing any authority on oral pathology, Merck argues that these doctors are unable to tell the difference between bisphosphonate-assoeiated ONJ and other conditions involving exposed bone and delayed healing. This argument appears to be contrary to the views of one of Merck’s own scientists. In 2005, Dr. Kimmel, a researcher and a dentist, gave an internal presentation in which he stated that ONJ is “somewhat like osteoradionecrosis” but that it “seems unlike” other conditions, including osteomyelitis, although osteomyelitis can occur subsequent to ONJ. (PX 1.0579.) He also stated that, while there are risk factors for delayed healing after a dental extraction, the delayed healing lasted only 2-4 weeks and never as long as 6 weeks. (Id.) The Court finds that the clinical experience of the PSC’s oral maxillofacial experts is highly indicative of the reliability of their opinions. (3) Biologic Plausibility Biologic plausibility is a judgment about whether an agent plausibly could cause a disease, based on existing knowledge about human biology and disease pathology. (Michael D. Green et al., Reference Guide on Epidemiology at 388 in Federal Judicial Center, Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence (2d Ed.2000)). The parties agree that the significance of this factor increases when epidemiological evidence is lacking or inconclusive. (PSC Opp. Mem. at 43; Merck Reply Mem. at 19.) However, the parties argue two separate points to the issue. On the one hand, the PSC’s experts identify a biologically plausible mechanism through which Fosamax may cause ONJ. This mechanism, the over-suppression theory, is detailed in a 2006 article in the New England Journal of Medicine by one of Merck’s experts, Dr. John Bilezikian: If there is a relationship between bisphosphonates and osteonecrosis of the jaw, what might explain it? The jaw is often subject to spontaneous, local trauma as well as trauma caused by dental procedures. The mucosa of the mouth is very thin and may therefore permit unroofing of the alveolar bone immediately beneath it when trauma or infection occurs. As potent inhibitors of osteoclast activity, the nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates might retard skeletal repair processes associated with trauma to or infection of the oral mucosa that involves the underlying bone. Since the jawbones are in constant use and are characterized by active remodeling, bisphosphonates might accumulate there preferentially, resulting in concentrations that exceed those found elsewhere in the skeleton. (DX 47 at 2280.) This theory is widely reported in the scientific literature as a plausible explanation for bisphosphonateassociated ONJ. As recently described in an exhaustive review article, “Nearly every report and review of BRONJ points to bisphosphonate-induced remodeling suppression as a likely mechanism.” (PX 2.1002.) The ADA’s Expert Panel on Oral Bisphosphonates concluded that biologic plausibility pointed in the direction of causality because the “event is defined by the mechanism of action of the drug,” i.e., the suppression of bone turnover. (PX 2.1015.) In internal emails in 2005, Dr. Kimmel wrote that the reduction of bone remodeling likely reduces the jaws’ natural ability to heal, and that placing too much of a healing demand on them in patients treated with bisphosphonates can lead to the death of jawbone. (PX 1.0549 at p. 00093701; 1.0986 at p. 00004310.) The PSC’s experts identify animal studies that offer support for the over-suppression theory. These studies involved rats or dogs, animals that Merck’s scientists recognize as providing relevant and reliable information about the human skeleton. (PX 3.0006: 47:2-51:1, 79:18-80:8; PX 2.0152 at pp. 12535, 12538). The studies find higher rates of bone turnover in the jaws, (PX 2.0162), that bisphosphonates suppress remodeling in the jaws more than in other bones (Id.); that Fosamax treatment prior to tooth extraction delays initial healing, (PX 2.1005.); that Fosamax increases the incidence of bone matrix necrosis in the jaws; (2.1004 at p. 987); that Fosamax inhibits resorption of necrotic bone; and that high doses of a first-generation bisphosphonate combined with severe periodontal disease induces ONJ. (PX 2.0144.) Given this evidence, the Court cannot accept Merck’s characterization of the over-suppression theory as mere untested speculation. (Merck Reply Mem. at 19-20.) Merck also cites animal studies that seem to reach contrary conclusions. (Id. at 23 & nn. 18-19.) The Court’s gate-keeping role does not require it to weigh the conflicting studies. At oral argument, Merck presented a collection of articles and position papers stating that the mechanism underlying bisphosphonate-associated ONJ remains unknown or unclear. For example, the same review article mentioned above states that “Despite this large volume of work, there remain few data yet many hypotheses concerning the underlying pathophysiology.” (PX 2.1002.) Similarly, the ADA Expert Panel paper concludes that, “The pathophysiological link between bisphosphonates and the development of BON [bisphosphonate-associated ONJ] remains unknown.” (PX 2.1015 at 11.) Dr. Hellstein is a coauthor of the paper and conceded at deposition that the statement is accurate. (03/25/09 Hellstein Dep. Tr. at 304-06.) That the mechanism remains unknown does not mean that the one proposed by the PSC’s experts is not widely accepted as plausible. See In re Neurontin Mktg. Sales Practices and Prods. Liab. Litig., 612 F.Supp.2d 116, 149 (D.Mass.2009) (finding that biologic plausibility supported opinion on causation despite the fact that there was “robust debate in the scientific community” on the proposed mechanism); In re PPA Prods. Liab. Litig., 289 F.Supp.2d 1230, 1247 (W.D.Wash.2003) (“The fact that the mechanism remains unclear does not call the reliability of the opinion into question.”). The Court finds that the existence of a biologically plausible mechanism bolsters the reliability of the proffered opinions on causation. However, this mechanism should not be represented as a matter of scientific certainty. Any testimony about it will be admitted only if qualified in substance by a statement that it remains a theory that, subject to further testing, might be proved or disproved. (4) Peer-reviewed Publications & Independent Research All three of the PSC’s oral maxillofacial experts have published their views on the relationship between bisphosphonates and ONJ in peer-reviewed articles appearing in top medical, dental, and oral maxillofacial journals. “That the research is accepted for publication in a reputable scientific journal after being subjected to the usual rigors of peer review is a significant indication that it is taken seriously by other scientists, i.e., that it meets at least the minimal criteria of good science.” Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. (“Daubert II”), 43 F.3d 1311, 1318 (9th Cir.1995). In 2003, after accumulating the first 36 cases of ONJ in IV bisphosphonate patients, Dr. Marx reported his findings in an article published in the Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. (Marx Rep. ¶ 34). He described it as an unrecognized and unreported serious adverse effect of IV bisphosphonate treatment. (Id.) Since then, he has published at least six other articles in refereed journals and one textbook expressing the view that both IV and oral bisphosphonates cause ONJ. (Marx Rep. Ex. A.) Similarly, after seeing his first small cluster of patients, Dr. Goss published letters to the editors of the Australian Dental Journal and the Australian Prescriber warning about a possible association between ONJ and bisphosphonate use. (3/27/09 Goss Dep. Tr. at 20.) He conducted and published a nationwide prevalence study that was sponsored by the Australian health authority. He has since authored or co-authored numerous articles on the relationship between bisphosphonates and ONJ, several of which have appeared in peer-reviewed journals. (Goss Rep. ¶ 5.) Likewise, Dr. Hellstein has published several peer-reviewed articles on the subject, in addition to his work on the ADA Expert Panel. (Hellstein Rep. at 6-7.) The Court finds that the peer-review process lends credibility to their opinions. Also significant is the fact that the experts focused their research and published their views on the relationship between bisphosphonates and ONJ independently of litigation. “That the testimony proffered by an expert is based directly on legitimate, preexisting research unrelated to the litigation provides the most persuasive basis for concluding that the opinions he expresses were ‘derived by the scientific method.’ ” Daubert II, 43 F.3d at 1317 (9th Cir.1995). (5) Case Reports, Case Series, and Adjudicated Adverse Event Reports Case reports lack controls and therefore provide less information on causation than controlled studies. Mary Sue Henifin et al., Reference Guide on Medical Testimony at 633-34 in Ref. Manual on Scientific Evid., supra. “Causal attribution based on case studies should be viewed with caution. However, such studies may be carefully considered in light of other information available.” Id. Moreover, a large number of case reports adds greater weight to the reliability of an opinion on causation. See In re PPA, 289 F.Supp.2d at 1242 (finding “significant the sheer volume of case reports, case series and spontaneous reports associating PPA with hemorrhagic stroke to women”); Rider v. Sandoz Pharms. Corp., 295 F.3d 1194, 1202 (11th Cir.2002) (stating in dicta that reliable evidence on causality includes, inter alia, “a very large number of case reports.”). Since 2004, there have been roughly 60 published reports of ONJ in patients treated with oral bisphosphonates. Many contain details about dosage, duration of use, concomitant medications, co-morbid conditions, and prior dental procedures, trauma, or infection. (See, e.g., PX 2.1018; PX 2.0252). In addition, as of May 2008, Merck has received at least 1400 spontaneous reports of ONJ. Merck points out that the majority of these reports are unconfirmed and generated by the filing of lawsuits. In 2006, however, Merck adjudicated roughly 350 reports that it had received by then and verified that most of them were highly likely cases of ONJ. (PX 3.0006: 361:10-370:20; PX 1.2218, at pp. 837-38). Additionally, there have been hundreds of published case reports of ONJ in IV bisphosphonate users, plus a few retrospective studies finding a strong association. Merck correctly notes that the IV bisphosphonates are more potent, administered in higher doses, and better absorbed than oral bisphosphonates. However, these distinctions might also suggest a dose-response relationship, which would tend to support causality. Merck also points out that IV bisphosphonates generally are used by cancer patients with comorbities and concomitant treatments that predispose them for ONJ. This difference, though important, does not completely undermine the reliability of extrapolating among nitrogen-containing bisphosphonate drugs, all of which suppress bone turnover through the same mechanism of action. Merck also argues that ONJ has been reported in the absence of bisphosphonate therapy, but can point to relatively few involving non-irradiated patients in the medical literature over several decades. GSee Merck Br. at 10 & n. 6.) For example, one report cites a literature review finding 20 cases of ONJ reported with herpes zoster between 1955 and 1999. (DX 33.) The Court finds that the relatively high number of recent ONJ reports, almost exclusively involving bisphosphonate use, confirms the clinical experience of the PSC’s oral maxillofacial experts, and adds to the reliability of their opinions. (6) Prevalence Studies The experts also point to studies calculating the prevalence of ONJ among populations of oral bisphosphonate users. First, in 2007, Dr. Goss published a study sponsored by the Australian health authority calculating the nationwide prevalence of ONJ in IV and oral bisphosphonate users. (PX 2.0348.) The rate of ONJ in osteoporotic patients on oral bisphosphonates was between 1 in 2,260 to 8,470 (0.01% to 0.04%). For those who had dental extraction, the rate was 1 in 296 to 1,130 (0.09% to 0.34%). The first large study in the United States was conducted by researchers at the University of Southern California (“USC”). (PX 2.085.) Published in early 2009, the USC study found 9 cases of ONJ among 208 patients with a history of Fosamax. All cases presented after a tooth extraction or dental trauma. The study found no ONJ cases among 13,522 patients without a history of Fosamax use, including 4,348 who had a dental extraction. According to the study, these “findings indicate! ] that even short-term use of oral alendronate can lead to ONJ in a subset of patients after dental procedures such as extractions.” (Id. at 66.) Most recently, an FDA-approved study by Kaiser Permanente, called the Predicting Risk of Osteonecrosis with Bisphosphonate Exposure (“PROBE”) Study, calculated the prevalence of ONJ among oral bisphosphonate users to be 1 in 1,110, or 0.09%. (PX 2.1016.) The Court appreciates the limitations of these studies. They do not compare the calculated rates against a control group of non-bisphosphonate users. Therefore, they provide no statistical evidence that oral bisphosphonate use increases the risk of ONJ. Their results take on greater significance in view of the rarity of ONJ, however. Merck has sought to ascertain the background rate of ONJ in the general population but was informed by expert consultants that it is essentially zero except in cases of radiation therapy and a few serious diseases. (PX 1.0026; 3.0003: 229:9-231:9.) The prevalence rates found among persons with osteoporosis offer circumstantial support for the view that oral bisphosphonates increase the risk. (7) Journal Articles and Position Papers Dr. Marx notes that, since 2003, there have been over 400 published articles in refereed scientific journals addressing bisphosphonate-related ONJ. (Marx Rep. ¶ 37.) In his report, he quotes from a few that tend to support his views on causation. (Id. ¶¶ 49-51.) For example, one article states that, “Although the association between osteonecrosis of the jaw and bisphosphonates had been called into question, the sheer number of cases reported since the widespread use of bisphosphonates began, as well as the mode of action of this class of drugs, lend support to the view that there is a real and probable causal relationship.” (Id. ¶ 49.) Similarly, Dr. Hellstein has surveyed the medical and dental literature on bisphosphonate-associated ONJ and has found several hundred articles published since the initial reports in 2003. (Hellstein Rep. at 17 & Ex. D). Likewise, Dr. Goss relies upon the published scientific literature in forming his opinion. (Goss Rep. ¶ 12 & Ex. D.) As noted above, numerous medical, dental, and oral maxillofacial associations have commissioned expert panels to study the topic of bisphosphonate-related ONJ. Most have concluded that more evidence is needed in order to establish a causal relationship. For example, the updated AAOMS position paper recently concluded that “the current level of evidence does not fully support a cause-and-effect relationship between bisphosphonate exposure and necrosis of the jaw.” AAOMS 2009 Position Paper (DX 42); see also Canadian Consensus Practice Guidelines (DX 43) (stating that “the relationship between bisphosphonate use and ONJ in the patient with osteoporosis remains unproven”); ASBMR Task Force Report (DX 40) (stating that “bisphosphonates have not proven to be causal”). Even Merck’s experts have testified, however, that these papers result from a compromise of views and do not purport to speak for all members of the associations. (PX 4.0001: 211:10-212:21.) For example, the Chair of the AAOMS Task Force has testified in the Aredia/Zometa MDL that all bisphosphonates, including Fosamax, cause ONJ. (PX 8.0007: 38:13-38:19) In addition, Dr. Marx is a member of the AAOMS and published an article in the Journal of Oral Maxillofacial Surgery criticizing the task force’s position that more epidemiological evidence is needed. (PX 2.1012). Furthermore, Merck does not account for the fact that expert panels of other respectable organizations have reached a different consensus. The ADA Expert Panel on Oral Bisphosphonates recently published that, “[tjhough it is early in the investigative stage, the relationship between bisphosphonate exposure and the occurrence of osteonecrosis of the jaw appears to be consistent with Bradford-Hill’s criteria for causality.” (PX 2.1015 at p. 8.) Similarly, the American Academy of Endodontists’ Special Committee on Bisphosphonates advises its membership to “consider all p