Full opinion text
OPINION & ORDER DENISE COTE, District Judge: This litigation confronts the phenomenon of the rapid and widespread dissemination of financial services firms’ equity research recommendations through unauthorized channels of electronic distribution. This dissemination frequently occurs before the firms have an opportunity to share these recommendations with their clients — for whom the research is intended — and to encourage the clients to trade on those recommendations. The firms contend that their recommendations are “hot news” and that the regular, systematic, and timely taking and redistribution of their recommendations constitutes misappropriation, which is a violation of the New York common law of unfair competition. Barclays Capital Inc. (“Barclays Capital”), Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner & Smith Inc. (“Merrill Lynch”), and Morgan Stanley & Co. Inc. (“Morgan Stanley”) (collectively, the “Firms”) have brought suit against defendant Theflyonthewall.com, Inc. (“Fly”). Fly is an internet subscription news service that aggregates and publishes research analysts’ stock recommendations along with many other items of varying interest to investors. In addition to asserting hot-news misappropriation, the Firms accuse Fly of infringing the copyrights of Barclays Capital and Morgan Stanley in seventeen research reports released in February and March 2005. For the reasons described below, judgment shall be entered for the plaintiffs on both claims. This action was originally filed on June 26, 2006 by Lehman Brothers Inc. (“Lehman Brothers”), Morgan Stanley, and Merrill Lynch and assigned to the Honorable George B. Daniels. Fly answered on August 16, 2006 and asserted counterclaims for defamation, tortious interference with prospective business relations, and unfair competition under § 43(a) of the Lanham Act. Those counterclaims were dismissed on March 15, 2007. Following a lengthy period reserved for settlement negotiations, fact discovery closed on or about December 19, 2008. The case was reassigned to this Court on June 8, 2009. The Firms and Fly each filed motions for summary judgment on May 18, 2009, which became fully submitted on August 11, 2009. Thereafter, the Firms advised that they would voluntarily waive their claims for damages to the extent that such claims would entitle any party to a jury trial. On September 3, Fly acknowledged that the parties were not entitled to a jury trial. The summary judgment motions were denied on November 6, 2009, and the case was set down for a bench trial. With the parties’ consent, the trial was conducted in accordance with the Court’s Individual Practices. In advance of the March 8 trial date, the direct testimony of the witnesses was presented through affidavits submitted with the joint pretrial order along with the parties’ trial exhibits. The Firms presented the affidavits of Barry Hurewitz, Chief Operating Officer of Investment Research at Morgan Stanley (“Hurewitz”); Stuart Linde, Global Head of Equity Research at Barclays Capital and former U.S. Director of Equity Research at Lehman Brothers (“Linde”); Kathleen Lynch, Chief Operating Officer for the Global Research Group at Merrill Lynch (“Lynch”); and Candace Browning, President of Global Research at Merrill Lynch (“Browning”). Fly presented affidavits from Ron Etergino, President and majority owner of Fly (“Etergino”); Kellie Berg Garfunkel, a news reporter for Fly (“Garfunkel”); Jay Mahr, a news editor for Fly (“Mahr”); and Margaret Muldoon, a marketing consultant for Fly (“Muldoon”). Of the Firms’ witnesses, all four appeared at trial and were available for cross-examination. Plaintiffs also called Etergino as an adverse witness on their case-in-chief. Of the defendant’s witnesses, Etergino, Garfunkel, and Mahr appeared at trial and were available for cross-examination. The parties accepted Muldoon’s affidavit by stipulation. Etergino also demonstrated the functionality of Fly’s website as part of the defendant’s case-in-chief. Four pretrial motions were filed. First, the Firms moved in limine to preclude the admission of testimony under Fed.R.Civ.P. 37(c)(1) by a third-party witness, Kevin Reynolds, on the basis that Fly had failed to make proper discovery disclosures concerning Reynolds as required by Fed. R.Civ.P. 26(a)(3)(A)(i). The parties stipulated to three of the four facts that Fly-sought to elicit from Reynolds, and the motion to preclude was granted as to the fourth. Second, Fly moved in limine to preclude certain direct testimony proffered by the Firms on the grounds that it was irrelevant, hearsay, and/or improper lay opinion testimony. That motion was granted to the extent indicated on the record at the final pretrial conference and otherwise denied. Finally, Fly’s motion for judgment on partial findings on the hot-news misappropriation claim, and Fly’s motion to preclude evidence concerning its prior lawsuit for copyright infringement and hot-news misappropriation against its competitor TradeTheNews.com (“TTN”), were each denied. This Opinion constitutes the findings of fact and conclusions of law following the March 8-11, 2010 bench trial. The factual findings are principally set forth in the first section of this Opinion, but appear as well in the final section. FINDINGS OF FACT I. The Firms’ Equity Research Business Model The Firms are major financial institutions that provide wealth and asset management, securities trading and sales, corporate finance, and various investment services. Collectively, their customers include large institutional clients, foundations, corporations, businesses of every size, families, and individuals. Among their clients of particular importance to the issues in this litigation are U.S. hedge funds, private equity firms, money managers, mutual funds, pension funds, and wealthy individual investors. The services that the Firms offer their clients, including research reports, financial analytics, and trading tools, support clients’ investing activities and are intended to assist with maximizing their returns on those investments. One principal source of revenue for the Firms is the commissions earned when they facilitate trading on behalf of their clients. The development and marketing of research about major publicly traded equity securities, or “equity research,” is a critical component of each Firm’s business model. It is a foundational element of the relationship between the Firms and their most significant clients. The Firms use their equity research — and their reputations for creating reliable and valuable advisory reports based on that research — to attract and retain clients, to entice clients to execute trades through them, and to differentiate themselves from other financial services firms. A. Content of Equity Research Reports The Firms’ equity research reports may be company-specific, industry-wide, or macroeconomic in focus, and may range from a single page to hundreds of pages in length. The Firms’ company-specific research reports may include projections of future stock prices, judgments about how a company will perform relative to its peers, and conclusions about whether investors should buy, sell, or hold stock in a given company. Each Firm maintains its own rating system to indicate whether analysts believe the price of a stock is likely to increase, decrease, or remain relatively steady. Each of the Firms issues scores and sometimes even hundreds of research reports in a single day. Only a small fraction of reports, however, are “actionable” in the sense that they are likely to spur any investor into making an immediate trading decision. The actionable reports are those that upgrade or downgrade a security; begin research coverage of a company’s security (an event known as an “initiation”); or predict a change in the security’s target price. While the actionable reports, which the parties and this Opinion will refer to as Recommendations, are issued around the clock, the vast majority of them are issued between midnight and 7:00 a.m. Recommendations may move the market price of a stock significantly, particularly when a well-respected analyst makes a strong Recommendation. Such market movement usually happens quickly, often within hours of the market opening following the Recommendation’s release to clients. Thus, timely access to Recommendations is a valuable benefit to each Firm’s clients, because the Recommendations can provide them an early informational advantage. Each Firm also produces summaries of its company-specific reports that include, in aggregated form, the actionable elements (such as the Recommendations and brief commentary) of the research reports released by the Firm overnight or early that morning. For example, Barclays Capital provides a “Morning Meeting” flash summary and a “Before the Bell” report, each of which includes the Recommendations the Firm released that morning. B. Production of Equity Research Reports Each of the Firms devotes substantial resources to the production of their equity research reports. Each has hundreds of employees devoted full-time to the production of original equity research, and each invests hundreds of millions of dollars per year in creating the research. For example, Merrill Lynch’s Global Research department covers approximately 3,200 stocks across 48 different industries and issues approximately 40,000 equity research reports per year. In addition, each Firm calls upon its analysts to undertake other activities as well, such as participating in conference calls, interfacing with clients, and hosting corporate access events. The preparation of research reports, however, is at the core of everything that the research departments at the Firms do. The work done by the analysts to prepare equity research reports at each Firm is broadly similar. The analysts typically specialize by following particular industries, companies, and/or countries or geographic regions. The creation of research reports is a time-consuming endeavor. To carry out their work, analysts gather company-specific and industry-wide financial results; visit a company’s facilities; build and maintain relationships with sources of information, including salespeople, corporate representatives, traders, clients, experts, and fellow analysts; conduct surveys of customers and competitors; track industry and economic trends; assess relative stock valuations; create and update financial models; synthesize the gathered data; make quantitative projections about future earnings, cash flow, balance sheet items, and stock valuations; draw conclusions; and, finally, collaborate with team members to arrive at a formal Recommendation. The Firms’ analysts must also exercise judgment in determining when to initiate or terminate research coverage of a particular company, how often to issue new reports, and when to change the rating, target price, or other investment advice for a given security. The Firms are widely recognized for their expertise and reputation in the field of equity research. All three Firms have been recognized by industry observers such as Institutional Investor for their research quality, with Lehman Brothers and its successor Barclays Capital being named the top U.S. equity research team every year from 2002 through 2009. C. Distribution of Equity Research Reports Each of the Firms maintains sizable client bases that act as consumers of their research and expends substantial resources to disseminate their research to those clients. For example, Morgan Stanley has approximately 7,000 institutional investor clients and close to 100,000 individual investors who receive regular access to its research reports. A single sophisticated client, such as a hedge fund or mutual fund, may have many employees who receive a copy of the Firms’ research reports; thus, for the 7,000 institutional accounts at Morgan Stanley, a total of 125,-000 “contacts” are collectively authorized to receive research. Thus, Hurewitz estimated at trial that approximately 225,000 separate people have full entitlement to receive research reports from Morgan Stanley. Millions more Morgan Stanley retail clients can also gain access to its research by requesting specific reports from their Financial Advisor. Aside from distributing their own research, the Firms are not otherwise involved in the business of reporting or distributing financial or business news. As is explained below, each Firm has a system for determining which clients are allowed to receive the Firm’s full set of research reports and Recommendations. The Firms distribute their research reports to these “entitled clients” through several authorized channels. First, entitled clients are granted access to password-protected proprietary internet platforms, separately maintained by each Firm, to which the research reports are posted. Second, to serve clients who wish to consolidate on one platform all of the research to which they are entitled from multiple sources, each of the Firms also licenses third-party distributors to disseminate their research. Such licensed distributors, which vary from Firm to Firm, include Bloomberg, Thomson Reuters, TheMarkets.com (“TMC”), FactSet, and Capital IQ. For licensed distributors that also maintain their own financial news reporting businesses, such as Bloomberg and Thomson Reuters, the Firms require that the distributors maintain a “firewall” such that the media arm cannot obtain information from the research arm, although an end user may nevertheless receive both research and media content on the same physical interface. The Firms also insist that the licensed distributors employ systems that ensure that a Firm’s research reports are accessible only to that Firm’s entitled clients. In recent years, the Firms have redoubled their efforts to manage “entitlements” on these third-party platforms so that no one can access their research through the licensed distributors that would not already have direct access through the Firms themselves. At each of the Firms, once an analyst releases a research report, it is delivered simultaneously to all authorized distribution channels, both internal and external, with the exception of an embargoed research market. The Firms also personalize the distribution of their research to a targeted subset of entitled clients. After the research reports have been distributed through the two channels described above, brokers and sales-traders at the Firms may email the research reports directly to certain entitled clients or disseminate their substance by instant message (“IM”) or telephone. The Firms also host private conference calls or “webcasts” in which their analysts discuss their research reports and Recommendations with Firm clients; access is restricted to those who have been given a call-in number or login and passcode. This targeted and personalized outreach is at the heart of this case. The Firms have identified a small number of clients, principally institutional clients, on which they concentrate their analyst and sales outreach efforts. For example, roughly 200 of Morgan Stanley’s thousands of institutional clients account for over two-thirds of the time and resources the Firm devotes to marketing its research. As noted above, any one of these 200 clients may have scores of contacts entitled to receive research, each of whom plays some role in the client’s investment decisions, including the choice of which brokerage firm will receive their trading order. The Firms’ follow-up regarding their Recommendations with this targeted subset of clients is a highly orchestrated and intensive sales effort. Each of the Firms conducts a morning meeting at roughly 7:15 a.m., at which an analyst who has just released a significant Recommendation is given only three minutes to describe the Recommendation. This series of analyst presentations is delivered to the Firm’s sales staff and concludes by 8:00 a.m. Armed with this new information — as well as their existing knowledge of their clients’ needs and interests — the sales force calls, emails, and IMs clients in a sustained effort to reach their contacts at the targeted client base, recommend a trading strategy, and invite the client to place the trading order at the Firm. Most communications are very short; for example, each telephone contact may last anywhere from 90 seconds for a voicemail to five minutes, or longer, for a conversation. This activity is most intense from the hours of 8:00 a.m. to mid-day, but can extend over a two-day period for a particularly significant Recommendation. The Firms act with such alacrity and intensity because they believe that every second counts for many contacts in this target client base. Thus, equity research at the Firms is not an independent, self-sustaining business, but rather, complements each Firm’s brokerage and trading operations. Equity research reports are the Firms’ intellectual capital, and their substantial investment in producing high-quality equity research is ultimately justified only by the role that research plays in driving commission revenue. The greater the perception of value, the more that clients are willing to pay to gain and retain access to that research by directing their trading business to the Firm. The value of the research derives not just from its quality, however, but also from its exclusivity and timeliness. Some sophisticated clients, such as hedge funds, seek to act on the Recommendations before other investors do so. These sophisticated clients seek an advantage over other investors by relying on the high-quality analysis underpinning the Firms’ Recommendations, anticipating market movement, and making rapid trading decisions. Such “short-horizon” investors are also the principal drivers of trading revenues for the Firms. For other investors, with longer investment horizons, research reports retain value over hours, days, or even longer. Whatever a client’s trading model, however, it is the Firms’ experience that their clients are more likely to execute a trade through the Firm if they learn of the Recommendation directly from the Firm rather than from another source. As Lynch explained at trial, a client who learns of a Recommendation from a telephone call from Merrill Lynch often will decide to initiate a trade on the spot. Even those clients who learn about a Merrill Lynch recommendation through Merrill Lynch’s internet distribution platform or one of its licensed outside vendors are expected to, and usually do, execute their trades through the Firm. Lynch and Browning estimated at trial that at least 60 percent of all trades conducted in their Firm’s Global Wealth Management division are caused by Firm solicitations. D. Efforts to Control Access to Research To wring the most value from their research, the Firms have worked hard in recent years to tighten control over who may view their research output. For example, the Firms limit full research access to only those clients who meet a certain threshold of annual revenue generation for the Firm, such as $50,000 or even $100,000. Clients who generate revenue below such thresholds may be authorized to receive some research, but not immediate and automatic access to the full universe of research reports. The Firms also periodically “scrub” the list of recipients entitled to receive research based on whether or not they have continued to direct sufficient business to the Firms. The Firms have communicated to their employees that the unauthorized dissemination of their equity research or its contents is a breach of loyalty to the Firm, undermines the Firm’s creation of revenue, and can result in discipline, including firing. To further control the dissemination of the research, the Firms purport to forbid their clients from redistributing the Firms’ research content. For example, research reports contain standard prohibitions, such as “[t]his report or any portion hereof may not be reprinted, sold or redistributed without the written consent of [the Firm].” Similar prohibitory warnings are placed on the Firms’ distribution platforms and inserted into third-party license agreements. Those license agreements contain explicit contractual covenants against distribution to unauthorized parties, such as one Firm’s contract with Bloomberg providing that “[t]he parties hereby agree that the Research Reports may only be distributed to those Users entitled by [the Firm] to receive the Research Reports” and that “Bloomberg ... shall not, without the consent of [the Firm], disclose or make the Research Reports available to any persons other than approved Users and those Bloomberg employees with a need to know.” The media and communications policies at each of the Firms have been tightened in recent years to ensure that disclosure of Recommendations to the press does not undermine the ability of the Firms to generate trading revenue. At Morgan Stanley, research information is only distributed to the media on a case-by-case, limited basis, and even then only to those reporters who produce original content, use the Firm’s research as context for a broader story, and maintain an ongoing relationship with the Firm’s communications department. Similarly, Merrill Lynch only considers reporter requests to confirm stock Recommendations after 2 p.m. or, in the case of a Recommendation issued during the trading day, on a four-hour delayed basis, and only then in the context of a broader story containing original reporting and analysis. Finally, the Firms are working to exploit recent technological innovations in internet security in an effort to monitor and curtail the unauthorized dissemination of their research. As part of its “Intellectual Content Protection Initiative,” Merrill Lynch conducts regular internet searches to locate instances of unauthorized redistribution of its research content. As part of this surveillance, the Firm aims to determine if unauthorized parties are using its private URLs to access Firm research, and if so, the Firm then disables those links. Certain websites and social networking platforms are “blacklisted” so that Merrill Lynch URLs will not function on those websites. The Firm has also developed personalized, encrypted URLs for delivering research to clients, so that each client’s usage can be individually monitored and any resulting abuse can be tracked, and the Firm has embedded vendor-specific “watermarks” into research reports so that the Firm can determine through which licensed distributor a leaked report had passed. Morgan Stanley monitors distribution leakage through a readership screening engine, watch list, and what it calls its Client Systems Analytics Team. E. The Firms’ Frustrations Over Lack of Control Even though the Firms have always tried to limit the distribution of their Recommendations to entitled clients, they do not dispute that many of their Recommendations leak from authorized channels and are then posted by online aggregators or reported as financial news in the mainstream media. This leakage became a noticeable phenomenon by 2004. In that year, they identified Fly as one of the most systematic unauthorized publishers of their Recommendations, and by 2005, the Firms had begun to take serious steps to address the problem of unauthorized redistribution of their Recommendations and research. Thus, many of the systems designed to control access to research reports and Recommendations that are described above were implemented or tightened in the years following 2004. In the last five years, each of the Firms has also invested substantial resources in studying how its research, and in particular its Recommendations, were being redistributed and how it could stop or impede that process. The unauthorized redistribution of research reports and Recommendations has had another impact on the Firms. The Firms have cut their analyst staff and budgets significantly in the last five years because of their perception that equity research is no longer driving commission revenue as forcefully or consistently as it once had. With clients able to review the Firms’ Recommendations and even research reports through other sources, the research departments have been handicapped in their ability to argue for their historical share of the Firms’ overall budgets. Thus, with the decline in exclusivity of their research, the resources that the Firms have devoted to research production have declined. For example, the number of analysts in one Firm has been cut by 20 percent over the past five years, and the research budget at another has been cut in half over the past decade. At one of the Firms, the North America research team, which includes all research into U.S. stocks, has been scaled back even more dramatically. Because of these cuts, many companies’ equities are no longer being covered by the Firms’ analysts. During this same period, of course, other factors have had an impact on the financial well-being of the investment firms in general and on their research budgets in particular. Since 2008, the world has experienced an economic cataclysm. Discount trading platforms have proliferated, which enable investors to buy or sell securities with cut-rate commissions. Moreover, in 2002, a joint investigation by the New York Attorney General and federal securities regulators uncovered widespread conflicts of interest among equity research analysts in major Wall Street firms. The resulting Global Research Analyst Settlement, finalized in April 2003, required ten major investment firms — including the plaintiff Firms — to pay approximately $1.4 billion in disgorgement and civil penalties. In addition, based on various information unearthed by the joint investigation, dozens of class action lawsuits were filed by investors against the investment firms and litigated over the years that followed. While each of the above factors has undeniably had an independent impact on the health of the research departments at each Firm, the evidence at trial was compelling that the unauthorized redistribution of Recommendations has also been a major contributor to the decline in the resources that each Firm devotes to equity research. The reason for this is not hard to fathom; the investment in research is justified by its ability to drive commission income, and when that linkage is broken, the justification is greatly diminished. One example will suffice. In May 2006, Merrill Lynch issued a Recommendation “contrary to the industry consensus” upgrading General Motors stock from “hold” to “buy.” The basis of this contrarian call was the Firm’s prediction that far more union-affiliated workers would accept the company’s offer to buy out their contracts than was previously expected by most market observers. General Motors stock price rose approximately 30 percent following the release of Merrill Lynch’s research report, and clients who traded promptly on that information earned a sizable return. Fly, however, had posted the upgrade on its site within minutes after Merrill Lynch released the Recommendation to its clients, and thus, before the Firm’s sales professionals could reach their clients to inform them of the Recommendation. It bears noting that it does not matter to the Firms whether the unauthorized distribution is through a small internet company like Fly or through media giants like Bloomberg, Thomson Reuters, . or Dow Jones. The damage is caused not by the identity of the publisher, but by the timely and systematic unauthorized redistribution of the Firms’ Recommendations, whatever the medium. To that end, through conference calls and face-to-face meetings with mainstream media, the Firms have objected to the systematic publication of their Recommendations. At least one mainstream publisher of financial news has represented that it is watching this litigation against Fly closely and will adjust its practices based on its evaluation of the outcome of this litigation. The Firms have also sent cease-and-desist letters to several of Fly’s competitors in the online newsfeed niche market. II. Theflyonthewall.com Fly is a New Jersey corporation that, since 1998, has been engaged in the business of collecting and publishing financial news, rumors, and other information flowing from Wall Street via its online subscription newsfeed, www.theflyonthewall. com. Fly describes itself as a “single source internet subscription news service ... reporting relevant, market-moving financial news and information,” including “the most comprehensive database of analyst trading calls, events, and syndicate information on the web.” Emphasizing the timeliness of its reporting, it asserts that, as the “fastest news feed on the web,” it delivers to its customers “actionable, equity news in a concise & timely manner.” In the words of Fly’s website, “[o]ur quick to the point news is a valuable resource for any investment decision.” In particular, Fly emphasizes its quick and comprehensive access to Recommendations made by Wall Street research analysts. It states that its newsfeed allows investors to “keep track of the latest Upgrade/Downgrade,” and is a “one-stop solution for accessing analyst comments, directly sourced in a real time basis.” As Fly advertises, “Theflyonthewall.com is designed to bridge the gap between Wall Street’s big players ‘in the know and those who want into their club.” Similarly, Fly asserts that “[h]aving a membership with the Fly is like having a seat at Wall Street’s best houses and learning what they know when they know it.” It brags that it posts “breaking analyst comments as they are being disseminated by Wall Street trading desks,” “consistently beating the news wires.” Indeed, its very name is intended to convey that it allows its subscribers to be a “fly on the wall” inside the investment firms’ research departments. Fly’s website contains an explicit disclaimer advising users that Fly staff are not brokers, dealers, or registered investment advisors. Nevertheless, Fly’s marketing materials emphasize that its service is intended to assist investors. In Fly’s words, by “[c]ombining industry experience, market acumen and extensive industry contacts, thelfyonthewall.com [sic] helps investors to make better informed investment decisions.” A. Fly’s Newsfeed The cornerstone of Fly’s business is its online newsfeed, which is updated continuously every day between 5:00 a.m. and 7:00 p.m. The newsfeed, which Etergino demonstrated at trial, presents a constant stream of “headlines” — on average, over 600 per day — in ten different categories. These categories include: “Hot Stocks,” “Rumors,” “Recommendations,” “Conference/Events,” “Syndicate,” “Options,” “General News,” “Periodicals,” “Technical Analysis,” and “Earnings.” Fly does not conduct its own equity research or include any original research in its newsfeed. The headlines in one of these categories, “Recommendations,” are the basis of this litigation. It is to this category that Fly posts the Recommendations by sixty-five investment firms’ research analysts, including the three plaintiff Firms. A typical Fly headline from 2009 reflecting a Recommendation by one of the Firms is “EQIX: Equinox initiated with a Buy at BofA/Merrill. Target $110.” On occasion, the headline is accompanied by a brief summary of the research report’s reasoning, but with the commencement of this lawsuit Fly has generally not included such summaries for the plaintiffs’ Recommendations. Etergino estimated at trial that approximately 80 percent of Fly’s Recommendation headlines are posted before the 9:30 a.m. market opening each day. Fly has posted more than two dozen Morgan Stanley Recommendations, and up to ten Recommendations for both Merrill Lynch and Barclays Capital, in a single day before the opening of the market. Fly has devised a software program that permits it to compose the headline quickly by tabbing through a few categories of information. For instance, it has a drop-down menu that permits it to indicate an upgrade or downgrade through a single keystroke. Another tabbed menu lists every investment firm covered by Fly and is automatically linked to each firm’s recommendation system, so that the individual firm’s evaluative descriptor can be quickly plugged into the headline. When Etergino makes an error in reporting a Recommendation, which he contends is rare, he blames it on a keystroke entry error and not on his newsgathering. Within the “Conference/Events” category, Fly frequently posts call-in numbers and passcodes for conferences hosted by equity analysts at various Wall Street firms. Fly posted conference call-in numbers and passcodes at the Firms until 2008. The Firms never authorized Fly to post their Recommendations or these call-in numbers and passcodes. At trial, Etergino asserted that any posting of the Firms’ conference calls after 2006 was inadvertent. The user may filter information from the entire Fly newsfeed by selecting one or more categories of headlines. The “Recommendations” category and several other categories are also searchable, sortable, and viewable in different formats. Users may establish a “portfolio” of up to 150 different stocks through which they can automatically receive email, pop-up, or audio alerts whenever Fly posts content relevant to those stocks. Fly also provides an audio feed of headlines streamed through the internet, which it calls “FlyRadio.” The audio feed, also known as a “squawk box,” runs silently in the background but is audible when there is news or information to be heard. While Fly’s initial growth can be attributed to its extensive and timely publishing of Recommendations by investment and brokerage firms, over time it has diversified the kind of information that it reports through headlines. Thus, Fly represents that while headlines about the three Firms’ Recommendations accounted for roughly 7 percent of its overall newsfeed in 2005, as of 2009, only about 2.5 percent of Fly’s total content consisted of the Firms’ Recommendations. Like the Firms, Fly disseminates its content both directly and through licensed distributors. Fly currently distributes its content to approximately 3,300 direct subscribers on its website and to another 2,000 subscribers who access its content through Fly’s licensed financial content partners, such as Bloomberg, Thomson Reuters, and others, including AOL, NASDAQ, Acquire Media, and Wall Street Source. Fly also distributes its newsfeed to eSignal, a trading platform, and to NewsWare, owned by the Track Data Corporation, which maintains its own broker/dealer and offers a service called My Track that combines live data streams with a brokerage platform. Additionally, at least of one Fly’s former distribution partners, Cyber Trader, maintained an online discount brokerage platform and was assodated with the online brokerage firm, Charles Schwab. Fly’s subscribers include individual investors, institutional investors, retail investors, brokers, and day traders. Subscriptions to Fly’s website may be customized based on three content packages — “news,” “events,” and “syndicate” — and can be purchased on either a monthly or a yearly basis. Etergino estimated at trial that two-thirds of Fly’s customers subscribe to all three of Fly’s content packages, while the remaining one-third subscribe only to the “news” package, which includes the “Recommendations” category. The price to subscribe to all three packages is $50 per month or $480 per year, while the price to subscribe to just one package is $25 per month or $240 per year. Fly has also established an RSS (really simple syndication) feed that distributes Fly’s newsfeed headlines over various RSS readers, including Google, AOL, Yahoo!, and SkyGrid. This RSS feed contains all of Fly’s headlines, with one exception: Fly’s RSS feed does not contain any headlines reporting the three plaintiffs’ Recommendations. While the RSS feed is available free of charge and does not earn any revenue for Fly, it is Etergino’s hope that readers of the RSS feed will decide to subscribe to Fly’s website in order to benefit from somewhat quicker and less cumbersome access to the newsfeed. Fly’s staff has grown from five employees in 2002 to a current staff of 28 full-— and part-time employees. Approximately half of its staff is involved in production of the live newsfeed, while a smaller number work on the other arms of the business. At one time, six Fly employees worked on the “Recommendations” category, but only two or three employees are now involved. B. The Evolution in Fly’s Practices While Fly continues to publish many of the Firms’ Recommendations, its sources for those Recommendations have changed because of this litigation. Up until 2005, Fly relied almost exclusively on employees at the Firms who emailed the research reports to Fly soon after they were released. The employees were not authorized by the Firms to provide reports to Fly, but did so nonetheless. Fly staff would peruse the reports for Recommendations, select those it wished to publish, and then type each Recommendation as a headline into its own newsfeed, sometimes accompanied by an extended passage lifted essentially verbatim from the report explaining the basis for the Recommendation. As a result of this litigation, Fly represents that it has substantially changed its process for gathering and communicating Recommendations. Some investment firms, such as Wells Fargo, continue to send their research reports to Fly directly so that the Recommendations therein can be reported in Fly’s newsfeed. When it comes to the plaintiff Firms, however, Etergino professes that he no longer feels free to look at the research reports, even if someone should send them to him. Instead, Etergino asserted at trial that he is usually the only employee who posts the Firms’ Recommendations, and by 2009, he was engaging in a ritualistic and labor-intensive process of “confirming” each Firm’s Recommendations from at least two and sometimes three independent sources before publishing them, still typically before the market opening. According to Etergino, he checks first to see what Recommendations have been reported on Bloomberg Market News. Then he checks Dow Jones, Thomson Reuters, and Fly’s competitors such as TTN, StreetAccount.com, and Briefing.com. Next, he visits chat rooms to which he has been invited to participate by the moderator. The chat rooms may have a few hundred participants; depending on the software program, the chat room occupants may not know the identities of the others present in the room. Etergino also receives “blast IMs” through the Bloom-berg, Thomson Reuters, or IMTrader messaging services that may go to dozens or hundreds of individuals. Finally, Etergino exchanges IMs, emails, and more rarely telephone calls with individual traders at hedge funds, money managers, and other contacts on Wall Street. He has no explicit agreement with any of these sources of information that he will keep their identity confidential, but contends that there is an implied understanding among marketplace participants not to divulge sources’ names. This understanding appears to be based on little more than the mutual self-interest in having an edge over the competition with respect to learning about time-sensitive market information. Fly believes that if it can show that the Firms’ Recommendations are already “public” — meaning, apparently, available from non-Firm sources — then it is free to republish them. The documentation proffered by Fly to show its actual source of any particular Recommendation is limited, however, to contemporaneous printouts of Bloomberg Market News feeds and printouts of various word processing documents containing copied-and-pasted text from IMs, chat rooms, subscription newsfeeds, and other internet sources. As of today, there is a crowded marketplace with small internet companies and major news organizations reporting the Firms’ Recommendations before and after the market opens. The other financial news organizations that provide services similar to that of Fly, and whom Fly regards as its competitors, include Briefing.com, StreetAccount.com, TTN, Street-Insider.com, TheStreet.com, Midnight Trader, and Jagnotes.com. III. The Firms Warn and Then Sue Fly In about 2004, each of the Firms became aware of Fly and concluded that its control over the distribution of its research had been compromised. On March 3, 2005, Merrill Lynch wrote to Fly demanding that it stop its unauthorized “dissemination of information created by ... Merrill Lynch, including the distribution of products and services referencing Merrill Lynch’s investment ratings, advice, or views via theflyonthewall.com.” After receiving no response, the Firm sent a second demand letter on April 21, 2005. On April 13, 2005, counsel for several other investment firms, including Lehman Brothers and Morgan Stanley, sent Fly a cease-and-desist letter accusing Fly of copyright infringement and hot-news misappropriation relating to Fly’s publication of those firms’ Recommendations in February and March 2005. The letter accused Fly of “free-riding on the Firms’ efforts to formulate and disseminate timely market information to their clients,” which it characterized as “misappropriation of time-sensitive information” and “the essence of unfair competition.” Counsel for Fly responded to those two letters through its own letters of April 22 and May 5, 2005. The responsive letters represented that Fly “has undertaken a review of its reporting practices” and has “adopted a new format for reporting market information on its website ... [i]n order to avoid any question concerning conflict with your clients’ copyrighted research materials.” The letter assured the Firms that Fly would “take all necessary steps to avoid any infringement of the [Research] Reports.” As of June 2006, Fly was still posting headlines of the Firms’ Recommendations more than an hour before the opening of the market, often before any other media outlet did so, lifting them from research reports sent to Fly from sources inside the Firms. The Firms sued Fly on June 26, 2006, for copyright infringement and misappropriation. They did so based on their conclusion that Fly’s misappropriation of their Recommendations was the most systematic and egregious of any of the unauthorized redistributors active in the market at that time. Pursuant to a confidentiality agreement, Fly eventually provided documentation to the Firms showing that its sources for its headlines about their Recommendations often came from inside the Firms. The Firms promptly shut down this channel of communication between their analysts and brokers and Fly. IV. Fly’s Lawsuit Against TTN In October 2007 — while settlement talks in this action were ongoing — Fly sued one of its competitors, TTN, alleging the same claims of copyright infringement and hot-news misappropriation that the Firms had lodged against Fly. The dispute between the two internet news organizations began in 2004, when Fly’s counsel advised TTN that it was misappropriating Fly’s valuable, time-sensitive, proprietary information by broadcasting content from Fly’s newsfeed on its own website within seconds of the content being posted. In Fly’s complaint against TTN, Fly cited 14 instances of alleged copyright infringement and 22 instances of alleged misappropriation between May and October 2007. In several of these news items, Fly had made an error in its posted headline that was then repeated by TTN within minutes. The lawsuit was settled on April 28, 2008 with a monetary payment by TTN to Fly and an order enjoining TTN from knowingly or indirectly gaining access to “non-public news information” reported on Fly’s newsfeed. CONCLUSIONS OF LAW The Firms have brought two claims against Fly. As for the first claim, Fly does not dispute that it engaged in copyright infringement and that an injunction may issue, but contests the imposition of attorney’s fees and prejudgment interest. As for the second, Fly contests that it is liable for hot-news misappropriation. I. Copyright Infringement A. Liability The first cause of action, brought by Morgan Stanley and Barclays Capital (the “Copyright Plaintiffs”), is for copyright infringement. “[T]o prevail on a claim of copyright infringement, a plaintiff must show both ownership of a valid copyright and copying.” Davis v. Blige, 505 F.3d 90, 99 (2d Cir.2007) (citation omitted). In order to prevail on an infringement claim premised on unlawful copying, “the plaintiff must first show that his work was actually copied,” and “second, he must establish substantial similarity or that the copying amounts to an improper or unlawful appropriation.” Tufenkian Import/Export Ventures, Inc. v. Einstein Moomjy, Inc., 338 F.3d 127, 131 (2d Cir.2003) (citation omitted). The Copyright Plaintiffs have provided seventeen examples between February 14 and March 2, 2005, of Fly’s direct, verbatim copying of key excerpts from their research reports and republication of those excerpts on Fly’s newsfeed. Eight of these reports were published by Morgan Stanley and nine by Lehman Brothers. For each of the seventeen reports, the Copyright Plaintiffs have proffered registration certificates. In its defense, Fly asserted that its copying was a fair use of the Copyright Plaintiffs’ reports under 17 U.S.C. § 107, and Fly maintained this defense through summary judgment. Fly no longer disputes, however, that it infringed the copyrights in these seventeen reports. As such, judgment shall be entered for the Copyright Plaintiffs on their claims of copyright infringement. B. Remedies The Copyright Plaintiffs seek a permanent injunction, minimum statutory damages, prejudgment interest, and attorney’s fees. Fly does not dispute plaintiffs’ entitlement to a permanent injunction, although plaintiffs and Fly could not reach agreement on the terms of that injunction. Fly likewise does not dispute plaintiffs’ entitlement to minimum statutory damages of $750 per infringed report. 1. Statutory Damages Under the Copyright Act, 17 U.S.C. § 504(a), a plaintiff may elect to pursue either “the copyright owner’s actual damages and any additional profits of the infringer” under § 504(b) or “statutory damages” as calculated by § 504(c). As a general principle, “the total number of awards of statutory damages that a plaintiff may recover in any given action depends on the number of works that are infringed and the number of individually liable infringers.” WB Music Corp. v. RTV Commc’n Group, Inc., 445 F.3d 538, 540 (2d Cir.2006) (citation omitted). Plaintiffs have elected to pursue statutory damages and have voluntarily limited their claim to the statutory minimum damages as set out in 17 U.S.C. § 504(c)(1). Because Fly does not contest its liability for minimum statutory damages, Barclays Capital is entitled to $6,750 for its nine infringed reports and Morgan Stanley is entitled to $6,000 for its eight infringed reports. 2. Prejudgment Interest The Copyright Plaintiffs seek prejudgment interest on their statutory damage awards. “The essential rationale for awarding prejudgment interest is to ensure that an injured party is fully compensated for its loss.” City of Milwaukee v. Cement Div., Nat’l Gypsum Co., 515 U.S. 189, 195, 115 S.Ct. 2091, 132 L.Ed.2d 148 (1995). “By compensating for the loss of use of money due as damages from the time the claim accrues until judgment is entered, an award of prejudgment interest helps achieve the goal of restoring a party to the condition it enjoyed before the injury occurred.” Id. at 196, 115 S.Ct. 2091 (citation omitted). Unlike the Patent Act, which contemplates an award of interest for victorious plaintiffs in patent infringement actions, see 35 U.S.C. § 284(a), the Copyright Act neither authorizes nor forbids prejudgment interest on an award of statutory damages. The Second Circuit has not yet spoken on this issue. See In Design v. K-Mart Apparel Corp., 13 F.3d 559, 569 (2d Cir.1994) (“Whether an award of prejudgment interest is or is not permissible under the current Copyright Act, which neither expressly allows nor prohibits such award, remains unresolved in this Circuit.”). Nevertheless, several other Courts of Appeals, as well as many courts of this District, have concluded that prejudgment interest may be awarded under the Copyright Act for both actual and statutory damage awards in the court’s discretion. See Polar Bear Prods., Inc. v. Timex Corp., 384 F.3d 700, 718 (9th Cir.2004); McRoberts Software, Inc. v. Media 100, Inc., 329 F.3d 557, 572-73 (7th Cir.2003); Kleier Adver., Inc. v. Premier Pontiac, Inc., 921 F.2d 1036, 1040-41 (10th Cir.1990); TVT Records v. Island Def Jam Music Group, 279 F.Supp.2d 366, 409-12 (S.D.N.Y.2003), rev’d on other grounds, 412 F.3d 82 (2d Cir.2005); Broadcast Music, Inc. v. R Bar of Manhattan, Inc., 919 F.Supp. 656, 661 (S.D.N.Y.1996); Bourne Co. n Walt Disney Co., No. 91 Civ 344(LLS), 1994 WL 263482, at *3 (S.D.N.Y. June 10, 1994), aff'd, 68 F.3d 621 (2d Cir. 1995). In the exercise of its discretion, the Court awards prejudgment interest from the date of publication to entry of judgment. See Broadcast Music, Inc., 919 F.Supp. at 662 n. 2 (awarding interest from the date the copyright infringement occurred); Bourne Co., 1994 WL 263482, at *3 (same). 3. Attorney’s Fees Under the Copyright Act, “the court in its discretion may allow the recovery of full costs by or against any party ... [and] may also award a reasonable attorney’s fee.” 17 U.S.C. § 505. “Attorneys’ fees are available to prevailing parties under § 505 of the Copyright Act but are not automatic.” Medforms, Inc. v. Healthcare Mgmt. Solutions, Inc., 290 F.3d 98, 117 (2d Cir.2002). “While ‘there is no precise rule or formula for making these determinations, equitable discretion should be exercised.’ ” Id. (quoting Fogerty v. Fantasy, Inc., 510 U.S. 517, 534, 114 S.Ct. 1023, 127 L.Ed.2d 455 (1994)). The court’s considerations should include “ ‘frivolousness, motivation, objective unreasonableness (both in the factual and in the legal components of the case) and the need in particular circumstances to advance considerations of compensation and deterrence.’ ” Crescent Publ’g Group, Inc. v. Playboy Enters., Inc., 246 F.3d 142, 147 (2d Cir.2001) (quoting Fogerty, 510 U.S. at 534 n. 19, 114 S.Ct. 1023). “Such factors may be used so long as they are faithful to the purposes of the Copyright Act.” Id. (citation omitted). The legal and factual components of defendant’s conduct during the litigation of this case, as well as considerations of general deterrence, counsel strongly in favor of an award of attorney’s fees. Although Fly stopped the wholesale copying of the plaintiffs’ research reports after it received the cease-and-desist letters in 2005, and ultimately conceded liability for the copyright violations at trial, Fly continued to dispute this liability for over three years following the filing of this action, including through summary judgment. Fly’s asserted affirmative defenses included fair use, a defense that was rejected decades ago in Wainwright Securities, Inc. v. Wall Street Transcript Corp., 558 F.2d 91 (2d Cir.1977) (“Wainwright”), a case wherein the defendant had infringed plaintiffs’ copyrights in equity research reports broadly similar to those produced by the Firms. In Wainwright, as in this case, the defendant “appropriated almost verbatim the most creative and original aspects of the reports, the financial analyses and predictions, which represent a substantial investment of time, money and labor.” Id. at 96; see also Nihon Keizai Shimbun, Inc. v. Comline Bus. Data, Inc., 166 F.3d 65, 71-72 (2d Cir.1999) (“Nikkei”). Fly’s filing of a copyright infringement lawsuit against TTN in 2007 — for copying that was far less extensive than that done by Fly — ■ belies any assertion of good faith by Fly. Although Fly ceased its practice of verbatim copying in 2005, Fly’s litigation position was nevertheless objectively unreasonable under FogeHy. In opposing an award of attorney’s fees, Fly principally relies upon the disparity in resources between the Copyright Plaintiffs and Fly. In recognition of this economic disparity, the Copyright Plaintiffs are awarded attorney’s fees with respect to that portion of the litigation expenses that directly and predominately concerned the Copyright Plaintiffs’ prosecution of their copyright infringement claim. A separate scheduling order addressed to that fee application accompanies this Opinion. Once the amount of fees that meets this test is determined, the Court will consider whether a further reduction is warranted based on Fly’s financial condition. 4. Permanent Injunction Finally, the Copyright Plaintiffs seek a permanent injunction. The Court adopts, with minor revisions, the injunction proposed by the Copyright Plaintiffs, which restrains Fly from further infringement of “any portion of the copyrighted elements of any research reports” generated by Barclays Capital or Morgan Stanley. II. Hot-News Misappropriation The Firms have also sued Fly for misappropriation of the time-sensitive Recommendations contained in their equity research reports. The parties agree that this cause of action is properly defined as one for “hot-news misappropriation.” Before addressing this claim, some background to this doctrine of misappropriation is warranted. A. Legal Context The modern cause of action for misappropriation has its origin in International News Service v. Associated Press, 248 U.S. 215, 39 S.Ct. 68, 63 L.Ed. 211 (1918) (“INS”), a case decided by the Supreme Court under federal common law that found that hot news is protectible as “quasi-property.” The Associated Press (“AP”) engaged in reporting in Europe during World War I at great expense and distributed the news to its member newspapers on the East Coast of the United States for dissemination to the public. Associated Press v. Int’l News Serv., 240 F. 983, 986-87 (S.D.N.Y.1917). The defendant, International News Service (“INS”), obtained the news from the AP by, among other means, copying AP’s stories from bulletin boards and early editions of newspapers printed by AP’s eastern affiliates. INS then transmitted those stories to the West Coast, where it sold the paraphrased news stories as its own. The district court declined to enjoin this means of copying stories, but the Court of Appeals reversed and granted AP a permanent injunction. Affirming the Court of Appeals, the Supreme Court located the tort of misappropriation within unfair competition law. Justice Pitney wrote for the Court: The fault in the reasoning [of defendant] lies in applying as a test the right of the complainant as against the public, instead of considering the rights of complainant and defendant, competitors in business, as between themselves. The right of the purchaser of a single newspaper to spread knowledge of its contents gratuitously, for any legitimate purpose not unreasonably interfering with complainant’s right to make merchandise of it, may be admitted; but to transmit that news for commercial use, in competition with complainant — which is what defendant has done and seeks to justify — is a very different matter. In doing this defendant, by its very act, admits that it is taking material that has been acquired by complainant as the result of organization and the expenditure of labor, skill, and money, and which is salable by complainant for money, and that defendant in appropriating it and selling it as its own is endeavoring to reap where it has not sown, and by disposing of it to newspapers that are competitors of complainant’s members is appropriating to itself the harvest of those who have sown. Stripped of all disguises, the process amounts to an unauthorized interference with the normal operation of complainant’s legitimate business precisely at the point where the profit is to be reaped, in order to divert a material portion of the profit from those who have earned it to those who have not; with special advantage to defendant in the competition because of the fact that it is not burdened with any part of the expense of gathering the news. The transaction speaks for itself and a court of equity ought not to hesitate long in characterizing it as unfair competition in business. INS, 248 U.S. at 239-40, 39 S.Ct. 68. A fair reading of this passage suggests that the Court’s decision was strongly influenced by several policy ideals: a “sweat-of-the-brow” or “labor” theory of property; norms of commercial morality and fair dealing; and a utilitarian desire to preserve incentives to produce socially useful services. Thus, in INS, the misappropriation doctrine was developed to protect costly efforts to gather commercially valuable, time-sensitive information that would otherwise be unprotected by law. Justice Brandéis, voicing his displeasure with the result reached by the majority, noted in dissent that “[t]he general rule of law is, that the noblest of human productions— knowledge, truths ascertained, conceptions, and ideas — become, after voluntary communication to others, free as the air to common use.” Id. at 250, 39 S.Ct. 68 (Brandéis, J., dissenting). After INS, the Second Circuit reacted with hostility to the newly created tort. Judge Learned Hand wrote in Cheney Bros. v. Doris Silk Corp., 35 F.2d 279 (2d Cir.1929), that INS was not “meant to lay down a general doctrine” and that the case instead applied to “no more ... than situations substantially similar to those then at bar.” Id. at 280; see also R.C.A. Mfg. Co. v. Whiteman, 114 F.2d 86, 90 (2d Cir.1940) (INS does not prevent competitors from “ever appropriating the results of [others’] industry, skill, and expense”); G. Ricordi & Co. v. Haendler, 194 F.2d 914, 916 (2d Cir.1952) (INS to be “strictly confined” to its facts). The force of INS as formal precedent was vitiated when most federal common law was abrogated by Erie R.R. Co. v. Tompkins, 304 U.S. 64, 58 S.Ct. 817, 82 L.Ed. 1188 (1938). Nevertheless, INS was adopted into state common law by several states, including most enthusiastically in New York. See, e.g., Metro. Opera Ass’n, Inc. v. Wagner-Nichols Recorder Corp., 199 Misc. 786, 101 N.Y.S.2d 483, 491 (Sup. Ct.1950), aff'd, 279 A.D. 632, 107 N.Y.S.2d 795 (1st Dep’t 1951); Bond Buyer v. Dealers Digest Publ’g Co., 25 A.D.2d 158, 267 N.Y.S.2d 944, 945 (1st Dep’t 1966) (“It is now no longer subject to question that there is a property in the gathering of news which may not be pirated.”). Eventually, the Second Circuit itself reversed course, ruling (over Judge Learned Hand’s dissent) that the misappropriation tort was not preempted by the 1909 Copyright Act. Capitol Records, Inc. v. Mercury Records Corp., 221 F.2d 657, 663 (2d Cir.1955). New York courts continue to recognize a broad tort of misappropriation to this day as part of unfair competition law. See ITC Ltd. v. Punchgini, Inc., 9 N.Y.3d 467, 476, 478, 850 N.Y.S.2d 366, 880 N.E.2d 852 (2007) (“We have long recognized two theories of common-law unfair competition: palming off and misappropriation.... [A]n unfair competition claim involving misappropriation usually concerns the taking and use of the plaintiffs property to compete against the plaintiffs own use of the same property.” (citation omitted)). The effect of federal preemption doctrines on the law of misappropriation nonetheless long remained unsettled. In 1964, the Supreme Court launched “SearsCompco ” preemption by ruling that Illinois state unfair competition law was preempted by federal patent law. Sears, Roebuck & Co. v. Stiffel Co., 376 U.S. 225, 84 S.Ct. 784, 11 L.Ed.2d 661 (1964); Compco Co. v. Day-Brite Lighting, Inc., 376 U.S. 234, 84 S.Ct. 779, 11 L.Ed.2d 669 (1964). A decade later, the Supreme Court reversed course. See Goldstein v. California, 412 U.S