Full opinion text
OPINION SIMANDLE, District Judge: Table of Contents I. Introduction..............................................................383 II. Background..............................................................384 III. Standard of Review.......................................................386 IV. Statute of Limitations.....................................................386 A. Relation back.........................................................386 B. Continuing violation doctrine...........................................387 C. Discovery rule........................................................389 D. Consequences of these findings.........................................390 V. Equal Protection Claims Against State Defendants............................391 A. Evidence of knowledge of owners’ race ..................................392 B. Evidence of differential treatment based on race..........................393 C. False violations and forced impound.....................................396 D. Scope of potential liability..............................................398 VI. Detention of Bus 203 ......................................................399 A. Conversion...........................................................400 B. § 1981...............................................................402 C. Conspiracy...................................................... 403 VIL NJCRA Claims...........................................................405 A. Due process..........................................................405 B. Criminal prohibitions..................................................406 C. Equal Protection......................................................406 VIII. Cross-claims of Garage Defendants.........................................406 A Cross-claim I.........................................................406 B. Cross-claim II........................................................408 IX. Experts .................................................................408 A. McCombs............................................................408 B. Levinson.............................................................410 C. Tinari...............................................................411 X. Motion to Seal............................................................412 XI. Conclusion...............................................................413 I. INTRODUCTION This case involves allegations of racial discrimination in New Jersey’s system of commercial bus safety inspections of tour buses in Atlantic City, New Jersey, as well as allegations regarding the improper impounding of a particular bus. Plaintiffs are six African American owned bus companies and their owners who have operated such tour buses during the years 2000 through 2007. They claim there is racial disparity in the selection of buses for inspection, decisions to issue citations for bus safety violations, and decisions to impound buses ordered to be taken out of service when they fail inspection at the Atlantic City site. This Court previously dismissed some of Plaintiffs’ claims, and consequently the action is now proceeding against two state officials involved in the inspection system, Vincent Schulze and Michael Calorel (“State Defendants”), and a repair shop and its owner who Plaintiffs allege are involved in the discrimination, Jimmy’s Lakeside Garage and James Restuccio (“Garage Defendants”) and who Plaintiffs allege impounded one of Plaintiffs’ buses for two years. A more complete description of this lengthy and contentious litigation appears in Major Tours, Inc. v. Colorel, 720 F.Supp.2d 587 (D.N.J.2010). The matter is before the Court on several motions. The State Defendants move for summary judgment as to Plaintiffs’ claims against them [Docket Item 365], and move for summary judgment as to the Garage Defendants’ cross-claims. [Docket Item 357.] The Garage Defendants move for summary judgment as to Plaintiffs’ claims against them, [Docket Item 358], and cross-move for summary judgment as to their cross-claims against the State Defendants. [Docket Item 386.] Additionally, there are also three motions to strike expert reports: Plaintiffs’ motion to preclude the testimony of the State Defendants’ racial profiling expert, [Docket Item 354], and the Garage Defendants’ and State Defendants’ motions to strike the testimony of Plaintiffs’ damages experts. [Docket Item 355 & 356.] Finally, Plaintiffs move to seal certain evidence attached to their opposition to the State Defendants’ motion for summary judgment [Docket Item 394], II. BACKGROUND As set forth in this Court’s Opinion of June 22, 2010, this case principally involves the enforcement of New Jersey’s Bus Safety Compliance Act, N.J. Stat. Ann. § 48:4-2.1, legislation that created a system of inspections to promote vehicle safety. Major Tours, Inc. v. Colorel, 720 F.Supp.2d 587, 593 (D.N.J.2010). Under the Act, officers of New Jersey’s Commercial Bus Inspection Unit (CBIU) can direct any bus operated in New Jersey to immediately drive to a designated facility for inspection. N.J. Admin. Code § 16:53A-6.1. Buses discovered to have a mechanical condition that would likely cause an accident or a breakdown, a so-called “out-of-service violation,” may be required to unload passengers, to be taken out of service, and not permitted to operate in New Jersey until the .conditions have been repaired. The statute specifically describes the nature and' permissible duration of the impound: The vehicle may be held or impounded until appropriate repairs are made on-site or until towed by the owner or operator to an appropriate repair facility, maintenance garage or otherwise, so that repairs of all bus safety out-of-service violations can be made. The vehicle shall not be operated in this State until the defects are remediated and such remedial action is either certified or approved by the department. N.J. Stat. Ann. § 48:4-2.1(h). Additionally, the bus company is subject to civil penalties for each violation: N.J. Stat. Ann. § 48:4-2.1(f). The Bus Safety Compliance Act does not provide for how buses are to be selected for inspection. According to the State, its policy is that the buses are to be chosen for inspection based on sequential selection (e.g., every third bus), visible or otherwise obvious defects (e.g., bald tires), or past inspection data contained in a database of bus safety information. (See, e.g., State Defs.’ Docket Item 369 Ex. 11 (“RSIVL dated 8/20/04”).) Plaintiffs are six African American owned and operated bus companies and their individual owners: Charles Major and Major Tours, Inc., Victoria Daniels and M & M Tours, James Wright and JW Auto, Inc., Glen Ragin, Sr. doing business as Jamm Tours, Robert Allen, and Carl Revels doing business as CMT Express. They offer bus tours between Pennsylvania and Atlantic City, New Jersey. Plaintiffs allege that the State Defendants ignored the race-neutral inspection processes and improperly targeted them buses, and that Defendants selectively enforced the safety laws against them out of racial animus toward the owners of the bus companies. The discriminatory conduct allegedly includes more frequent inspections, heightened scrutiny, and unwarranted violations and impound orders, as alleged in the Fourth Amended Complaint. Plaintiffs also allege that the State Defendants discriminated against them by requiring towing to a repair shop instead of allowing on-site repair. The inspectors allegedly required the buses to be towed to Jimmy’s Lakeside Garage, which allegedly charged them above the prevailing market rates and subjected them to verbal abuse. Charles Major and Major Tours, Inc. also complain of a particular incident in which a bus owned by Major Tours and operated by M & M Tours, Bus 203, was improperly detained at Jimmy’s for two years. The initial complaint was filed by Charles Major and Major Tours, Inc., as well as Victoria Daniels and M & M Tours on June 15, 2005. After the first complaint was filed, the parties conducted nearly four contentious years of discovery. During this period, the initial Plaintiffs amended the complaint several times adding additional Plaintiffs, among other changes. In its June 22, 2010 Opinion, this Court dismissed on sovereign immunity grounds Plaintiffs’ claims against state ' entities, claims for damages against Schulze and Calorel in their official capacities, and state law claims for injunctive relief. Major Tours, 720 F.Supp.2d at 603. The Court found the factual allegations contained in the Third Amended Complaint to be insufficient to state several of the claims, including claims as to the supervisory officials previously named, claims based on federal procedural and substantive due process deprivations, claims under the dormant commerce clause and for violation of the right to interstate travel, and the conversion claim as against the State Defendants. Id. at 605-610. The Fourth Amended Complaint, filed to align the pleadings with the June 2010 Opinion, includes six counts. [Docket Item 330.] Count I is a claim pursuant to 42 U.S.C. § 1983 arguing that the State Defendants’ racially discriminatory conduct violated Plaintiffs’ equal protection rights. Count II is a claim pursuant to 42 U.S.C. § 1981 arguing that the Garage Defendants interfered with Major Tours and M & M Tours’s rights to freedom of contract by illegally impounding Bus 203 for almost two years for racially discriminatory reasons. Count III is a conspiracy claim against the State and Garage Defendants pursuant to 42 U.S.C. § 1985(3) based on the § 1983 claim. Count IV is a claim pursuant to the New Jersey Civil Rights Act (NJCRA), N.J. Stat. Ann. § 10:6-2(e), (e) arguing that all of the Defendants deprived Plaintiffs of their due process rights and equal protection rights under the N.J. Constitution, and violated certain criminal prohibitions against police racial profiling (N.J.Stat.Ann. § 2C:30-5(d)) and official misconduct (N.J.Stat.Ann. § 2C:30-6(a), 7(a)). Claim V is a claim for conversion under the common law of New Jersey against the Garage Defendants based on the alleged unlawful seizure of Bus 203. Finally, Count VI is a claim of civil conspiracy against all Defendants declaring that “Defendants agreed among themselves and with others to commit all the foregoing acts.” III. STANDARD OF REVIEW Summary judgment is appropriate “if the movant shows that there is no genuine dispute as to any material fact and the movant is entitled to judgment as a matter of law.” Fed.R.Civ.P. 56(a). A fact is “material” only if it might affect the outcome of the suit under the applicable rule of law. Anderson v. Liberty Lobby, Inc., 477 U.S. 242, 255, 106 S.Ct. 2505, 91 L.Ed.2d 202 (1986). Summary judgment will not be denied based on mere allegations or denials in the pleadings; instead, some evidence must be produced to support a material fact. Fed.R.Civ.P. 56(c)(1)(A); United States v. Premises Known as 717 S. Woodward Street, Allentown, Pa., 2 F.3d 529, 533 (3d Cir.1993). However, the court will view any evidence in favor of the nonmoving party and extend any reasonable favorable inferences to be drawn from that evidence to that party. Hunt v. Cromartie, 526 U.S. 541, 552, 119 S.Ct. 1545, 143 L.Ed.2d 731 (1999). Where the nonmoving party bears the burden of persuasion at trial, the moving party may be entitled to summary judgment merely by showing that there is an absence of evidence to support an essential element of the nonmoving party’s case. Fed.R.Civ.P. 56(c)(1)(B); Celotex Corp. v. Catrett, 477 U.S. 317, 325, 106 S.Ct. 2548, 91 L.Ed.2d 265 (1986). IV. STATUTE OF LIMITATIONS Plaintiffs Charles Major and Victoria Daniels (and their respective companies) filed the original Complaint on June 15, 2005. The remaining Plaintiffs — James Wright, Glen Ragin, Sr., Robert Allen, and Carl Revels (and their respective companies) — were added by amendment, with the motion to amend having been filed on April 17, 2006. With the exception of Ms. Daniels, whose company (M & M Tours) did not exist before 2003, Plaintiffs complain of discriminatory incidents ranging from 2000 through 2007. The parties agree that New Jersey’s two-year statute of limitations on personal injury actions, N.J. Stat. Ann. § 2A:14-2, applies to all of Plaintiffs’ damages claims based on racial profiling. Generally speaking, a plaintiff must file a claim within the prescribed limitations period for each injury-causing act from which they seek redress. Wells v. Rockefeller, 728 F.2d 209, 217 (3d Cir.1984). Plaintiffs maintain that the April 17, 2006 addition of several Plaintiffs relates back to the June 15, 2005 Complaint, and that the incidents from January 1, 2000 through June 15, 2003 are actionable under the continuing violation doctrine and the discovery rule. A. Relation back Rule 15(c) of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure does not directly contemplate the addition of plaintiffs to an existing action, but courts have applied the basic principles of that rule to the addition of plaintiffs. Nelson v. County of Allegheny, 60 F.3d 1010, 1014 n. 7 (3d Cir.1995) (noting that the Committee Note to the 1966 Amendment states that the attitude taken in revised Rule 15(c) toward change of defendants extends by analogy to amendments changing plaintiffs). The Rule provides that an amendment to add defendants can relate back to the date of the original complaint if any new claims or defenses “arose out of the conduct, transaction, or occurrence set out — or attempted to be set out — in the original pleading,” and if within the service period the defendants) “(i) received such notice of the action that it will not be prejudiced in defending on the merits; and (ii) knew or should have known that the action would have been brought against it, but for a mistake concerning the proper party’s identity.” Rule 15(c)(1)(C), Fed.R.Civ.P. Here, even if Defendants received enough notice to avoid prejudice by Plaintiffs alleging a widespread practice, Plaintiffs’ argument fails because they have not demonstrated “a mistake concerning the identity of the proper party.” Id. at 1014 (quoting Rule 15(c), Fed.R.Civ.P.). Although the caption of the initial complaint filed in this case included the phrase “and all others similarly situated,” this case was not otherwise pleaded or prosecuted as a class action, and nothing in the complaint suggested the identities of these later-added Plaintiffs or gave notice that they would be bringing these claims. When new plaintiffs were unaware of their rights, then they can assert equitable tolling, as Plaintiffs do in this case as discussed below. But otherwise, unless a plaintiff can meet the conditions of Rule 15(c), defendants are entitled to their reliance on the fact that old claims are eventually laid to rest when plaintiffs sit on their rights. Id. Accordingly, the claims of the plaintiffs who were first added in 2006 do not relate back to the original filing of the complaint in 2005. B. Continuing violation doctrine Both the federal courts and New Jersey courts recognize an equitable exception to the statute of limitations called the continuing violation doctrine. Plaintiff invokes this doctrine to argue that even if the claims accrued before 2003, they are timely. There are some unsettled issues of law which the parties do not address regarding whether federal or state law governs the continuing violation doctrine as applied to the federal claims. See Speth v. Goode, Civil Action No. 95-0264, 2011 WL 221664, at *7 n. 7 (D.N.J. Jan. 20, 2011) (describing unsettled issues). But since the Court does not discern any distinctions between the state law and federal law versions of the doctrine that are relevant here, the Court need not decide which body of law applies. Virtually all of the precedent discussing the continuing violation doctrine involves workplace discrimination suits. New Jersey courts describe the doctrine as “an equitable exception to the statute of limitations” that applies to “causes of action arising under anti-discrimination laws” because “[a]n actionable claim under [New Jersey’s Law Against Discrimination] based upon a hostile work environment frequently arises out of repeated incidents that take place over time and by their cumulative effect make it unreasonable and unhealthy for the plaintiff to remain in that work environment.” Alliance For Disabled In Action, Inc. v. Renaissance Enterprises, Inc., 371 N.J.Super. 409, 853 A.2d 334 (N.J.Super.Ct.App.Div.2004). In 2002, the Supreme Court decided National R.R. Passenger Corp. v. Morgan, 536 U.S. 101, 122 S.Ct. 2061, 153 L.Ed.2d 106 (2002), which provides a clear explanation of the doctrine in the workplace harassment context. New Jersey courts have followed Morgan in deciding the scope of the doctrine. See Shepherd v. Hunterdon Developmental Center, 174 N.J. 1, 803 A.2d 611, 623 (2002); see also Green v. Jersey City Bd. of Educ., 177 N.J. 434, 828 A.2d 883, 891 (2003) (applying Morgan to a Conscientious Employee Protection Act claim). In the context of Title VII claims, the Supreme Court in Morgan established that the doctrine applies only to a certain class of claims, holding that “[h]ostile environment claims are different in kind from discrete acts. Their very nature involves repeated conduct. The ‘unlawful employment practice’ therefore cannot be said to occur on any particular day. It occurs over a series of days or perhaps years and, in direct contrast to discrete acts, a single act of harassment may not be actionable on its own.” In other words, Morgan “distinguished between ‘discrete’ discriminatory acts, such as wrongful terminations, and acts concerning unlawful employment practices, which ‘cannot be said to occur on any particular day,’ ” and applied the continuing violation doctrine to the latter set of claims. See Mancini v. Township of Teaneck, 179 N.J. 425, 846 A.2d 596, 599-600 (2004) (quoting Morgan). The Third Circuit Court of Appeals has entertained application of the continuing violation doctrine to non-employment civil rights actions in a handful of cases, but has held that it applies outside the employment context in only two cases: Centifanti v. Nix, 865 F.2d 1422, 1433 (3d Cir.1989) and Keystone Ins. Co. v. Houghton, 863 F.2d 1125 (3d Cir.1988). The former case applies the doctrine as one of several holdings without explanation or discussion, and the latter was overturned by the Supreme Court. See Klehr v. A. O. Smith Corp., 521 U.S. 179, 117 S.Ct. 1984, 138 L.Ed.2d 373 (1997). To the extent that the doctrine applies beyond the employment context, it is clearly confined to the delayed accrual of a claim based on aggregate wrongs. As recently summarized by the New Jersey Supreme Court: [T]he continuing violation theory cannot be applied to sweep in an otherwise time-barred discrete act.... As we have said, the continuing violation theory was developed to allow for the aggregation of acts, each of which, in itself, might not have alerted the employee of the existence of a claim, but which together show a pattern of discrimination. In those circumstances, the last act is said to sweep in otherwise untimely prior non-discrete acts.... What the doctrine does not permit is the aggregation of discrete discriminatory acts for the purpose of reviving an untimely act of discrimination that the victim knew or should have known was actionable. Roa v. LAFE, 200 N.J. 555, 985 A.2d 1225, 1233 (2910). In Wilson v. Wal-Mart Stores, 158 N.J. 263, 273, 729 A.2d 1006 (1999), the New Jersey Supreme Court found that in order to constitute a continuing violation, the acts “must be continuous on an almost daily basis.” See Giovanetti v. ICI Americas, Inc., 2006 WL 1520756 (N.J.Super.Ct.App.Div.2006) (citing Wilson). Even if the doctrine applies to § 1983 actions, it does not apply to a racial profiling claim involving many discrete acts of racial profiling and selective enforcement. Unlike a hostile work environment in which not every inappropriate comment or glance is actionable in itself, racial profiling involves a series of discrete actionable incidents. A claim based on racial profiling or selective enforcement accrues at the time of the discriminatory enforcement action. See Hilton v. Whitman, No. 04-cv-6420 (SDW), 2008 WL 5272190 (D.N.J.2008) (collecting cases and concluding that “[m]ost Courts in this District agree that a selective enforcement claim based on racial profiling accrues upon the stop, search and seizure made pursuant to the selective enforcement of the law”); Dique v. Mulvey, 2008 WL 1882856 (D.N.J.2008). Every time a bus is improperly stopped or discriminated against on the basis of race, a cause of action arises. It would undermine the grave import of such racial discrimination to hold that, as required for the continuing violation doctrine to apply, no single stop was actionable. Racially selective enforcement is analogous to an employee being repeatedly turned down for promotion on the basis of race. The employee may not discover the discriminatory reason for the failure to promote until the pattern emerges, in which case the employee’s recourse is to equitable tolling based on the discovery rule, but that does not aggregate the discrete acts into a continuing violation. See Morgan, 536 U.S. at 114, 122 S.Ct. 2061 (describing how failure to promote claims, unlike hostile work environment claims, cannot take advantage of the continuing violation doctrine). C. Discovery rule Generally, even when the injury-causing action itself may be either lawful or unlawful from the victim’s perspective at the time, the claim still accrues. See Oshiver v. Levin, Fishbein, Sedran & Berman, 38 F.3d 1380, 1386 (3d Cir.1994) (“A claim accrues in a federal cause of action as soon as a potential claimant either is aware, or should be aware, of the existence of and source of an injury ... not upon awareness that this injury constitutes a legal wrong.”). However, the Third Circuit Court of Appeals has held that in the context of selective enforcement, New Jersey’s discovery rule tolls the statute of limitations until the victim discovered, or by exercise of reasonable diligence should have discovered, that the police action was improper. Dique v. New Jersey State Police, 603 F.3d 181, 188 (3d Cir.2010) (“It was not until July 2001, when his attorney became aware of the extensive documents describing the State’s pervasive selective-enforcement practices, that Dique discovered, or by exercise of reasonable diligence should have discovered, that he might have a basis for an actionable claim.”). To take advantage of this rule of equitable tolling to make incidents outside the two-year statutory range actionable, Major and Daniels must adduce evidence that they did not know about the racial profiling in the CBIU system until June 15, 2003, and the other Plaintiffs must show that they did not learn about it until at least April 17, 2004. See Lopez v. Swyer, 62 N.J. 267, 300 A.2d 563, 568 (1973) (“The burden of proof will rest upon the party claiming the indulgence of the rule.”); see also Lapka v. Porter Hayden Co., 162 N.J. 545, 565, 745 A.2d 525 (2000). Plaintiffs offer no evidence that supports the proposition that any of the Plaintiffs first learned about the discriminatory nature of the system after the relevant cutoff dates. And what evidence there is diametrically opposes that conclusion. The owners of CMT Express complained to Senator Arlen Spector about the discrimination in 2002. (State Defs.’ Docket Item 369 Ex. 27 at 9.) On September 11, 2003, attorney Robert Sugarman, hired by Major and several other unidentified African American owned and operated companies, sent a letter to the Commissioner of the Department of Transportation and the Attorney General of New Jersey. (Pis.’ Docket Item 390 Ex. U (“Sugarman Letter”).) The letter makes clear that the knowledge of the practices of the CBIU were widespread, and known to Sugar-man’s clients prior to June 15, 2003. The letter states that beginning around 2000, the CBIU initiated a “systematic program of harassment, deterrence, and discrimination, based on racial profiling.” (Id.) It relates that, in addition to being selected for inspection, buses without problems are written tickets, and forced to go thirty miles away for “repair.” (Id.) It states, “As a result of this program, by the fall of 2002, African American bus operators had found it impossible to operate in Atlantic City, and had terminated at least Friday night charter service, and in most cases, had terminated all service to Atlantic City.” (Id.) No reasonable jury could infer from the evidence that is in the record that these companies were unaware of the putative racial profiling until just a few months before the Sugarman letter, or in the case of four of Plaintiffs, nearly a year after it. Therefore, Plaintiffs have not adduced evidence from which a jury might find that their claims accruing prior to two years before their respective filing dates are timely. D. Consequences of these findings Plaintiffs will only be able to recover for injuries that occurred in the two years prior to the effective date of their complaints, which for Daniels and Major is June 15, 2003, and for the remaining Plaintiffs is April 17, 2004. Evidence of selective enforcement outside these time frames is still relevant evidence under Rule 404(b) of the Federal Rules of Evidence, but Plaintiffs cannot recover for losses resulting from the stops occurring before the applicable period. Major Tours experienced three inspections after June 15, 2003, and none after September 10, 2004. (State Defs.’ Docket Item 369 Ex. 14 (“Lamberth Report”) at 94.) M & M Tours had all thirteen of its stops after June 15, 2003, two of which occurred before September 10, 2004. (Id. at 99.) CMT experienced three inspections after April 17, 2004, all of which occurred after September 10, 2004. (Id. at 95.) JAMM Tours experienced seven inspections after April 17, 2004, all of which occurred after September 10, 2004. (Id. at 96.) RAC Tours experienced fourteen inspections after April 17, 2004, all but two of which occurred after September 10, 2004. (Id. at 97.) JW Auto experienced sixteen inspections after April 17, 2004, all but two of which occurred after September 10,2004. (Id. at 98.) V. EQUAL PROTECTION CLAIMS AGAINST STATE DEFENDANTS To prevail on their § 1983 and NJCRA equal protection claims, Plaintiffs must each prove that actions of each Defendant (1) had a discriminatory effect on them and (2) were motivated by a discriminatory purpose. See Bradley v. United States, 299 F.3d 197, 205 (3d Cir.2002). The parties agree that the claim pursuant to the New Jersey Civil Rights Act under the New Jersey Constitution is governed by the same standards. See State v. Se-gars, 172 N.J. 481, 799 A.2d 541, 547 (2002) (explaining similarity of the two constitutions’ prohibition on racial discrimination). Unlike employment discrimination, a plaintiff alleging discrimination unrelated to employment does not receive a presumption of racial discrimination based on a showing that the plaintiff belongs to a racial minority and was treated differently from a similarly-situated white person. See McDonnell Douglas Corp. v. Green, 411 U.S. 792, 800, 93 S.Ct. 1817, 36 L.Ed.2d 668 (1973) (creating certain presumptions for employment discrimination cases); Bradley v. United States, 299 F.3d 197, 205 (3d Cir.2002) (noting that it was the plaintiffs burden to prove discriminatory intent at the summary judgment stage); Chavez v. Illinois State Police, 251 F.3d 612, 645 (7th Cir.2001) (affirming grant of summary judgment to defendant when plaintiff failed to adduce evidence of discriminatory intent, and not applying burden-shifting analysis). To prove discriminatory effect, Plaintiffs must show that they are members of a protected class, that they are otherwise similarly situated to members of the unprotected class, and that plaintiffs were treated differently from members of the unprotected class. Bradley, 299 F.3d at 206 (citing Chavez v. Illinois State Police, 251 F.3d 612, 636 (7th Cir.2001)). In this case, Plaintiffs contend that CBIU inspectors discriminated against them on the basis of their race by treating their buses differently from other similar white owned buses in the inspection process. It is undisputed that Plaintiffs, as African Americans, are members of a protected class. The State Defendants dispute the other elements, making two arguments: first, that Plaintiffs have not adduced evidence that the inspectors knew the race of the bus company owners such that they could discriminate against them; and second, that Plaintiffs have failed to adduce evidence that the State Defendants were not simply following established race-neutral procedure in stopping these buses. See Fed.R.Civ.P. 56(c)(1)(B) (“[T]he moving party may be entitled to summary judgment merely by showing that there is an absence of evidence to support an essential element of the nonmoving party’s case.”). Since, as explained below, Plaintiffs present sufficient evidence on both issues to raise a factual dispute, summary judgment will be denied. A. Evidence of knowledge of owners’ race Plaintiffs present direct evidence that CBIU inspectors met two of Plaintiffs — Charles Major and Victoria Daniels. Defendant Schulze admits that he knew the race of the owner of Major Tours and M & M Tours because of his interactions with them. (Pis.’ Docket Item 389 Ex. A (“Schulze Dep. of Jan. 22, 2008”) at 171:1-22.) Plaintiffs also present evidence that Calorel and Schulze discussed and made disparaging remarks about black-owned bus companies. (Pis.’ Docket Item 389 Ex. OO (“Grotz Dep. of Sept. 17, 2009”) at 18:7-21:4.) Therefore, a jury could reasonably infer that Calorel was also privy to this information. A reasonable factfinder could determine that the same evidence of discussions about bus companies and who runs them shows that Defendants knew the race of many of the bus company owners. So the only question is whether a reasonable fact-finder could infer that the State Defendants knew, or operated on their beliefs about, the race of the remaining four bus company owners. See, e.g., Diaz-Bernal v. Myers, 758 F.Supp.2d 106, 134-35 (D.Conn.2010) (holding that Equal Protection claim can be based on perceived ethnicity). There are a number of ways that Schulze or Calorel could have learned or guessed the race of each of Plaintiffs. They, or colleagues who shared the information with them, could have met the owners at any of the municipal court hearings on summonses issued by the CBIU (at which an inspector is usually present to testify about the violation). They also might have inferred the race of the bus company owners from the clientele or destination of the buses. Dr. Lamberth testified that based on his observation of the inspectors and the knowledge they gain or can infer from the names of the companies, their clientele, drivers, etc., they are “going to know to a great extent who it is who owns those bus companies.” (Pis.’ Docket Item 389 Ex. D (Lamberth July 19, 2010 Dep.) at 110:13-22.) While these mechanisms by which Schulze and Calorel learned or guessed the race of the owners are partly speculative, what is shown if one credits reasonable inferences from Plaintiffs’ evidence (as required in this summary judgment motion) is that Schulze and Calorel did in fact learn the race of many bus companies through these or other mechanisms, and that these particular companies experienced disproportionate scrutiny from the CBIU for some reason. Collectively, this evidence is enough for a reasonable jury to infer that Schulze and Calorel guessed or knew the race of all six company owners. B. Evidence of differential treatment based on race Given the totality of circumstantial evidence presented in this case, and acknowledging the closeness of this question, the Court finds that Plaintiffs have adduced sufficient evidence from which a reasonable jury could find that they were treated differently from white-owned buses, and that this differential treatment was motivated by a discriminatory purpose. This analysis requires a more extensive review of the circumstantial evidence and admissible expert opinion presented in this case. Plaintiffs adduce evidence that they were stopped for inspection far more often than sequential selection can explain. Their racial profiling expert, Dr. Lam-berth, examined the State’s inspection records regarding Plaintiffs and one other black-owned bus company who leased buses from one of the Plaintiffs. Lamberth found that Plaintiffs and the one non-Plaintiff conipany collectively were 4.75 times more likely to be inspected than random chance would predict. (Pis.’ Docket Item 389 Ex. S (“Lamberth Report”) at 11-14.) Statistically, this rate of inspection, occurring almost five times more than the average expected by random chance, could not have occurred without targeted selection of these buses, for one reason or another. Plaintiffs also introduce evidence from which a jury could reasonably conclude that the State Defendants’ purportedly mandatory and race-neutral system of inspections was actually highly discretionary. The nature of the bus safety violations is such that there is some degree of discretion in determining the existence of a visible safety violation to justify a non-random stop even when they are being scrupulously adhered to. See, e.g., N.J. Admin. Code § 16:53A-3.5 (describing a violation for a part not attached “in a workmanlike manner”). There is also evidence that these guidelines were not scrupulously adhered to. A CBIU inspector named Gerhard Kaniper explained that inspectors would sometimes do nothing more than identify fluids dripping from the bus, or a tire that looks “questionable,” to justify pulling a bus out for inspection, without further identifying any particular regulation. (Pis.’ Docket Item 389 Ex. F (Kaniper January 31, 2008 Dep.) at 55:8-56:4.) Most damningly, Kaniper testified that even if a bus was not a sequentially-selected bus, and even if it had no visible defects, inspectors still sometimes sent such buses to the inspection site for more thorough inspection. (Kaniper Dep. 55:8-56:4.) Additionally, Plaintiffs adduce evidence that Schulze and Calorel held racist attitudes. A CBIU inspector named Wilfred Grotz testified at his deposition that Schulze thought his secretary was a “lazy nigger,” and instructed Grotz to watch her closely for any mistakes that could be used against her. (Grotz Sept. 17, 2009 Dep. 16:13-17:3.) He testified that Calorel would say “niggers run junk,” referring specifically to black-owned buses in Atlantic City. (Grotz Dep. 18:17-19:3.) He also claims Calorel said he moved his home because an African American family moved in next to him. (Grotz Dep. 19:15-20:12.) It is true, as Defendants contend, that Plaintiffs have not undertaken to prove differential treatment by careful study of the racial distribution of stoppable offenses. In State v. Soto, 324 N.J.Super. 66, 734 A.2d 350, 360-61 (NJ.Super.Ct.L.Div.1996), a case Plaintiffs cite as analogous to their own, the Court was able to find differential treatment because it was presented with evidence about the rates at which different racial groups committed driving violations; this provided a basis for a determination whether the pattern of motor vehicle stops was a reflection of differential treatment, or just fair enforcement with differential results. Id. at 352-353; see also State v. Kennedy, 247 N.J.Super. 21, 588 A.2d 834, 841 (N.J.Super.Ct.App.Div.1991) (finding differential treatment based on a scientific study that disclosed the racial composition of those exceeding the speed limit). Although Plaintiffs employed the same expert employed in Soto, Dr. John Lamberth, he departed from the method he had employed in Soto. In this case, he did not study the racial distribution of legitimate bases for non-random inspection: visible defects and safety scores. Nevertheless, Plaintiffs still adduce enough evidence to create a genuine dispute of material fact as to whether they were racially profiled. In addition to the evidence described above suggesting that Schulze and Calorel had the motive and opportunity to racially discriminate against Plaintiffs, and the evidence that Plaintiffs were indeed subject to significantly more frequent inspections than the average tour bus company, there is also evidence that Plaintiffs’ buses were stopped for reasons other than their visible defects and safety-scores. The strongest such piece of that evidence is the testimony of Wilfred Grotz, who averred that Schulze and Calorel “would go out and get the buses they thought were junk because of the minorities on the bus.” (Grotz Dep. 47:24-48:20.) Grotz goes on to explain how Schulze liked going to Atlantic City because he knew he could find a violation on black-owned buses, and that he especially liked the black-owned buses because they did not have the ability to fix problems on the spot. (Grotz Dep. 49:6-17.) Schulze reportedly said impounds were “a feather in his cap.” (Grotz Dep. 49:8-17.) He said they would talk about this “[j]ust about every time” Grotz was in the office, and that it was “the highlight of the days.” (Grotz Dep. 50:6-15.) Grotz reported that the inspectors mostly pulled over church buses or minority owned buses. (Grotz Dep. 50:20-51:3.) Schulze would tell the inspectors to be on the lookout for church buses especially, since there were a lot of “minority church buses.” (Grotz Dep. 51:10-17.) Grotz also testified that Calorel constantly liked to brag about how he got “black buses.” (Grotz Dep. 53:5-14.) From the context, it is not certain that Grotz is using the word “target” in the way Plaintiffs are, to mean that the inspectors departed from the normal selection measures to focus on what they perceived to be black-owned buses. But a reasonable jury could certainly interpret the testimony this way, especially in light of the other evidence, which is enough for Plaintiffs to proceed past the summary judgment stage. Plaintiffs also point to the affidavit of a Mr. Elvert Elliot, a tour bus driver operating in Atlantic City who drove for two black-owned companies and one white-owned company from 2000-2007. (Pis.’ Docket Item 389 Ex. K (“Elliot Af£”).) He states that buses belonging to black-owned companies seemed to get stopped more, adding that the buses for all three companies he drove for “were kept in about the same condition” as detected by his own inspections according to a common checklist before each trip, but differentially treated according to race. (Id. ¶ 9.) In fact, he did not recall a single instance in which the white-owned bus he drove was selected for inspection. Such evidence would appear to be admissible under Rule 404(b), Fed.R.Evid., and Defendants have not yet argued for its exclusion under Rule 403, Fed.R.Evid., which Defendants may seek to do after having an opportunity to depose Elliot. This further bolsters Plaintiffs’ claim that race, and not the condition of the buses, explains why them buses were stopped so much more often. In sum, Plaintiffs adduce evidence that Schulze and Calorel held negative views about the condition of Plaintiffs’ buses based on Plaintiffs’ race, operated an inspection system with ample room for manipulation and discretion, inspected Plaintiffs’ buses at a much higher rate than the average for other companies, and bragged about how their efforts to target minority buses resulted in higher violation and impound rates for the CBIU. A reasonable jury could draw inferences from these facts sufficient to find by a preponderance of the evidence that Schulze and Calorel departed from the standard selection procedures and selectively targeted Plaintiffs’ buses because of Plaintiffs’ race. C. False violations and forced impound The Court does find, however, that Defendants are entitled to partial summary judgment on the claim of fabricated violations. While Grotz’s crucial testimony can be read to support Plaintiffs’ claim of selective targeting, nothing Grotz said supports the proposition that inspectors fabricated violations. The same is true for Elliot’s affidavit; indeed, Elliot acknowledges that each of his buses was permitted to be towed from the inspection site for the necessary repairs by a repair company of his choosing and he never suggests that such repairs were not in fact necessary. (Elliot Aff. ¶ 11.) Thus, unlike the supporting evidence about selective targeting for inspections, there is little other than the bare disparity between Plaintiffs’ inspection outcomes and those of all other bus companies (including black-owned companies) to support the differential treatment prong of the claims of fabricated violations. Since the condition of the two compared groups’ buses is unknown, a disparity alone, without some other proof of race-based treatment (like that provided by the Grotz and Elliot testimony for selective inspections) does not demonstrate differential treatment because it does not speak to whether Plaintiffs were treated differently from similarly-situated buses. Plaintiffs do offer some anecdotes related to the legitimacy of violations, but they rest on speculation rather than evidence or known facts. Plaintiffs state that a violation was found on one bus that had not been found two days earlier, or found by one state inspection entity and not another. (Pis.’ Supp. Statement of Material Facts ¶ 63.) And they cite a handful of specific citations for violations that Plaintiffs allege without proof were improper, like a citation for self-adjusting brakes not being adjusted (it is not clear to the Court that self-adjusting brakes cannot function improperly such that they are improperly adjusted). Importantly, Plaintiffs have presented no evidence of any pattern of acquittals in municipal court for baseless violations, and the Court finds none in the record. That Plaintiffs admitted or were found guilty and paid essentially all violations would foreclose them claims that the violations are unfounded. The claim that Schulze and Calorel caused Plaintiffs’ buses to be towed instead of fixed on-site is also unsupported by evidence. There was never any statistical analysis of impound (as distinct from out-of-serviee violations repaired on site). It is undisputed that Plaintiffs Wright, Ra-gin, and Revels were towed only a handful of times collectively, and all disavow ever having been towed to Jimmy’s. (Garage Defendants’ Docket Item 404 Ex. C) (Wright Dep.) at 142:12-145:6; Ex. D (Ra-gin Dep.) at 224:3-9; Ex. E (Revels Dep. 117:7-22). Although Major Tours, M & M Tours, and CMT Express continue to allege that drivers were “often not told they could get their own tow company, not given an opportunity to repair their vehicles before they were towed, or not given adequate time for the tow company of their choice to respond,” (Pis.’ Supp. Statement of Material Facts ¶ 65), the only evidence they attach supporting this proposition is testimony about an example in which this did not happen, (Pis.’ Docket Item 389 Ex. J (“Ragin January 9, 2008 Dep.”) 75-76), and testimony relaying something some other non-party told the deponent, which is inadmissible hearsay. (Pis.’ Docket Item 389 Ex. B (“Allen January 9, 2008 Dep.”) 61-62). Plaintiffs have not offered any admissible evidence showing a single instance of a bus being denied the opportunity to repair on site, much less that black-owned bus companies were generally forced to go to Jimmy’s unlike white-owned companies who got to select a garage of their choosing. Although Plaintiffs’ pleadings and arguments have proclaimed that false violations were imposed and that they were treated in a disparate manner regarding opportunities to make repairs at the inspection site and to make their own towing and repairing arrangements, they have not satisfied their'burden of producing admissible evidence of these claims in opposition to the summary judgment motion, which was their burden. Partial summary judgment will be entered in favor of the State Defendants upon Plaintiffs’ claims that their violations lacked probable cause and that they were treated in a disparate manner with regard to repair at the inspection site and opportunities to tow their bus to a repair shop from the inspection site. D. Scope of potential liability The State Defendants contend that since Schulze and Calorel did not personally perform most of the inspections at issue in this case, Plaintiffs are improperly relying on respondeat superior liability. See Ashcroft v. Iqbal, 556 U.S. 662, 129 S.Ct. 1937, 1951, 173 L.Ed.2d 868 (2009) (“[A] plaintiff must plead that each Government-official defendant, through the official’s own individual actions, has violated the Constitution.”). As this Court explained in Liberty and Prosperity 1776, Inc. v. Corzine, 720 F.Supp.2d 622, 628-29 (D.N.J.2010), claims based on a showing that a supervisor knew of and acquiesced to the discriminatory conduct of a subordinate are not foreclosed by Iqbal. Iqbal rejected supervisory liability in that case because the Supreme Court found that a nondiscriminatory intention, and not discriminatory animus, was the more likely inference to be drawn from the allegations made in that case regarding the supervisor’s conduct. Iqbal at 1951-52. Consequently, merely permitting the operation of the discriminatory policy did not state a claim against the policymaker because there was no factual allegation or reasonable inference regarding discriminatory purpose behind that decision. Id. Conversely, if a plaintiff shows that the supervisory decisions that resulted in the discriminatory effects were taken for a discriminatory reason, then the plaintiff need not show that the supervisor himself directly executed the harmful action. As the head of the CBIU, Schulze would oversee and participate in inspections of buses on site at casinos in Atlantic City. (Grotz Dep. 48:21-49:25.) Schulze reportedly told the inspectors to be on the lookout minority buses. (Grotz Dep. 51:10-17.) Calorel, as a Primary Investigator, would also oversee and participate in inspections of buses on site at casinos in Atlantic City. There is evidence that Schulze was present at the inspection sites on days when Plaintiffs’ buses were inspected at least twenty-one times and Calorel was present at the inspection sites on days when Plaintiffs’ buses were being inspected at least fifty-two times. (Pis.’ Docket Item 389 Ex. AA (“Churchill Aff.”).) Schulze is personally the complaining witness on six summons. (Pis.’ Docket Item 389 Ex. PP.) This evidence must be evaluated against the other background evidence of racial animus. While Plaintiffs have yet to articulate the precise scope of the liability they seek to impose on Schulze and Calorel (and Defendants have failed to use the tools of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure to force them to do so), the Court is satisfied that Plaintiffs have adduced evidence from which a jury could find liability for at least some injuries based either on Schulze and Calorel’s actual decision to inspect a bus, or the directions given to subordinates by Schulze and Calorel for a discriminatory purpose, or both. Therefore, a reasonable jury could find that Schulze and Calorel’s own actions caused Plaintiffs’ buses to be stopped on the basis of the race of the owners. Precisely how many of these stops are legally and factually attributable to Schulze and Calorel is a matter that is not ripe for summary judgment. VI. DETENTION OF BUS 203 On December 10, 2003, the CBIU requested that Jimmy’s impound a bus owned by Major Tours, Bus 203, that had been taken out of service by the CBIU because of safety violations. The bus was not released until after the filing of this action in 2005. The parties dispute whether the bus was unlawfully detained, and if so, whether this was because of racial animus. As discussed previously, three months prior the December 10, 2003 impound, Charles Major and some other unidentified individuals hired an attorney named Robert Sugarman to pursue an action based on racial profiling. (Pis.’ Docket Item 389 Ex. U (“Letter from Robert Sugarman dated 9/11/03”); Ex. DD (“Major May 29, 2008 Dep.”) at 64:12-23 (explaining that he hired Sugarman).) Sugarman wrote to the New Jersey Attorney General and the Commissioner of the New Jersey Motor Vehicle Commission about allegations of racial profiling in the bus inspection system. (Id.) The letter mentions the allegation that buses are improperly forced to go to “Lakeview in Hammonton,” which perhaps refers to Jimmy’s Lakeside Garage, as well as one other garage, and complains about their high fees. (Id.) When Major went to the garage to retrieve Bus 203 in December 2003, Restuccio was openly belligerent toward him. (Pis.’ Docket Item 393 Ex. F (“Transcript of December 30, 2003 recording”).) When asked for a copy of his rates, Restuccio responded, “It’s none of your business what I charge. I charge what I want. You want to hire a lawyer on me too?” (Id. at 1.) Restuccio asks, “What law is there that says what I can charge?” to which Major responded, “You the law sir. I’m in your place, you are the law,” causing Restuccio to declare, “You get too fucking smart and I will call the cops and they will pick up your fucking warrant to put you in jail.” (Id.) Restuccio tells Major “Don’t get fucking smart with me,” and “Don’t get too fucking cocky.” (Id.) Restuccio ultimately orders Major to stand outside until the bill is ready, saying “Get outside until we give it to you. Go get your goddamn lawyer. [G]o get your mother, your grandmother and your father too.” (Id.) According to Major’s testimony, after making him stand outside, Restuccio “came to the door, threw the paperwork out like I was a dog ... Called me an asshole. Told me if the tow truck that I hired wasn’t there by quarter to five that I couldn’t get my bus.” (Garage Defs.’ Docket Item 359 Ex. G (“Major May 29, 2008 Dep.”) 48:13-20.) There is a genuine dispute over whether Major offered to pay the entire towing and storage bill at that time. (Id. at 54:10-18; Garage Defs.’ Docket Item 360 Ex. J (“Restuccio March 4, 2008 Dep.”) 114:15-115:1.) It is undisputed that Major had Restuccio call an unidentified state official who told him that the bus could be released, as far as the CBIU was concerned. (Restuccio Dep. 55:23-25.) Major had arrived at the garage in the late afternoon. He avers that “at 4:45 when I returned with the funds and had already called Joe’s Towing[,] Defendant then stated that if the tow truck I ordered was not there by 5:00 p.m. he would not allow the truck on the premises.” (Pis.’ Docket Item 393 Ex. I (“Major June 8, 2005 Aff.”) ¶ 44.) The bus did not get towed that day. A representative of Major Tours did not return to the garage until January 8, 2004. Major, through his attorney, offered $500 for the release of the bus in a letter sent before the January 8 visit. It is unclear whether that offer was rejected, but in any case the representative was told that the bus would not be released until some outstanding warrants were satisfied. (Pis.’ Docket Item 393 Ex. G (“Motor Carrier Inspector’s Report of January 8, 2004”).) Defendant Calorel apparently told Restuccio that he could continue to impound the bus regardless because there were outstanding warrants on it; the outstanding warrants were not satisfied until 2005. (Id.; Garage Defs.’ Docket Item 361 Ex. N-2 (“Requests for Admission”) # 19, # 21, # 34.) Following commencement of this action, it was agreed that the Garage Defendants’ bill would be kept at $51,414.00 as of September 12, 2005 and that the vehicle could be removed from the premises by Major Tours upon execution of security agreement in the amount of $55,000.00. [Docket Item 22.] A. Conversion Conversion is a tort based on a defendant’s exercise of dominion or control over property which is inconsistent with the plaintiffs rights. LaPlace v. Briere, 404 N.J.Super. 585, 962 A.2d 1139 (N.J.Super.Ct.App.Div.2009). The tort does not require that the defendant knowingly or intentionally acted wrongfully. Id. The question in this case is whether the Garage Defendants’ refusal to release Bus 203 to a towing company of Major’s choosing was inconsistent with his rights. The Garage Defendants assert that they had lawful authority to withhold custody of the bus from Major until the full amount of the towing and storage fees had been paid. And they contend that they were also entitled, indeed required, to detain the bus pursuant to the orders of Defendant Calorel. Neither proposition is supported by the law. The common law of possessory liens is inapplicable. A person who merely tows and stores a vehicle without repairing or otherwise enhancing the value of vehicle had no right to a lien under the common law. Bruce G.M. Diesel, Inc. v. Associates Financial Services Co., 118 N.J.Super. 528, 288 A.2d 875 (N.J.Super.Ct.L.Div.1972), rev’d on other grounds by 125 N.J.Super. 53, 308 A.2d 373 (N.J.Super.Ct.App.Div.1973). And, in any case, the common law regarding such liens did not survive New Jersey’s enactment of the Garage Keepers Lien Act. Bruce G.M. Diesel, Inc., 308 A.2d at 374; Onondaga Truck Lease Inc. v. Hovell, 107 N.J.Super. 463, 259 A.2d 6 (N.J.Co.Ct.L.Div.1969). The Garage Defendants expressly abandon any reliance upon the Garage Keepers Lien Act. (Garage Defs.’ Reply Br. 11.) But even if they had not, the Act would still be inapplicable because it does not apply to vehicles stored without the owner’s consent. The Act applies to garage keepers who store a vehicle “at the request or with the consent of the owner or his representative.” N.J. Stat. Ann. § 2A:44-21. See also Rutgers Cas. Ins. Co. v. Simmermon, 2006 WL 1699442, at *4 (N.J.Super.Ct.App.Div.2006) (holding that the Act did not apply to car towed at request of non-owner). Both “consent” and “representative” are given their ordinary meanings under the Act, such that “consent” means to express a willingness or give assent or approval, and a “representative” is one that represents another or others in a special capacity: as agent, deputy, substitute, or delegate usually being invested with the authority of the principal. General Elec. Capital Auto Lease v. Violante, 180 N.J. 24, 848 A.2d 732, 738 (2004). The Act has been read to cover somewhat attenuated “representatives” of the owner, like a lessee obligated by the lessor to repair the vehicle, see Violante, 848 A.2d at 739-40, but has never been applied to the unwilling impound of a vehicle by the State. Because the Garage Defendants had no legal right to hold the bus arising from their demand for payment, whether and in what amount Major was obligated to pay the Garage Defendants for towing and storage is irrelevant to this conversion claim. The other putative basis for the Garage Defendants lawfully detaining the bus is also unfounded. The Garage Defendants have failed to identify any legal authority for the proposition that the CBIU may order that an owner or operator not be permitted to tow an out-of-service bus to an appropriate repair facility if there are outstanding warrants against the bus company. Such a proposition runs contrary to the language of the Bus Safety Compliance Act, which explicitly defines the permissible duration of impound as “until towed by the owner or operator to an appropriate repair facility.” N.J. Stat. Ann. § 48:4-2.1h. The applicable regulations regarding towing and impoundment echo these contours, stating: “The vehicle may be held or impounded: 1. Until appropriate repairs are made on site; or 2. Until towed by the owner or operator to an appropriate repair facility or maintenance garage so that repairs of all bus safety out-of-service violations can be made.” N.J. Admin. Code § 16:53A-5.2. Under Defendants’ reading of the statute, impound is permissible even if the owner is actively being denied the ability to tow the vehicle to a repair facility. This is not a reasonable interpretation of the statute and regulation. The manifest purpose of empowering the CBIU to impound the bus is to take it out-of-service until its defects are repaired. If the state lacked the authority to order the Garage Defendants to continue to impound the bus after Major sought to have it towed to a repair facility of his choosing, then following that unlawful order does not transform the Garage Defendants’ exercise of dominion over the bus into a lawful act. It is axiomatic that one is not legally empowered to take some action merely by the unlawful order of a state employee. It is conceivable that there is some as-yet unidentified source of legal authority for the CBIU to order a private company to withhold custody of a bus from its lawful owner who seeks to have it towed to a repair facility. But since the Court has not been alerted to this authority, and has not found such authority it is own review, Defendants have not shown that they are entitled to summary judgment on the conversion claim. B. § 1981 42 U.S.C. § 1981 prohibits racial discrimination in the making and enforcement of contracts and property transactions, providing: All persons within the jurisdiction of the United States shall have the same right in every State and Territory to make and enforce contracts, to sue, be parties, give evidence, and to the full and equal benefit of all laws and proceedings for the security of persons and property as is enjoyed by white citizens, and shall be subject to like punishment, pains, penalties, taxes, licenses and exactions of every kind, and to no other. 42 U.S.C. § 1981. In order to prove a claim under § 1981, a plaintiff must show (1) that plaintiff is a member of a racial minority; (2) intent to discriminate on the basis of race by the defendant; and (3) discrimination concerning one or more of the activities enumerated in the statute, which includes the right to make and enforce contracts. Brown v. Philip Morris Inc., 250 F.3d 789, 797 (3d Cir.2001). The statute defines the term “make and enforce contracts” to include “the making, performance, modification, and termination of contracts, and the enjoyment of all benefits, privileges, terms, and conditions of the contractual relationship.” 42 U.S.C. § 1981(b). The Fourth Amended Complaint states: Defendants have prevented Plaintiffs from making and performing contracts with their customers by illegally impounding then." bus for almost two years. Defendants have also prevented Plaintiffs from contracting with repair, tow, or impound companies of Plaintiffs’ choice ... thus denying Plaintiffs enjoyment and the use of Bus 203 and the income that would have been derived therefrom for more than two years. (Fourth Am. Compl. ¶ 55.) Since there is no evidence that any Defendants forced Major and Daniels to use Restuceio’s garage, much less that Restuccio forced this, that basis for the claim does not sustain it. The question is therefore whether there is evidence that Restuccio “prevented Plaintiffs from making and performing contracts with their customers by illegally impounding their bus for almost two years,” and whether he did so out of racial animus. As explained above, there is evidence that Restuccio illegally impounded the bus, at least after January 8, 2004. The question is therefore whether Plaintiffs have adduced evidence that Restuccio acted out of racial animus. It is a reasonable inference from the existence and content of Restuccio’s extraordinarily hostile conduct towards Major on December 30, 2003 that Restuccio bore racial animosity toward Major. Restuccio contends, essentially, that since he did not use any racial slurs, no reasonable jury could find that his hostility was based on Major’s race.