Full opinion text
MEMORANDUM OPINION ELLEN LIPTON HOLLANDER, District Judge. In April 2011, law enforcement agents in Maryland seized cocaine that had an estimated street value of more than $13 million dollars. That seizure, as well as other evidence obtained during a joint State and federal investigation, led to a federal indictment of six members of a drug-trafficking organization operating in the Baltimore area (the “Organization” or “Hayes DTO”) (ECF l). In particular, on May 5, 2011, defendant Richard Anthony Wilford, along with co-defendants Lawrence Lee Hayes, Jr., Bryan Eammon Williams, George Lamar Plunkett, Mark Anthony Hawkins, and Robert Nyakana, were charged in federal court with conspiracy to possess with intent to distribute five kilograms or more of cocaine, in violation of 21 U.S.C. §§ 841(a)(1) & 846. According to the Government, Hayes was “the leader” of the Hayes DTO. Government’s Opposition to Wilford’s Motion to Suppress (ECF 165), at 2. Wilford was allegedly “a source of supply for the Hayes DTO, providing the organization with kilogram quantities of cocaine.” Id. Williams was also “a source of supply for the Hayes DTO,” while Plunkett and Hawkins served as “lieutenants.” Id. Nyakana was “a transporter of narcotics from California to the Baltimore, Maryland area.” Id. Now pending is Wilford’s “Supplemental and Consolidated Motion to Suppress Tangible and Derivative Evidence” (“Motion to Suppress”) (ECF 160), challenging evidence derived from the surveillance conducted by law enforcement officers by means of Global Positioning System (“GPS”) tracking devices and court-authorized “pinging” of cellular phones. See ECF 160. Relying on the Supreme Court’s recent decision in United States v. Jones, — U.S. -, 132 S.Ct. 945, 181 L.Ed.2d 911 (2012), Wilford maintains that the warrantless use of GPS tracking technology violated his Fourth Amendment rights. Additionally, Wilford asserts that, despite court authorization obtained under Maryland’s pen register and trap and trace statute, Md. Code (2006 Repl. Vol., 2012 Supp.), Cts. & Jud. Proc. (“C.J.”) § 10-4B-01 et seq., the pinging of his cellular phone was not authorized by the statute, and was conducted in violation of Maryland law and the Fourth Amendment. Thus, according to Wilford, evidence derived from the use of GPS and pinging must be suppressed under the Fourth Amendment’s exclusionary rule. Wilford also requested a hearing, pursuant to Franks v. Delaware, 438 U.S. 154, 98 S.Ct. 2674, 57 L.Ed.2d 667 (1978), to challenge the veracity of an application dated November 18, 2010, submitted to a Maryland State judge for an order authorizing pinging of Wilford’s cell phone; an application for a search and seizure warrant, dated May 10, 2011, submitted to a Maryland State judge, and used to recover physical evidence from multiple locations associated with Wilford and the Hayes DTO; and an application for a wiretap order, dated April 1, 2011, as to Wilford’s cell phone, which was not provided. According to Wilford, these applications contained deliberately false and misleading statements, and thus evidence derived from them should be suppressed. In addition, Wilford filed a “Motion for Disclosure of Relevant Evidence and Request for Immediate Hearing” (“Disclosure Motion”) (ECF 165). In the Disclosure Motion, Wilford seeks, inter alia, internal memoranda circulated by “various law enforcement agencies” pertaining to GPS tracking, in light of the decision in August 2010 in United States v. Maynard, 615 F.3d 544 (D.C.Cir.2010). According to Wilford, this information is pertinent to his Motion to Suppress. The Government opposes Wilford’s Motion to Suppress (“Opposition” or “Opp.,” ECF 165). With respect to GPS tracking, the Government relies, inter alia, on the good faith exception to the exclusionary rule, claiming that its use of the GPS devices took place prior to the Supreme Court’s decision in Jones and, at the relevant time, it was in compliance with what was then - settled law. Further, the Government disputes Wilford’s argument that cell phone pinging violates Maryland law and the Fourth Amendment, and maintains that, in any event, the pinging orders comported with the Fourth Amendment’s warrant requirement. The Government vehemently opposed Wilford’s request for a Franks hearing, insisting that any allegedly false or misleading statements were the result of negligence, rather than recklessness or a deliberate intent to mislead. As to the Disclosure Motion, the Government responds that Wilford is not entitled to the production of internal law enforcement memoranda under Fed.R. Crim.P. 16. It also argues that such material is not relevant to the issues raised by the Motion to Suppress. See Government’s Response to Defendant’s Motion for Disclosure of Relevant Evidence (“Disclosure Opp.,” ECF 173). I held a motions hearing on January 25, 2013, and March 8, 2013, at which the parties presented evidence and argument. The parties also filed supplemental briefs as to the scope of Maryland’s pen register and trap and trace statute, C.J. § 10-4B-01 et seq., and the issues raised under Franks v. Delaware. See Memorandum to Counsel, Jan. 28, 2013 (ECF 175); Defendant’s Response to Issues Raised by the Court (“Wilford Supp. Memo,” ECF 180); Government’s Supplemental Briefing (“Gov’t Supp. Memo,” ECF 181). For the reasons that follow, I will grant, in part, and deny, in part, Wilford’s Disclosure Motion. And, I will deny Wilford’s Motion to Suppress, without prejudice to his right to renew his argument as to the inapplicability of the good faith defense, pending possible Government disclosures, as discussed infra. I. Factual Background In August 2010, the Drug Enforcement Administration (“DEA”), the Baltimore City Police Department (“BPD”), the Baltimore County Police Department, the Maryland Transportation Authority Police, and the Internal Revenue Service (“IRS”) began a joint investigation of the Hayes DTO, based on information obtained from two confidential sources (“CS1” and “CS2”). Opp. at 4-5. Law enforcement agents learned that Hayes and the Hayes DTO were involved in the distribution of cocaine in the Baltimore metropolitan area. See id. The investigation was run as a “DEA Task Force” matter. DEA Agent Mark Lester served as the lead investigator of the DEA Task Force. DEA Agent Todd Edwards and BPD Officer Glenn Hester were his co-case agents. DEA Agent Mara Hewitt was also involved. An Assistant State’s Attorney for Baltimore City, La Rai Everett, was the lead State prosecutor with respect to the investigation. During the investigation, all applications for warrants, pinging orders, and wiretaps were submitted to Maryland State court judges. Id. at 4. In 2011, a decision was made to prosecute certain members of the Hayes DTO in federal court. See id. A. Location Technology 1. GPS Tracking Devices During the investigation, four “slap on” GPS tracking devices, which did not require permanent installation, were placed on twelve different vehicles, as set forth below, Opp. at 2-3: • A Nissan registered to and utilized by Hayes; • A Range Rover registered to Deneen Bolden and utilized by Hayes; • A Honda Crosstour registered to and utilized by Wilford; • A Jeep registered to BLOW IT OFF POWER WASHING and utilized by Hawkins; • An Acura 2 registered to Donna Lee Oneal and utilized by Hayes and Antoine Lamont Goodson; • A Honda Crosstour registered to and utilized by Hayes; • A Jeep Liberty registered to Arki Lamar Reid-Labrousse and utilized by Plunkett; • A Volvo sport utility vehicle registered to Arki Lamar Reid-Labrousse and utilized by Plunkett; • An Acura 4S registered to and utilized by Hayes; • A Honda registered to and utilized by Plunkett; • An Oldsmobile minivan registered to BLOW IT OFF POWER WASHING and utilized by Hawkins and Wilford; • A Honda Crosstour registered to Robin Michelle Douglas and utilized by Hayes. Agent Lester testified at the hearing on January 25, 2013, as to the GPS devices used during the investigation. The GPS devices, which were battery powered, communicated location information through a wireless connection. The agent explained generally that the GPS device is triggered by the movement of the vehicle. A DEA agent could obtain the real-time location of the GPS while a vehicle is moving, and location data could also be accessed at a later time through a DEA computer application. An icon representing the vehicle could be displayed through a computer mapping program, along with the approximate street address of its location. However, the GPS devices could not identify the driver of the car. Thus, GPS devices served as aids to obtain visual surveillance, but did not substitute for such surveillance. According to Agent Lester, a GPS device was placed on Wilford’s Honda Crosstour between November 17, 2010, and December 8, 2010, and between December 12, 2010 and April 16, 2011. Between January 18, 2011 and May 19, 2011, a GPS device was also placed on the Oldsmobile minivan registered to BLOW IT OFF POWER WASHING. The Government claims, and Agent Lester confirmed: “All of the GPS devices were placed on vehicles while they were parked on public streets, driveways accessible from the street, or public parking lots.” Opp. at 4. However, as discussed more fully, infra, no search warrants were obtained for the use of GPS tracking devices. GPS data was not transmitted everyday. According to the testimony of a defense witness, Joshua Brown, of GLS Litigation Services, the GPS data indicated that the location of Wilford’s Crosstour was transmitted 4,022 times, on 78 days, and the location of the minivan was transmitted 7,326 times, on 68 days. 2. Cell Phone Pinging During the investigation, DEA agents submitted numerous applications to the Circuit Court for Baltimore City, each under oath, for an order to authorize the pinging of Wilford’s cellular phone, pursuant to C.J. § 10-4B-03. Each order was valid for sixty days. Three applications are relevant here. The first application is the subject of defendant’s Franks challenge, discussed infra. It was submitted by DEA Agent Mara Hewitt on November 18, 2010. See Nov. 18 Pinging App. at 1. Judge Pamela White of the Circuit Court for Baltimore City found “that probable cause exists based upon the information supplied in this application, that the said individual is using the above captioned cell phone for criminal activity and that the application will lead to evidence of the crime(s) under investigation.” Id. at 11. Therefore, she approved the application, on the same date. Id. Agent Lester filed the Second Application, which was approved by Baltimore City Circuit Court Judge Barry Williams on January 19, 2011, upon his finding of probable cause. See Opp. Exh. 3. Agent Lester also filed the third application, which was approved by Baltimore City Circuit Court Judge Timothy Doory on April 29, 2010, upon his finding of probable cause. See Opp. Exh. 4. No testimony was offered at the motions hearing as to the precise technology used to obtain cellular phone location information. But, the manner in which cell phones transmit their location has been the subject of discussion in the literature and is generally known: Cellular telephones send their communications by radio waves to cell sites— transmitting stations in stand-alone towers or on other buildings — that are strategically placed throughout the provider’s service area. As a cell phone (and its user) moves from place to place, the cell phone’s signal shifts from tower to tower to achieve the best signal. In order to determine which tower to use, the cell phone regularly communicates with nearby towers to test the available signals. When a user places or receives a call on his cell phone, the phone’s radio transmitter must communicate with nearby cell towers so that the appropriate one (or ones) may handle the call. Susan Freiwald, Cell Phone Location Data and the Fourth Amendment: A Question of Law, Not Fact, 70 Md. L. Rev. 681, 702-703 (2011) (footnotes omitted). Thus, a cell phone will transmit its location information to nearby cell towers “[w]hen the government calls the target’s cell phone.” Id. at 703. Moreover, because a cell phone regularly communicates with cell towers to test signal capacity, data may be received from a service provider, even without calling. The applications appear to be worded broadly enough to encompass either practice. According to the evidence, when a cellular phone was turned on, a ping occurred every fifteen minutes, with the service provider for the cellular phone sending an email to law enforcement with latitudinal and longitudinal coordinates. These coordinates could locate a phone within a radius of 3 to 5,000 meters. As with GPS data, Agent Lester testified that pinging was an aid for, but not a replacement for, visual surveillance. At the hearing on January 25, 2013, defense witness Joshua Brown displayed a digital map of Baltimore, overlaid with col- or-coded circles representing each GPS and pinging data point based on data disclosed by the Government in discovery. According to Brown, each data point included locational coordinates, along with the date and time. The radius of each circle purported to represent the relative precision with which law enforcement agents could locate Wilford’s phone or vehicle. In other words, a large circle indicated a rough estimate, while a small circle indicated a very precise estimate. The majority of data points appeared to reveal Wilford’s location in a public space. On several occasions, however, the data appeared to indicate Wilford’s presence in or around a private location. B. Investigation of the Hayes DTO as it pertained to Wilford On October 8, 2010, through a “slap on” GPS tracking device on Hayes’s Nissan, Hayes was located in the vicinity of the 3600 and 3700 blocks of Wabash Avenue in Baltimore. Opp. at 5. Following instructions from law enforcement agents, CS2 observed Hayes at a barber-shop at 3739 Wabash Avenue, and witnessed Hayes and Plunkett exchange a plastic bag believed to contain money. Id. On the same day, based on the GPS device placed on Hayes’s Nissan, DEA Agents Lester and Edwards followed Hayes to 30th and St. Paul streets in Baltimore City, where they observed Hayes interact with an unknown individual, later identified as Wilford, who was driving a Ford F-150 pickup truck. See id. Agents saw Wilford give a large cardboard box to Hayes and, shortly after-wards, saw Hayes take it to the Belvedere Towers Apartments at 1190 Northern Parkway in Baltimore (the “Belvedere”), a suspected stash house, where they had seen Hayes several times before. Id. The agents also determined that the F-150 was registered to Wilford. On October 18, 2010, CS2 informed law enforcement agents that Wilford was dealing narcotics with Hayes, and that Wilford was driving a Mercedes Benz that cost approximately $150,000. Opp. at 6. A search of Wilford’s criminal record revealed two prior federal felony drug convictions. Id. On October 22, 2010, Agents Lester and Edwards again located Hayes through the GPS device on his vehicle. Id. at 6. They observed him in an encounter with Wilford at 30th and St. Paul streets. See id. They watched Wilford and Hayes walk around the block for approximately an hour before leaving in Hayes’s vehicle. Id. While Hayes and Wilford were gone, Agent Lester took photographs of the interior and exterior of the F-150. When the two men returned, Wilford was seen exiting Hayes’s vehicle with a backpack that appeared full, while Hayes removed a large cardboard box from Wilford’s truck, similar in size to the box exchanged on October 8, 2010. Id. Anticipating Hayes’s next move, Agent Edwards proceeded to the Belvedere, where he observed Hayes bring the box into the building. See id. Based on a review of land records, law enforcement agents determined that in 2007 Wilford purchased a large house in Cecil County, Maryland for about $540,000, and refinanced it in March 2007 for $637,000. Id. at 5-6. Yet, Wilford’s Maryland tax returns revealed that in 2006 he only earned approximately $21,855. Id. at 6. Agents also learned that Wilford owned a dump truck company named “R.A.W. ENTERPRISES,” located at 2512 Erick Street in Baltimore. Id. Because “B’MORES DUMPING,” a dump truck company allegedly owned by Michael Smooth, also operated out of 2512 Erick Street, agents suspected that Wilford was involved with Smooth in operating B’MORES DUMPING. See id. On November 4, 2010, utilizing a GPS device planted on a vehicle owned by Antoine Goodson (a suspected member of the Hayes DTO), law enforcement agents located and observed Plunkett at a residence at 301 W. 27th Street in Baltimore. Id. at 6. That is the address listed on Hayes’s Maryland driver’s license. Id. at 7. During surveillance, agents observed Plunkett purchase several rolls of paper towels at a nearby 7-11 and take them to the residence. Id. According to Agent Lester and Officer Hester, the affiants on the Warrant Application, paper towels are often used by persons converting powder cocaine into crack cocaine. Id.; Warrant App. at 25. Agent Lester and Officer Hester believed that the residence was used to convert powder cocaine into crack cocaine. Opp. at 7; Warrant App. at 25. On November 17, 2010, Agents Lester and Edwards removed a GPS device they had placed on Hayes’s Land Rover and placed it on a Honda Crosstour registered to Wilford, which they had seen Wilford driving. Opp. at 7. At the time, the Crosstour was parked outside Hayes’s residence at 1020 Park Avenue in Baltimore. Id. That GPS device was removed from the Crosstour on December 8, 2010, while it was at a Honda dealership for repairs. Id. Agents Lester and Edwards placed another GPS device on the Honda Crosstour on December 12, 2010, while the vehicle was parked at Baltimore Washington International — Thurgood Marshall Airport (“BWI”). Id. at 7. Pinging data had revealed that Wilford’s cell phone was in California in early December 2010, and Agents Edwards and Lester speculated that Wilford may have parked a vehicle at BWI. See id. at 7-8. Agent Lester recalled that, after a “painstaking!]” three-hour visual scan of the airport parking lots, they found Wilford’s vehicle. On December 17, 2010, based on GPS devices located on the respective vehicles of Hayes and Wilford, along with the “pinging” of their cellular phones, law enforcement agents located and observed Hayes and Wilford, again at 30th and St. Paul streets. Opp. at 8. Wilford gave Hayes a large cardboard box, similar in size to the other boxes that had been exchanged. Id. The two men entered Wilford’s vehicle and drove away. Id. Ten minutes later, law enforcement agents observed Wilford’s vehicle at the Belvedere; they saw Hayes enter the building carrying a large cardboard box, and leave six minutes later, empty handed. Id. After Hayes entered Wilford’s vehicle, Wilford drove away. Id. According to lease paperwork, Apartment 717 at the Belvedere was leased by an employee of B’MORES DUMPING. See Warrant App. at 26. On January 19, 2011, law enforcement agents placed a GPS tracker on the Oldsmobile minivan utilized by Hawkins and Wilford and registered to BLOW IT OFF POWER WASHING. See Opp. at 8. The tracker was placed on the vehicle while it was parked on Woodbourne Avenue in Baltimore. Id. Through GPS and pinging, Wilford was located on January 28, 2011, at a Staples store on York Road in Baltimore, and then at another Staples store on Goucher Boulevard in Towson, Maryland. See id. Surveillance videos from those stores, obtained by law enforcement agents, show Wilford taking a large cardboard box into each store on January 28, 2011. Id. Agents also obtained the shipping records for the Staples on Goucher Boulevard, which indicated that Wilford had paid cash to send a 15 pound box to an address in Long Beach, California. Id. at 8-9. The sender was listed as Janice Tate, although it was determined that she did not live at the listed address. Id. The recipient was listed as Ronald Tate, and it was determined that he did not live at the specified address. Id. at 9. Rather, Alejandro Miller was the resident at the recipient’s address. Id. Miller had a connection to Pierre Ban-tan, a relative of Wilford’s girlfriend. See id. Bantan had previously been connected with a package sent by a fictitious person in Baltimore to a fictitious person in California. Id. Law enforcement agents obtained a search warrant for the Tate box and discovered approximately $79,650 hidden in a Magnavox VCR/DVD player. Id. On January 31, 2011, law enforcement agents again located Wilford’s Honda Crosstour at BWI airport by pinging his cellular phone, pursuant to an order issued by Baltimore City Circuit Court Judge Barry Williams on January 19, 2011. Id. Because pinging data indicated that Wilford was in California, agents again deduced that Wilford had parked his vehicle at a BWI parking lot. Id. When they located Wilford’s vehicle, agents saw that it contained a bag of “motherboards,” which are the internal parts of a computer. Id. According to officers involved in the investigation, motherboards are often removed from a computer so that the “shell” can be used to transport drugs or money. Id.; see Warrant App. at 38. On February 10, 2011, agents tracked Hayes and Plunkett, through GPS devices on their respective vehicles, to the Belvedere. Opp. at 10. With the aid of a hallway “surveillance camera” in the apartment building, agents saw Hayes carry a large cardboard box into the apartment with him, and then saw Plunkett take two large boxes from the apartment to the dumpster. Id. In the dumpster outside the Belvedere, agents discovered four computer boxes; two computer shells (one of which had black paper taped over the holes, to hide the interior); a small plastic bag containing white powder residue (later determined to be cocaine); latex gloves; two empty boxes of sandwich bags; and a razor blade. Id. at 10-11. Law enforcement obtained a surveillance video of Wilford on March 10, 2011, purchasing a Magnavox VHS/DVD player at a Walmart. Id. at 12; see Opp. Exh. 4 at 9. On March 17, 2011, law enforcement tracked Wilford and Hawkins to the Staples store located on Goucher Boulevard in Towson by using GPS devices planted on Wilford’s Crosstour and Hawkins’s minivan, and by pinging Wilford’s cellular phone. Opp. at 11. Wilford and Hawkins were seen packing three boxes in the Staples parking lot, similar in size and shape to the boxes seen in the surveillance videos of January 28, 2011. Id. Wilford took one of the boxes into the Staples store for shipping; he took another box to a different Staples in Towson, and the third box to an Office Depot. See id. As before, the package deposited at the Staples on Goucher Boulevard listed Janice Tate as sender and Ronald Tate as recipient. Id. A canine scan yielded a positive alert for a controlled dangerous substance. Id. at 12. Pursuant to a warrant, agents located $100,000 in U.S. currency in the box, concealed in a Magnavox VCR/DVD player. Id. Law enforcement agents observed Wilford and Hawkins on March 30, 2011, “at a parking lot on Greenmount Avenue and Exeter Hall in Baltimore City.” Id. Wilford was seen operating the Oldsmobile minivan registered to BLOW IT OFF POWER WASHING, which agents located through GPS. M Wilford gave a box to Hawkins, who was operating a box truck. Id. Hawkins took the box, which was similar in size to the boxes previously observed, into a residence at 1500 Cliftview Avenue in Baltimore. Id. On April 1, 2011, agents conducted surveillance of the barber-shop at 3739 Wabash Avenue in Baltimore. Id. However, neither GPS nor pinging was used to locate members of the DTO; rather, surveillance was based on the known routine of Hayes DTO members. Id. During the surveillance, agents observed Plunkett, Wilford, Hayes and another Hayes DTO member enter the barber-shop. Opp. at 12-13. Hayes and Plunkett left approximately ten minutes later. Id. at 13. About twenty minutes later, Wilford left in Hawkins’s minivan. Id. Based “on a hunch” that Wilford would proceed to 1500 Cliftview Avenue, agents went to that address. Id. GPS tracking on Wilford’s vehicle was used to alert law enforcement, who had already established visual surveillance of the address, that Wilford was about to arrive. Id. at 13 & n. 6. Agents observed Wilford retrieve a blue shoulder bag and a red backpack from the minivan and enter the residence, using a key. Id. at 13. When Wilford returned to the van and opened the rear door, agents saw a red and white VCR box, identical to the VCR box seized previously from one of the packages that Wilford had sent to California. Id. A few hours later, Wilford was observed interacting with the driver of a white Range Rover that had pulled in front of the residence. Id. Agents saw the driver hand Wilford a small object, which Wilford placed in his right front pants pocket. Id. After the Range Rover drove away, Wilford, Hawkins, and two other men exited 1500 Cliftview carrying backpacks and bags that they put in a silver Hyundai before driving away. Id. Wilford, driving the Oldsmobile minivan, followed the Hyundai. Id. Also on April 1, 2011, agents intercepted a phone call between Hayes and Bryan Williams, pursuant to a court order signed by a Maryland State judge authorizing the interception of communications as to Hayes’s cell phone. Id. at 14; see Warrant App. at 53, 57-58. During the call, Williams told Hayes that, at the beginning of the following week, he was going to send him a “get well card,” which was understood as a code for narcotics. Opp. at 14. On April 3, 2011, Illinois State Troopers in Clark County stopped a Penske Tractor Trailer Truck for speeding on 1-70. Opp. At 14. Nyakana, the driver, consented to a search of the vehicle, and the troopers discovered approximately 136 kilograms of cocaine. Id. The drugs were to be delivered to Bryan Williams in Jessup, Maryland; Nyakana was to be paid $200,000 for the transportation. Id. According to the Government, the wholesale value of the cocaine discovered in the trailer was estimated at $4,060,000, with an estimated street value of $13,600,000. Id. On April 4, 2011, Williams was arrested during the attempted delivery of the cocaine, and $269,000 was discovered in the trunk of his car. Id. Agents Lester and Edwards removed the GPS tracker from Wilford’s Honda Crosstour on April 16, 2011. See id. At the time, the vehicle was parked at an apartment complex in Elkton, Maryland. Id. On April 18, 2011, agents observed Plunkett taking a large garbage bag from 301 W. 27th Street to his car, and then to the Belvedere. Id. There, agents saw Plunkett enter Apartment 717 and exit soon after. Id. at 15. Plunkett then went to the dumpster and dumped the garbage bag. Id. Agents subsequently retrieved the garbage from the dumpster and discovered several vacuum-sealed plastic bags that had been opened. Id. They contained cocaine residue, a broken Pyrex container, used paper towels, and two empty boxes of baking soda. Id. The next day, April 19, 2011, Wilford was located at 3530 Seapines Circle in Randallstown, Maryland, through the GPS device on Hawkins’s minivan, and by pinging Wilford’s cellular phone. See id. at 15. Wilford took a large duffel bag, which appeared to be heavy and full, to the van, and then drove to a bank at 7 Slade Avenue in Baltimore. Opp. at 15. Agents observed Wilford exiting the bank with the duffel bag, which appeared to be empty. Id. On April 22, 2011, law enforcement established surveillance in the vicinity of 1500 Cliftview Avenue. Id. Agents located the Oldsmobile minivan outside of the residence through the GPS placed on the vehicle. Id. According to defense counsel, pinging was also used. When a burgundy Jeep arrived, Wilford exited the minivan and left in the Jeep. Id. The jeep returned about ten minutes later. Id. at 16. In the interim, a UPS driver had arrived with a large box, similar in size and appearance to the boxes previously observed in possession of the defendants. Id. at 15-16. Hawkins, the driver of the Jeep, took the box and brought it into 1500 Cliftview. Id. at 16. Wilford followed several minutes later. Id. Hawkins subsequently retrieved several empty bags from the Jeep and brought them into the residence. Id. He then brought a large, weighted-down duffel bag out to the Jeep, and he and Wilford drove away in the Jeep. Id. Most of the defendants were arrested on May 16, 2011, although Wilford was not apprehended until September 2011. Id. When Hayes and Plunkett were apprehended, they were in possession of 1.5 kilograms of crack cocaine. Id. On or about May 16, 2011, law enforcement agents executed the May 10, 2011 Search Warrant issued by Judge Sweeney. See id. Law enforcement agents recovered, inter alia, the following from Plunkett’s residence: $200,000 in U.S. currency; wrappers for kilograms of cocaine; money counters; and pay/owe sheets. Id. At Hayes’s residence they found $300,000 in U.S. currency. Id. At 3530 Seapines Circle, one of the residences associated with Wilford, the agents recovered $1,600,000 in U.S. currency from a large duffel bag that resembled the one previously carried by Wilford. Id. at 16-17. In addition, a hollow computer tower, identical in appearance to the computer towers recovered during the investigation, as well as a rectangular steel mold used to mold kilograms of narcotics, was recovered from 1500 Cliftview Avenue. See id. at 17; see also Search Warrant (listing premises to be searched). In late May 2011, law enforcement learned that a package was to be delivered by UPS to 1500 Cliftview Avenue. Opp. at 17. Agents obtained a search and seizure warrant for the package. Id. They searched the package on May 20, 2011, and it contained a large cardboard box, the same size as those previously observed. Id. Ten kilograms of cocaine were packed inside a hollow computer shell. Id. In July and August 2011, law enforcement learned that Wilford was residing in Los Angeles. Id. Law enforcement conducted a search of his California residence, pursuant to a warrant, and discovered $68,000 in U.S. Currency and several items of jewelry. Id. Eventually, law enforcement arrested Wilford in Baltimore on September 16, 2011. Id. at 18. Pursuant to a search warrant for Wilford’s “secret Baltimore residence,” $190,000 was recovered. Id. In his papers and at the hearings, Wilford identified the following instances of surveillance as the subject of his suppression motion: 1)December 17, 2010: Observation of Hayes and Wilford, based on GPS tracking of their respective vehicles and pinging of their respective cell phones. 2) January 28, 2011: Video surveillance of Wilford bringing cardboard boxes to two Staples stores. According to defense counsel, surveillance was based on GPS tracking and cell phone pinging. 3) January 31, 2011: Surveillance of Wilford’s 2010 Honda Crosstour while it was parked at the BWI Daily Parking lot, located, in part, through cell phone pinging. 4) March 10, 2011: Video surveillance of Wilford purchasing a Magnavox VHS/DVD player at a Walmart, located through a GPS device on Wilford’s vehicle and cell phone pinging. 5) March 17, 2011: Surveillance of Wilford and Hawkins at a Staples store, based on GPS tracking of their respective vehicles and pinging of Wilford’s cell phone. 6) March 30, 2011: Surveillance of Wilford and Hawkins at a parking lot on Greenmount Avenue and Exeter Hall in Baltimore City. Wilford was located through the GPS device on the Oldsmobile minivan. 7) April 1, 2011: Surveillance of Wilford and other Hayes DTO members in the area of 1500 Cliftview Avenue. GPS tracking on Wilford’s car was used only to alert law enforcement, who were already conducting visual surveillance, that Wilford was about to arrive. 8) April 19, 2011: Surveillance of Wilford at 3530 Seapines Circle in Randallstown, and Bank of America at 7 Slade Avenue in Baltimore, based on GPS tracking of Wilford’s vehicle and pinging of his cell phone. 9) April 22, 2011: Surveillance of Wilford and Hawkins at 1500 Cliftview Avenue, based on a GPS device on the Oldsmobile minivan driven by Wilford and cell phone pinging. As the above summary reflects, for every occasion in which Wilford was tracked, law enforcement agents used two modalities: GPS and cell phone pinging. Initially, Wilford also sought to suppress surveillance of meetings between Hayes and Wilford on October 8, 2010, and October 22, 2010. However, as discussed, infra, he appears to have conceded that he lacks standing to contest surveillance of these meetings, which was based solely on GPS tracking of Hayes’s vehicle. Wilford also seeks suppression of the following physical evidence recovered during the investigation, as fruit of the poisonous tree, see ECF 160 at 32-33: 1) March 17, 2011: $100,000 in U.S. currency recovered, pursuant to a warrant, from a box brought by Wilford to the Staples on Goucher Boulevard in Towson, Maryland. 2) May 16, 2011: Evidence recovered, pursuant to the Search Warrant, from Wilford’s home at 11 Rock Hollow Court in Elkton, Maryland. 3) May 16, 2011: Evidence recovered, pursuant to the Search Warrant, from 1500 Cliftview Avenue in Baltimore. 4) May 16, 2011: Evidence, including $1,600,000 in U.S. currency, reeovered, pursuant to the Search Warrant, from 3530 Seapines Circle in Randallstown, Maryland. 5) May 16, 2011: Evidence recovered, pursuant to the Search Warrant, from 2512 Erick Street in Baltimore. 6) May 20, 2011: Ten kilograms of cocaine recovered, pursuant to a warrant, from a UPS box delivered to 1500 Cliftview Avenue in Baltimore. I. Discussion A. Disclosure Motion Before discussing the merits of Wilford’s Motion to Suppress, I will briefly address his Disclosure Motion. Wilford seeks the production of “any notice to the United [S]tates Attorney’s [OJfflce for the District of Maryland, DEA Baltimore Field Office, the States Attorney’s Office for Baltimore City, and any other applicable agency/office, involving the DC Circuit decision in” United States v. Maynard, 615 F.3d 544 (D.C.Cir.2010), decided in August 2010. Disclosure Motion ¶ 1. Wilford’s request “includes any memo for DOJ, inter office memos, email and/or continued legal education newsletter or classes which discuss the DC Circuit’s decision .... ” Id. The Government counters that, under Fed.R. Crim.P. 16, disclosure is not required because Wilford’s request concerns protected Government work product, and the requested information is not relevant to the issues presented in the Motion to Suppress. See Disclosure Opp. at 4. Fed.R. Crim.P. 16(a)(1)(E) governs a defendant’s statutory right to disclosure of “documents and objects” in a criminal case. The rule states, in pertinent part: “Upon a defendant’s request, the government must permit the defendant to inspect and to copy or photograph books, papers, documents, [or] data ... within the government’s possession, custody or control,” if “the item is material to preparing the defense.” Id. However, Fed.R. Crim.P. 16(a)(2) is also pertinent. It states: “Except as Rule 16(a)(1) provides otherwise, this rule does not authorize the discovery or inspection of reports, memoranda, or other internal government documents made by an attorney for the government or other government agent in connection with investigating or prosecuting the case.” Under Fed R. Crim. P. 16(a)(2), “a defendant may not examine Government work product in connection with his case.” United States v. Armstrong, 517 U.S. 456, 463, 116 S.Ct. 1480, 134 L.Ed.2d 687 (1996); see United States v. Nobles, 422 U.S. 225, 239 & n. 13, 95 S.Ct. 2160, 45 L.Ed.2d 141 (1975) (describing Rule 16(a)(2) as analogous to the attorney work product exception in civil cases). Compare United States v. Maranzino, 860 F.2d 981, 985-86 (10th Cir.1988) (finding prosecution’s file and presentence report from pri- or case brought against defendant exempt from disclosure under Rule 16(a)(2)), with Gov’t of V.I. v. Fahie, 419 F.3d 249, 257 (3d Cir.2005) (finding that Rule 16(a)(2) did not exempt from disclosure “a computer-generated printout from a government database maintained for broader purposes than the prosecution”). The information sought by Wilford appears to qualify as protected information under Fed.R. Crim.P. 16(a)(2), as it concerns the legal theories of Government agents and lawyers regarding the legality of GPS tracking. However, Rule 16(a)(2) allows disclosure to the extent that Rule 16(a)(1) “otherwise provides.” Therefore, if the requested information is “material to preparing [Wilford’s] defense,” disclosure may be required under Fed.R. Crim.P. 16(a)(1)(E). In Armstrong, 517 U.S. 456, 116 S.Ct. 1480, the Supreme Court made clear that, to satisfy materiality under Rule 16, the information must pertain to the defendant’s guilt or innocence with respect to the crime charged. See id. at 463-64, 116 S.Ct. 1480. The Fourth Circuit has explained: “For the defendant to show materiality under this rule, ‘[t]here must be some indication that the pretrial disclosure of the disputed evidence would have enabled the defendant significantly to alter the quantum of proof in his favor.’ ” United States v. Caro, 597 F.3d 608, 621 (4th Cir.2010) (citation omitted). For example, “ ‘[e]vidence is material as long as there is a strong indication that it will play an important role in uncovering admissible evidence, aiding witness preparation, corroborating testimony, or assisting impeachment or rebuttal.’ ” Caro, 597 F.3d at 621 (quoting United States v. Lloyd, 992 F.2d 348, 351 (D.C.Cir.1993)). Notably, the defendant bears the burden of showing “that the information would ... actually help[ ] prove his defense.” Caro, 597 F.3d at 621; see also United States v. Mandel, 914 F.2d 1215, 1219 (9th Cir.1990) (“Neither a general description of the information sought nor conclusory allegations of materiality suffice; a defendant must present facts which would tend to show that the Government is in possession of information helpful to the defense.”). The Armstrong Court concluded that information pertinent to a defendant’s claim of selective prosecution is not material under Rule 16, because it concerns “an independent assertion that the prosecutor has brought the charge for reasons forbidden by the Constitution.” See 517 U.S. at 463, 116 S.Ct. 1480. In other words, the selective prosecution claim was collateral to the defendant’s guilt. Relying on Armstrong, 517 U.S. 456, 116 S.Ct. 1480, the Government asserts that internal memoranda concerning the Maynard decision are not material to Wilford’s defense, because Rule 16 does not extend to “a defense based on a pretrial motion.” Disclosure Opp. at 4. However, information material to the Motion to Suppress, although sought in connection with a pretrial proceeding, might alter the “quantum of proof’ in Wilford’s favor if the suppression motion were successful. See, e.g., United States v. Cranson, 453 F.2d 123, 126 (4th Cir.1971) (explaining that defendant may use Rule 16 “to secure pre-trial information on identification procedures undertaken by Government in advance of trial as a basis for a motion to suppress”). In particular, certain information would be relevant to the Government’s good faith defense under United States v. Leon, 468 U.S. 897, 104 S.Ct. 3405, 82 L.Ed.2d 677 (1984), which I discuss, infra. For example, if the investigating agents who were using the GPS devices on Wilford’s vehicles received instructions from DOJ or their supervisors, directing their compliance in Maryland with Maynard, this would be relevant to the claim of good faith. To be sure, Agent Lester claimed that he did not recall any internal memoranda resulting from Maynard, advising against the warrantless use of GPS tracking devices. See infra at 765-66. But, he was not the only law enforcement agent involved in the investigation. Moreover, his memory might be incorrect. Therefore, the defense is entitled to directives or instructions, if any, issued to the federal agents involved in the investigation of Wilford, directing compliance in Maryland with Maynard during any period of the investigation. The remainder of the defense’s discovery request is too broad. Rule 16 does not authorize “ ‘a shotgun fishing expedition.’ ” United States v. Anderson, 481 F.2d 685, 694 (4th Cir.1973) (citation omitted); see also Maranzino, 860 F.2d at 985 (“Rule 16 does not authorize a blanket request to see the prosecution’s file.”). For example, Wilford requests, inter alia, “any memo,” “email,” and “continued legal education newsletter” that discusses the D.C. Circuit’s Maynard decision. Disclosure Motion ¶ 1. But, he has not explained why “any” discussion of Maynard is pertinent to this case. Indeed, as I discuss, infra, the investigation in this case took place in Maryland, not Washington, D.C., was conducted jointly with the State, and conformed to State appellate precedent. And, the documents Wilford seeks are material to good faith only insofar as they direct compliance in Maryland with Maynard by agents involved in the investigation of Wilford at the relevant time. Other documents need not be disclosed. Accordingly, Wilford’s Disclosure Motion will be granted, in part, and denied, in part. B. Motion to Suppress: GPS and Pinging The Fourth Amendment to the Constitution provides: “The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.” Yet, “it is silent about how this right is to be enforced.” Davis v. United States, — U.S.-, 131 S.Ct. 2419, 2423, 180 L.Ed.2d 285 (2011). As a “supplement” to the Fourth Amendment, the Supreme Court created the ex-elusionary rule, which “bars the prosecution from introducing evidence obtained by way of a Fourth Amendment violation.” Id. The exclusionary rule applies to “evidence obtained during illegal police conduct,” as well as “evidence that is the indirect product of the illegal activity.” United States v. Oscar-Torres, 507 F.3d 224, 227 (4th Cir.2007) (citing Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643, 655, 81 S.Ct. 1684, 6 L.Ed.2d 1081 (1961), and Wong Sun v. United States, 371 U.S. 471, 488, 83 S.Ct. 407, 9 L.Ed.2d 441 (1963)). Wilford invokes the Fourth Amendment’s exclusionary rule as to law enforcement’s warrantless use of GPS tracking, as well as the use of cell phone pinging. In his view, evidence derived from the use of these investigative tools should be suppressed. I disagree. 1. Standing As a threshold matter, Wilford’s Fourth Amendment challenge is necessarily limited in scope. A defendant bears the burden of establishing standing to challenge a Fourth Amendment violation. See United States v. Bullard, 645 F.3d 237, 242 (4th Cir.), cert. denied, — U.S.-, 132 S.Ct. 356, 181 L.Ed.2d 225 (2011); United States v. Rusher, 966 F.2d 868, 874 (4th Cir.1992). To do so, it is not enough to be “aggrieved” by “the introduction of damaging evidence.” Alderman v. United States, 394 U.S. 165, 172, 89 S.Ct. 961, 22 L.Ed.2d 176 (1969). Rather, a defendant may only challenge a Fourth Amendment violation to the extent that his personal Fourth Amendment rights were violated. Rakas v. Illinois, 439 U.S. 128, 140, 99 S.Ct. 421, 58 L.Ed.2d 387 (1978); see, e.g., Minnesota v. Carter, 525 U.S. 83, 88-91, 119 S.Ct. 469, 142 L.Ed.2d 373 (1998) (holding that guests in apartment for cocaine transaction lacked standing to contest search of apartment on Fourth Amendment grounds); United States v. Payner, 447 U.S. 727, 731-32, 100 S.Ct. 2439, 65 L.Ed.2d 468 (1980) (holding that defendant lacked standing under Fourth Amendment to contest documents seized illegally from a third party). Thus, a defendant has no standing to challenge the admission of evidence illegally obtained from co-conspirators. See United States v. Padilla, 508 U.S. 77, 82, 113 S.Ct. 1936, 123 L.Ed.2d 635 (1993) (per curiam). As the Fourth Circuit explained in United States v. Taylor, 857 F.2d 210, 214 (4th Cir.1988), “Fourth Amendment rights are ... personal rights,” which co-defendants “lack standing to assert vicariously.” In other words, “ ‘[c]o-conspirators and codefendants have been accorded no special standing.’ ” Padilla, 508 U.S. at 82, 113 S.Ct. 1936 (quoting Alderman, 394 U.S. at 171-72, 89 S.Ct. 961). Indeed, a search can be unconstitutional with respect to one person yet lawful as to another. United States v. Gray, 491 F.3d 138, 144-15 (4th Cir.2007), cert. denied, 552 U.S. 1190, 128 S.Ct. 1226, 170 L.Ed.2d 77 (2008). And, of import here, an individual “normally has no legitimate expectation of privacy in an automobile in which he asserts neither a property interest nor a possessory interest.” United States v. Carter, 300 F.3d 415, 421 (4th Cir.2002) (citing Rakas, 439 U.S. at 148-49, 99 S.Ct. 421). As to GPS tracking, the parties stipulated at the hearing that Wilford has standing to challenge the use of GPS devices on the Honda Crosstour registered to and used by him, and the Oldsmobile minivan registered to BLOW IT OFF POWER WASHING, when driven by him. Wilford does not dispute that he lacks standing as to the other vehicles, in which he had no property or possessory interest, or as to the minivan when it was driven by another person. Further, Wilford lacks standing to challenge the pinging of any cell phone, other than his own. Therefore, Wilford appears to have abandoned his challenge to surveillance conducted on October 8, 2010, or October 22, 2010, based on a GPS device located on Hayes’s vehicle. In any event, he lacks standing to challenge the use of GPS tracking on Hayes’s vehicle. As to evidence related to those dates, Wilford’s Motion to Suppress must be denied. 2. GPS Tracking In United States, supra, 132 S.Ct. 945, the Supreme Court held that “the Government’s installation of a GPS device on a target’s vehicle,1 ] and its use of that device to monitor the vehicle’s movements, constitutes a ‘search’ ” under the Fourth Amendment. Id. at 949. According to the majority opinion, authored by Justice Scalia, the use of a GPS device on a target’s vehicle constitutes a search because it is a “common-law trespass” on the target’s property. Id. at 949-50. In so holding, the Court rejected the view that the reasonable expectation of privacy test, articulated in Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 88 S.Ct. 507, 19 L.Ed.2d 576 (1967), necessarily governs the existence of a search under the Fourth Amendment. See id. at 353, 88 S.Ct. 507 (holding that defendant was protected from warrantless eavesdropping on phone call because he “justifiably relied” upon privacy of phone booth); id. at 361, 88 S.Ct. 507 (Harlan, J., concurring) (“My understanding of the rule that has emerged from prior decisions is that there is a twofold requirement, first that a person have exhibited an actual (subjective) expectation of privacy and, second, that the expectation be one that society is prepared to recognize as ‘reasonable.’ ”). According to the Jones majority, Katz did not “narrow the Fourth Amendment’s scope.” 132 S.Ct. at 951. The Court explained: “[T]he Katz reasonable-expectation-of-privacy test has been added to, not substituted for, the common law trespassory test.” Id. at 952 (emphasis in original). In contrast, Justice Alito, joined by Justices Ginsberg, Breyer, and Kagan, disagreed with the majority’s trespass test, but agreed that a search had occurred under the reasonable-expectation-of-privacy test formulated in Katz. Id. at 957-64 (Alito, J., concurring in the judgment). Indisputably, the use of slap on GPS devices on Wilford’s vehicles qualifies as a search under Jones. And, according to the “basic rule,” warrantless searches are per se unreasonable. Arizona v. Gant, 556 U.S. 332, 338, 129 S.Ct. 1710, 173 L.Ed.2d 485 (2009). Evidence derived through “the exploitation of that illegality” ordinarily must be suppressed. Wong Sun, 371 U.S. at 488, 83 S.Ct. 407. However, Jones did not address whether the use of a GPS tracking device requires a warrant, supported by probable cause. See United States v. Sparks, 711 F.3d 58, 62 (1st Cir.2013) (discussing what Jones did not hold); e.g., Brigham City, Utah v. Stuart, 547 U.S. 398, 403, 126 S.Ct. 1943, 164 L.Ed.2d 650 (2006) (“[L]aw enforcement officers may make a warrantless entry onto private property ... to prevent the imminent destruction of evidence, or to engage in ‘hot pursuit’ of a fleeing suspect.”) (citations omitted); Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 88 S.Ct. 1868, 20 L.Ed.2d 889 (1968) (allowing temporary seizure of person based on reasonable articulable suspicion that person is engaged in criminal activity, as opposed to probable cause). The Government claims that the use of a GPS tracking device requires less than probable cause, and that no warrant is required under Jones. I need not resolve those contentions, however. Even assuming, arguendo, that a GPS “search” does not fall within one of the “ ‘few specifically established and well delineated exceptions’ ” to the warrant requirement, Minnesota v. Dickerson, 508 U.S. 366, 372, 113 S.Ct. 2130, 124 L.Ed.2d 334 (1993) (citation omitted), exclusion is not mechanically imposed for every Fourth Amendment violation. “Whether the exclusionary sanction is appropriately imposed in a particular case ... is ‘an issue separate from the question [of] whether the Fourth Amendment rights of the party seeking to invoke the rule were violated by police conduct.’ ” United States v. Leon, 468 U.S. 897, 906, 104 S.Ct. 3405, 82 L.Ed.2d 677 (1984) (quoting Illinois v. Gates, 462 U.S. 213, 223, 103 S.Ct. 2317, 76 L.Ed.2d 527 (1983)). In this case, the Government’s warrant-less use of GPS devices preceded the Jones decision. Thus, I agree with the Government that it is entitled to rely on the good faith exception to the exclusionary rule. See Leon, 468 U.S. at 923-24, 104 S.Ct. 3405. In particular, I am satisfied that, at the relevant time, law enforcement authorities reasonably relied on a comprehensive body of what was regarded as settled law, including Maryland State appellate precedent, authorizing warrant-less GPS tracking. See Davis, 131 S.Ct. at 2428-30; Sparks, 711 F.3d at 67-68. And, even in the absence of the good faith exception, the doctrines of inevitable discovery and independent source apply. See Nix v. Williams, 467 U.S. 431, 443-44, 104 S.Ct. 2501, 81 L.Ed.2d 377 (1984). a. Good Faith The exclusionary rule is a “ ‘prudential’ doctrine,” fashioned “to ‘compel respect for the constitutional guaranty.’” Davis, 131 S.Ct. at 2426 (citations omitted). It “is ‘not a personal constitutional right,’ nor is it designed to ‘redress the injury’ occasioned by an unconstitutional search.” Id. (quoting Stone v. Powell, 428 U.S. 465, 486, 96 S.Ct. 3037, 49 L.Ed.2d 1067 (1976)); see Leon, 468 U.S. at 906, 104 S.Ct. 3405. Indeed, the use of evidence obtained in violation of the Fourth Amendment “ ‘work[s] no new Fourth Amendment wrong,’ ” id. (quoting United States v. Calandra, 414 U.S. 338, 354, 94 S.Ct. 613, 38 L.Ed.2d 561 (1974)) (alteration in Leon), but exclusion cannot remedy the constitutional violation. Id. Thus, “[t]he [exclusionary] rule’s sole purpose ... is to deter future Fourth Amendment violations.” Davis, 131 S.Ct. at 2426. In the absence of “‘appreciable deterrence,’ exclusion is ‘clearly ... unwarranted.’ ” Id. (quoting United States v. Janis, 428 U.S. 433, 454 n. 29, 96 S.Ct. 3021, 49 L.Ed.2d 1046 (1976)) (alteration in Davis). Notably, “[exclusion exacts a heavy toll on both the judicial system and society at large,” because “[i]t almost always requires courts to ignore reliable, trustworthy evidence.” Davis, 131 S.Ct. at 2427. The “ ‘unbending application’ ” of the exclusionary rule “ “would impede unacceptably the truth-finding functions of judge and jury,’ ” and “ ‘generate] disrespect for the law and administration of justice.’ ” Leon, 468 U.S. at 907-08, 104 S.Ct. 3405 (citations omitted). As a result, the exclusionary rule calls for a “balancing approach,” which entails weighing the deterrent effect of suppression against the costs of exclusion, on a case-by-case basis. See id. at 913-24, 104 S.Ct. 3405. To warrant exclusion, the “deterrence benefits of suppression must outweigh its heavy costs.” Dams, 131 S.Ct. at 2427. The cost of exclusion is particularly high — and often disproportionate to exclusion’s deterrent effect — “when law enforcement officers have acted in objective good faith or their transgressions have been minor.” Leon, 468 U.S. at 908, 104 S.Ct. 3405. In Leon the Court considered whether “suppressing evidence obtained in objectively reasonable reliance on a subsequently invalidated search warrant” was justified. Id. at 922, 104 S.Ct. 3405. Answering this question in the negative, the Court held that a police officer’s reliance on a technically sufficient warrant, supported by a magistrate judge’s probable cause determination, was objectively reasonable, and thus evidence seized pursuant to an invalid warrant was not subject to suppression. See id. at 922-23, 104 S.Ct. 3405.. Quoting United States v. Peltier, 422 U.S. 531, 539, 95 S.Ct. 2313, 45 L.Ed.2d 374 (1975), the Leon Court explained, 468 U.S. at 919, 104 S.Ct. 3405: “The deterrent purpose of the exclusionary rule necessarily assumes that the police have engaged in willful, or at the very least negligent, conduct which has deprived the defendant of some right. By refusing to admit evidence gained as a result of such conduct, the courts hope to instill in those particular investigating officers, or in their future counterparts, a greater degree of care toward the ■ rights of an accused. Where the official action was pursued in complete good faith, however, the deterrence rationale loses much of its force.” See also Herring v. United States, 555 U.S. 135, 129 S.Ct. 695, 172 L.Ed.2d 496 (2009) (declining to suppress evidence based on police recordkeeping error); Massachusetts v. Sheppard, 468 U.S. 981, 104 S.Ct. 3424, 82 L.Ed.2d 737 (1984) (declining to apply exclusionary rule where warrant was invalidated due to a judge’s clerical error). The “good faith” exception carries equal force when law enforcement agents act in reasonable reliance on judicial decisions authorizing their conduct, although the conduct is subsequently deemed unconstitutional. See Davis, 131 S.Ct. at 2428-30 (holding that exclusionary rule did not apply to evidence obtained by officers acting in reliance on then-binding federal appellate precedent, although precedent was subsequently overruled and the officers’ conduct held to violate the Fourth Amendment). The same reasoning applies when law enforcement agents act in accordance with a state statute. See Illinois v. Krull, 480 U.S. 340, 356-60, 107 S.Ct. 1160, 94 L.Ed.2d 364 (1987) (holding that exclusionary rule did not apply to evidence obtained by officers acting in reliance on state statute authorizing warrantless administrative search, where statute was subsequently found to violate the Fourth Amendment and search was deemed unconstitutional). In Davis, 131 S.Ct. 2419, the Supreme Court considered the legality of a search that violated the Supreme Court’s decision in Arizona v. Gant, 556 U.S. 332, 129 S.Ct. 1710, 173 L.Ed.2d 485 (2009), but occurred two years prior to the ruling in Gant. In Gant, the Court held that a warrantless vehicle search incident to lawful arrest is not valid if it occurs after the defendant is arrested, handcuffed, and placed in the back of a patrol ear. See id. at 335, 129 S.Ct. 1710. In so holding, the Court departed from the decision in New York v. Belton, 453 U.S. 454, 101 S.Ct. 2860, 69 L.Ed.2d 768 (1981), which “was widely understood to have set down a simple, bright-line rule” authorizing warrantless “automobile searches incident to arrests of recent occupants, regardless of whether the arrestee ... was within reaching distance of the vehicle at the time of the search.” Davis, 131 S.Ct. at 2424 (citing Thornton v. United States, 541 U.S. 615, 628, 124 S.Ct. 2127, 158 L.Ed.2d 905 (2004) (Scalia, J., concurring in the judgment)). At the time of the search at issue in Davis, the search did not comport with Gant, but it complied with appellate precedent in the Eleventh Circuit in effect at the time of the search, which had “long read Belton to establish [such] a bright-line rule.” Davis, 131 S.Ct. at 2426 (citing United States v. Gonzalez, 71 F.3d 819, 822, 824-827 (11th Cir.1996)). The Supreme Court held that when law enforcement agents conduct a search in objectively reasonable reliance on binding appellate precedent, police culpability is wholly absent. See id. at 2428-29. It reasoned, id.: The officers who conducted the search did not violate Davis’s Fourth Amendment rights deliberately, recklessly, or with gross negligence. Nor does this case involve any “recurring or systemic negligence” on the part of law enforcement. The police acted in strict compliance with binding precedent, and their behavior was not wrongful. Unless the exclusionary rule is to become a strict-liability regime, it can have no application in this case. The Court elaborated: “[W]hen binding appellate precedent specifically authorizes a particular police practice, well-trained officers will and should use that tool to fulfill their crime-detection and public-safety responsibilities.” Id. at 2429 (emphasis in original). In the Court’s view, “all that exclusion would deter in this case is conscientious police work.” Id.; see also Krull, 480 U.S. at 350, 107 S.Ct. 1160 (“If the statute is subsequently declared unconstitutional, excluding evidence obtained pursuant to it prior to such a judicial declaration will not deter future Fourth Amendment violations by an officer who has simply fulfilled his responsibility to enforce the statute as written.”). United States v. Wilks, 647 F.3d 520 (4th Cir.2011), also provides guidance. There, the Fourth Circuit considered a search akin to that in Davis. At the time of the search, it comported with then-binding Fourth Circuit precedent, later overruled by Gant. See id. at 521-22. Law enforcement officers searched the front seat of a vehicle after handcuffing the defendant and placing him in the back seat of the patrol ear. Id. at 521. The parties did not dispute that, under United States v. Milton, 52 F.3d 78, 80 (4th Cir.1995), the search of the vehicle “was permissible at the time.” Wilks, 647 F.3d at 522. Finding the case to be “on all fours” with Davis, the Fourth Circuit held that the exclusionary rule did not bar the admission of evidence recovered during the search. Id. at 524. Invoking Leon and Davis, the Government urges that the exclusionary rule is not appropriate here, because ‘daw enforcement agents ... were acting in accordance with what was understood at the time to have been well-settled law, i.e., that under [United States v. Knotts, 460 U.S. 276, 103 S.Ct. 1081, 75 L.Ed.2d 55 (1983),] the use of a GPS tracking device was not a ‘search’ because it did not infringe upon a reasonable expectation of privacy since a defendant’s vehicular movements were exposed to the public.” Opp. at 27. Knotts involved the investigation by law enforcement agents of a suspected amphetamine manufacturing ring. 460 U.S. at 277-79, 103 S.Ct. 1081. Agents arranged with the seller of chloroform, used in the manufacturing process, to place a radio transmitter, i.e., a beeper, inside a chloroform container sold to one of the members of the ring. Id. at 278, 103 S.Ct. 1081. They then relied upon the beeper to track the route of the vehicle used by a second suspect, who took the chloroform to a “secluded cabin.” Id. at 277-78, 103 S.Ct. 1081. After