Full opinion text
TIMBERS, District Judge: QUESTION PRESENTED The question here presented is whether the Connecticut General Assembly as now constituted denies plaintiffs the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution of the United States. We hold that the districting of the Senate and the apportionment of the House so debase the voting rights of plaintiffs in the choice of the members of both houses as to result in an invidious discrimination against plaintiffs who thereby are denied the equal protection of the laws. PARTIES TO THE ACTION Plaintiffs are ten resident citizens and voters of Connecticut from six urban and suburban towns, suing for themselves and other Connecticut voters similarly situated. Defendants are the Governor, Secretary of the State, Treasurer and Comptroller of Connecticut, sued in their official capacities and particularly with respect to their duties in the holding of general elections to the legislature and in certifying the results of such elections. The Secretary of the State, in addition, is sued in her capacity as Commissioner of Elections representing all state and municipal election officials charged with duties in the holding of general elections to the legislature. Other resident citizens and voters were permitted to intervene, including the chairmen of the Republican and Democratic State Central Committees who were permitted to intervene as individuals, not as political leaders. CLAIMS OF THE PARTIES Plaintiffs in their complaint seek (i) a declaratory judgment that their constitutional rights are impaired by the mal-apportionment of both houses of the General Assembly; (ii) injunctive relief against the holding of general elections, other than elections at large, to the General Assembly in 1964 until the House has been reapportioned and the Senate redistricted so as not to impair plaintiffs’ constitutional rights; and (iii) such further relief as may be just and equitable. Plaintiffs also filed, and pressed at the hearing, a motion for partial summary judgment claiming at this time only the declaratory judgment prayed for in the complaint. Defendants in their answer and at the hearing took no position with respect to the critical issues in the case but did request an opportunity to comply with any decree entered by the Court. Intervenor Bailey supports generally the position of plaintiffs, claiming mal-apportionment of both Senate and House. The Pinney intervenors admit malap-portionment of the Senate; but they vigorously assert that apportionment of the House based upon the principle of unit representation, using the towns as local units, complies with the Constitution of Connecticut and does not violate the Constitution of the United States, so long as the Senate is based on the principle of equality of population. The Pin-ney intervenors also filed, but did not press at the hearing, a motion to dismiss the complaint for failure to state a cause of action, questioning the power of this Court to declare invalid a legislative apportionment system embodied in a state constitution. JURISDICTION This Court has jurisdiction over the subject matter and the parties pursuant to 42 U.S.C. §§ 1983, 1988 and 28 U.S.C. § 1343(3) and (4). Since the action draws into question provisions of the statutes and Constitution of Connecticut, a special statutory district court of three judges was convened to hear and determine the case pursuant to 28 U.S.C. §§ 2281-2284. HEARING AND RECORD The Court held a hearing on October 22, 1963, at which counsel were heard on the motion for partial summary judgment as well as on the merits of the case. No oral evidence was presented. The record before the Court consists of the pleadings; facts established by stipulation and by requests for admissions pursuant to Rule 36, Fed.R.Civ.P.; and affidavits. After the death of Judge CLARK and the designation of Judge SMITH in his pláce, counsel agreed that the Court should hear and determine the case on this record including a transcription of the oral arguments, which course has been followed. THE SENATE Under the Connecticut Constitution adopted in 1818 and amendments thereto, the legislature consists of a bicameral General Assembly. The upper-house, the Senate, is comprised presently of 36 members. Article Third, Section 5, adopted in 1901, raised the minimum number of Senate districts to 24, the maximum to-36. The last general redistricting was in 1903 when the General Assembly divided the State into 35 districts. A thirty-sixth district (Greenwich) was add■ed in 1941. Aside from the addition of .the thirty-sixth district in 1941 and some ■shifting of boundaries in New Haven, there has been no valid redistricting of the Senate since 1903, more than 60 years, despite numerous legislative pro-jposals. Article Third, Section 5, also provides That in districting the Senate, “regard :shall be had to population in the several -districts, that the same may be as nearly equal as possible under the limitations •of this section.” The limitations referred to are that Senate districts shall .always be composed of contiguous territory; that neither the whole nor a part •of one county shall be j oined to the whole •or a part of another county to form a district; that no town shall be divided unless for the purpose of forming more than «one district wholly within the town; and that each county shall have at least one •senator. In 1953 the General Assembly enacted legislation to redistriet the Senate. The Connecticut Supreme Court of Errors struck down this legislation, holding mandatory that provision of Article Third, Section 5, which allows only that session of the General Assembly next after completion of the United States census to redistrict the Senate. Cahill v. Leopold, 141 Conn. 1, 103 A.2d 818 (1954). Measured by any of the recognized standards, the malapportionment of the Senate is clearly demonstrated. The disparity between the most populous district (the Twenty-fifth with 175,940 inhabitants) and the least populous district (the Tenth with 21,627 inhabitants) is in a ratio of eight to one. Based upon a 1960 state population of 2,535,234, the norm for each Senate district is 70,423, from which the deviations in the present districting of the Senate are striking: the average population of the five most populous districts is 159,721 (compared with the norm of 70,423), indicating a deviation of 226.8% from the norm; the average population of the five least populous districts is 28,722, or 40.8% of the norm; of the 36 districts, 25 deviate more than 25% from the norm, 17 below and 8 above. A majority of the Senate is elected by 31.9% of the total population; the 17 districts 25% or more below the norm contain 27.6% of the population and elect 47.2% of the Senate membership; the 8 districts 25% or more above the norm contain 43.9% of the population and elect 22.2% of the Senate membership. Obviously the present districting of the Senate deviates sharply from the requirement of districts of approximately equal population contemplated by the Connecticut Constitution. All parties agree that the Senate must be redistricted. With respect to the Senate, we hold: (1) That the present districting of the Senate so debases the voting rights of plaintiffs as to result in an invidious discrimination against plaintiffs who thereby are denied the equal protection of the laws; (2) That the Senate must be redistricted promptly in such a way as to achieve substantially equal weighting of the votes of all voters — in accordance with the guidelines indicated in Judge CLARK’S opinion and pursuant to a decree to be formulated by this Court; (3) That in so redistricting the Senate, the limitations in Article Third, Section 5, of the Connecticut Constitution, in view of the supremacy clause of the Constitution of the United States, cannot bar action to comply with federal constitutional requirements. THE HOUSE The House consists of 294 representatives. Each of the 169 towns, the basic local governmental subdivision in the State, has either one or two representatives in the House. The town unit basis for representation in the House is found in Article Third, Section 3, of the Connecticut Constitution. Each town with more than 5,000 inhabitants is entitled to two representatives. Each new town must have a population of at least 2,500 before being entitled to one representative; prior to reaching a population of 2,500, new towns are treated as voting districts of the towns from which they were set off, for the purpose of electing the representative or representatives to which the parent town is entitled. Towns which had two representatives when the Connecticut Constitution of 1818 was adopted retain the right to that number. The town with the largest population (Hartford, 162,178) has the same number ■of representatives — 2—in the House as the smallest town (Union, 383). The vote of a resident of Union is weighted 424.5 times as heavily as the vote of a resident of Hartford. Based on the 1960 state population, the norm for each town is 8,623, from which the deviations in the present apportionment of the House are substantial: representatives of the ten most populous towns and cities ■each represent an average of 49,441 people, or 573.4% of the norm; representatives of the ten least populous towns each represent an average of 629 people, or '7.3% of the norm; of the 169 towns, •only 23 deviate less than 25% from the norm; of the remaining towns, 119 have populations per representative 25% or more below the norm, 27 have populations per representative 25% or more above the norm. A majority of the House is elected by 11.9 % of the total population; the 27 towns having populations per representative 25% or more above the norm contain 64.2% of the population and elect 18.3% of the House membership; the 119 towns having populations per representative 25% or more below the norm contain 20.4% of the population and elect 66% of the House membership None of the parties to this action seems seriously to support the existing House apportionment. It discriminates between voters in towns of large population; between voters in towns of small population; and, through the grandfather clause, between voters in small towns of similar size. Plaintiffs contend that the present House apportionment results in an invidious discrimination against inhabitants of urban and suburban towns in favor of inhabitants of smaller towns without logical relation to any justifiable classification of voters represented in the House. Intervenor Bailey supports plaintiffs’ contention. The Pinney intervenors contend for preservation of so much of the House plan of apportionment as gives recognition to the town as a unit of representation by giving to each town equal representation in the House. In Connecticut the town rather than the county has been the basic local unit of government; for all practical purposes the county as a unit of government has been abolished. The town, however, is not in any sense independent. New towns may be created by the legislature and often have been (as late as 1921) by taking territory from one or more existing towns. Forms of government in towns have changed. Some retain the old town meeting; some have adopted a representative town meeting; some have council-manager forms of government; some have incorporated as cities or have cities within their borders; some contain or contained boroughs with governmental functions, fire, water, school and other limited purpose taxing districts; some have combined with other towns in districts for some purposes. The tendency of modern times has been to grant a large measure of autonomy to the people of the towns to choose and change their form of management of local affairs. Ultimate control, however, remains with the legislature. In earlier days when the towns were largely self-sufficient, distant from one another in time of travel, relatively equal in population and in contribution to the common defense and in support of the established church, when indeed the cost of sending more than one representative to a legislative body was a problem to some communities, there were persuasive considerations that might overbalance the desirability of a strict “one man, one vote” plan of representation. The Pinney intervenors in their defense of the “unit principle” rely primarily upon history, and the failure to change, as justification for the present discrimination in the House. They must admit — aside from the fact that the unit principle in its purest form of equal representation of each town has never been the law of Connecticut — that historical inertia has led not to a defensible unit representation but to one logically indefensible in its two to one discrimination between units of the same size and character. Reliance by the Pinney intervenors on the so-called “federal analogy” is likewise, in our view, misplaced. The Connecticut Compromise did permit representation in the United States Senate to be based on the states as geographical units, with representation in the United States House of Representatives to be based on population. But the discrimination permitted by the Connecticut Compromise between voters of the states in the indirect choice of senators was necessary to obtain adherence of sovereign states to the Union. After failure of the federal system of the Confederation • — one vote, one state — the convention, seeking to improve the Articles of Confederation, was divided between advocates of a purely national government and advocates of the existing federal scheme in strengthened form. The compromise, suggested by the Connecticut delegates and eventually adopted, combined “national” and “federal” features; the provision for Senate representation by states was necessitated — when approval of the Constitution hung in doubt —by having to obtain adherence of the smaller states to the Union. There is no such problem within this or other states. The government of each state is supreme within the state except to the extent it has relinquished some of its powers to the United States. No state is a federal union of sovereign towns or counties. The Pinney intervenors further argue that unit representation in the House is necessary to the existence of a bicameral legislature; that if representation in both houses were based on population “all purpose and reason for maintaining a bicameral state legislature would be destroyed”; and that “the principle of unicameralism — so long shunned by all but one of our states — would be not only more logical but also more economical.” We disagree. This argument flies in the face of the experience of many other states, including our neighbor Massachusetts where representation in both houses is based on population. Generally, representatives in the less numerous-branch speak for wider areas and of course a more numerous constituency; they can be expected to be less parochial than the representatives of the smaller constituencies of the more numerous house; and such factors as differing lengths of term, staggered terms and age limitations may further differentiate the two bodies. Underlying the entire position of the Pinney intervenors in defending the principle of the town as a unit of representation in the House is the claim that such unit representation is rational because necessary to prevent a city majority from tyrannizing a small town minority in the legislature. This claim we emphatically reject. The equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment provides that ■“No State shall * * * deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.” In Baker v. Carr, 369 U.S. 186, 82 S.Ct. 691, 7 L.Ed. 2d 663 (1962), where plaintiffs (as in the instant case) alleged denial of equal protection of the laws through malapportionment of a state legislature resulting in .debasement of their votes, the Supreme Court held (369 U.S. 186, 237): “The right asserted is within the reach of judicial protection under the Fourteenth Amendment.” The “right asserted” there, as here, should be kept clearly in mind. It is the citizen’s right to an effective vote free of arbitrary impairment by the state. The equal protection clause is not concerned with desires to perpetuate political philosophies, geographical entities, historical anomalies. It is equally and impartially unconcerned with the protection of any minority, save one: the minority of one embodied in the individual citizen. When the “right asserted” is kept in focus, the remedy to vindicate that right becomes clear. In the context of this case, it is to afford equality, insofar as possible, to the efficacy of all men’s votes in the election of their legislative representatives. Unless all voters have an equal voice in the election of those who make the laws, equal protection in the formulation of those laws cannot be guaranteed to all voters. Justices Black and Douglas, dissenting in South v. Peters, 339 U.S. 276, 279, 70 S.Ct. 641, 643, 94 L.Ed. 834 (1950), put it this.way: “The creation by law of favored groups of citizens and the grant to them of preferred political rights is the worst of all discriminations under a democratic system of government.” In Gray v. Sanders, 372 U.S. 368, 83 S.Ct. 801, 9 L.Ed.2d 821 (1963), the Court squarely rejected the argument that votes in rural areas could be weighted more heavily than votes in urban areas in choosing a governor (372 U.S. 368, 379): “Once the geographical unit for which a representative is to be chosen is designated, all who participate in the election are to have an equal vote — whatever their race, whatever their sex, whatever their occupation, whatever their income, and wherever their home may be in that geographical unit.” The Court went on in Gray v. Sanders to say (372 U.S. 368, 379-381): “The concept of ‘we the people’ under the Constitution visualizes no preferred class of voters but equality among those who meet the basic qualifications. ****** “The conception of political equality from the Declaration of Independence, to Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address, to the Fifteenth, Seventeenth, and Nineteenth Amendments can mean only one thing — one person, one vote.” The contentions of the Pinney intervenors, which have been urged with force and eloquence, cannot be lightly brushed aside. In a State whose legislature antedates the Constitution of the United States by a century and a half and whose delegates to the constitutional convention contributed so vitally to the basic structure of our federal government, history is important. Likewise, such matters as the increasing autonomy granted to Connecticut towns and the position of eminence achieved by the legislature of Connecticut in various fields of endeavor, are entitled to careful consideration. In exercising the judicial duty imposed upon us by Baker v. Carr, supra, with respect to questions once thought to be purely political, we have weighed with care each of the arguments advanced concerning the apportionment of the House. We conclude that application of the unit principle either in its present adaptation in Connecticut or in its pure form results or would result in such great disparities of voter representation in the House as to violate plaintiffs’ constitutional rights. The Supreme Court has not said, nor do we, that perfect numerical equality of population in voting districts is necessary to equal protection of the laws. But mere historical existence of towns or cities as local units of government of varying ages does not constitute a logical or rational basis for discrimination between inhabitants of such units as voters represented in the House. Since we find no logical or rational basis for the existing apportionment, and the vast disparity between the weight of votes of electors of the various towns greatly debases the franchise of those in towns of larger population, invidious discrimination is plainly shown. With respect to the House, we hold: (1) That the present apportionment of the House so debases the voting rights of plaintiffs as to result in an invidious discrimination against plaintiffs who thereby are denied the equal protection of the laws; (2) That the House must be reapportioned promptly in such a way as to achieve substantially equal weighting of the votes of all voters — in accordance with the guidelines indicated in Judge CLARK’S opinion and pursuant to a decree to be formulated by this Court; (3) That in so reapportioning the House, no state constitutional or statutory limitations (including Article Third, Section 3, of the Connecticut Constitution), in view of the supremacy clause of the Constitution of the United States, can bar action to comply with federal constitutional requirements. FORMULATION OF DECREE AND FURTHER PROCEEDINGS Mindful that the foregoing decision on the issues presently before us is hardly more than the beginning of our task, we intend to proceed promptly with the formulation of a decree and the execution thereof. Counsel are requested to settle a decree as follows: (1) Not later than March 2, 1964, counsel will serve and file their proposed forms of decree, accompanied by supporting mem-oranda. (2) Not later than March 9, 1964, counsel will serve and file any objections to the proposed forms of decree, together witn answering memoranda. (3) On March 16, 1964, at 10:30 A.M., in the second floor courtroom of the United States Courthouse, New Haven, the Court will hear arguments by counsel on the proposed forms of decree,- following which the Court will enter an appropriate decree. In submitting their proposed forms of decree, counsel are requested, in addition to complying with the foregoing opinion of the Court, to consider: (a) The guidelines indicated by Judge CLARK for redistricting the Senate and reapportioning the House so as to bring both within federal constitutional dimensions. (b) The advisability of the Court’s appointing a special master, pursuant to Rule 53, Fed.R.Civ. P., to hold hearings under instructions from the Court with respect to the details of redistricting the Senate and reapportioning the House and to report to the Court with reasonable promptness thereon. (c) The feasibility of utilizing an appropriate electronic computer technique to minimize partisanship in the redistricting and reapportionment ordered by the Court. (d) The advisability of some procedure for assuring periodic reapportionment of the General Assembly to keep it currently within constitutional dimensions. (e) The stage in the proceedings at which the decree should be made appealable. For obvious reasons we would prefer to have the necessary redistricting of the Senate and reapportionment of the House done by or under the direction of the General Assembly than by the Court. But the hour is late. And we cannot blind ourselves to the deadlock of many years within the legislature over the issue. Hardly a year ago this Court invited the Governor and General Assembly to cooperate with and assist the Court “toward solving probably the most difficult governmental problem of our age.” The 1963 session of the legislature adjourned without acting on the problem. We therefore feel constrained to proceed without further delay with the schedule outlined above to formulate and execute our decree, absent prompt legislative action. We shall continue, however, to hope for legislative action. And if at any time the Governor should call the General Assembly into special session for the purpose of formulating plans to redistrict the Senate and reapportion the House, and if the General Assembly gives evidence satisfactory to this Court of its intention to act to bring the representation in both houses within federal constitutional dimensions, we shall gladly stay further proceedings in this Court to give the legislature a reasonable opportunity to perform the duty which is rightly that of the legislature to perform. In this connection we renew the invitation which Judge Clark extended on December 20, 1962: “And we trust the court can also count on the co-operation and assistance of the Chief Executive and the General Assembly in reaching for the correct solution. Indeed we are happy that, under the settled principles of law we are following, we need not view the state organs of government as adversaries to be given harsh mandates, but can instead look for their co-operative effort toward solving probably the most difficult governmental problem of our age.” We wish to express our appreciation for the unusually able assistance we have received from counsel for all parties. Their briefs and other papers, as well as their oral arguments, have been of an extraordinarily-.high order and have helped the Court immeasurably in a difficult case. We are confident that we can count on counsel for continued competent assistance in the even more difficult aspects of this case which lie ahead. We especially invite counsel, the parties and all others concerned to join the Court in approaching the problems to which our decision today gives rise, not as residents of particular towns, not even primarily as residents of Connecticut, but first and foremost as Americans — resolved that fundamental federal constitutional guarantees shall be secured by prompt and practical application in our State. CONCLUSION Let judgment enter granting plaintiffs the declaratory judgment prayed for in the complaint; denying plaintiffs’ motion for partial summary judgment as moot; and denying the Pinney inter-venors’ motion to dismiss for failure to •state a cause of action. . Oliver Butterworth, Miriam Butterworth and S. Rains Wallace (Town of West Hartford, Fifth Senatorial District); Robert Beach and Charles Jacobson (Town of Manchester, Fourth Senatorial District); George Lucas (Town of East Hartford, Fourth Senatorial District); Bradley Morehouse and John Norman (Town of Fairfield, Twenty-fifth Senatorial District); David S. Maclay (City of Bridgeport, Twenty-first Senatorial District); Albert E. Holland (City of Hartford, First Senatorial District). Based on the 1960 census, two of the plaintiffs reside in the cities with the largest populations in the State (Hartford, 162,178 and Bridgeport, 156,748), each of which has two representatives in the House; two reside in the heaviest populated senatorial districts in the State (Twenty-fifth, 175,940 and Fifth, 173,-953), each of which has one senator in the Senate. . Strictly, the correct terms are “dis-tricting” of the Senate and “apportionment” of the House. To avoid redundancy, however, we shall refer occasionally in this opinion to the apportionment or malapportionment of both houses of the General Assembly. . The statistical analysis of population and representation results in this paragraph, substantially undisputed mathematically, is based on the Naess Affidavit submitted in support of plaintiffs’ motion for partial summary Judgment. . The ratio of disparity between the most populous and least populous districts has been applied as a standard for measuring malapportionment in Mann v. Davis, 213 F.Supp. 577, 581 (E.D.Va.1962), pending on appeal (No. 69, this Term); Thigpen v. Meyers, 211 F.Supp. 826, 829 (W.D.Wash.1962), pending on appeal (No. 381, this Term); League of Nebraska Municipalities v. Marsh, 209 F.Supp. 189, 193 (D.Neb.1962); Sobel v. Adams, 208 F.Supp. 816, 317, supplemental opinions, 208 F.Supp. 316, 214 F.Supp. 811 (S.D.Fla.1962), pending on .appeal sub nom. Swann v. Adams (No. 297, this Term); Sims v. Frink, 208 F.Supp. 431, 440 (M.D.Ala.1962), pending •on appeal sub nom. Reynolds v. Sims (Nos. 23, 27, 41, this Term); Lisco v. McNichols, 208 F.Supp. 471, 477 (D.Colo.1962); Moss v. Burkhart, 207 F.Supp. 885, 891 (W.D.Okla.1962), pending on appeal sub nom. Williams v. Moss (Nos. 476, 534, 546, this Term); Toombs v. Fortson, 205 F.Supp. 248, 250 (N.D. Ga.1962); Sanders v. Gray, 203 F.Supp. 158, 170 n. 10 (N.D.Ga.1962), Judgment vacated and ease remanded on other grounds, 372 U.S. 368, 381, 83 S.Ct. 801, 9 L.Ed.2d 821 (1963); Scholle v. Hare, 367 Mich. 176, 116 N.W.2d 350, 355 (1962), reversing 360 Mich. 1, 104 N.W.2d 63 (1960), upon remand from 369 U.S. 429, 82 S.Ct. 910, 8 L.Ed.2d 1 (1962), pending on appeal sub nom. Beadle v. Scholle (No. 24, this Term) ; Sweeney v. Notte, 183 A.2d 296, 301 (R.I.1962). . Deviations from the “norm” (a term representing the product of dividing the total state population by the number of seats in the legislative body) have been utilized in analyzing claims of malapportionment in Mann v. Davis, supra note 4, at 581; Thigpen v. Meyers, supra note 4, at 830; Wisconsin v. Zimmerman, 209 F.Supp. 183, 186 (W.D.Wis.1962) ; Moss v. Burkhart, supra note 4, at 893; Baker v. Carr, 206 F.Supp. 341, 345 (M.D.Tenn.1962), upon remand from 369 U.S. 186, 82 S.Ct. 691, 7 L.Ed.2d 663 (1962), remanding 179 F.Supp. 824 (M.D.Tenn. 1959); Maryland Committee For Fair Representation v. Tawes, 228 Md. 412, 421-422, 180 A.2d 656, 660-661 (1962), pending on appeal (No. 29, this Term); Sweeney v. Notte, supra note 4, at 301. . The percentage of population which may elect a majority or other percentage of the legislative body has been considered relevant to the issue of malapportionment in Thigpen v. Meyers, supra note 4, at 831; Wisconsin v. Zimmerman, supra note 5, at 186; Sims v. Frink, supra note 4, at 438; Lisco v. McNichols, supra note 4, at 475; Moss v. Burkhart, supra note 4, at 893; Toombs v. Fortson, supra note 4, at 251; Maryland Committee For Fair Representation v. Tawes, supra note 5, at 436, 180 A.2d at 669. . Appendix, p. 773. . Infra p. 764. . U.S.Const. art. VI, cl. 2. . In Valenti v. Dempsey, 211 F.Supp. 911, 913 (D.Conn.1962), this Court held that state constitutional limitations cannot bar relief required by the federal constitution : “ * * * under Baker v. Carr * * * [plaintiff] is pressing a federal constitutional right; and if he is correct in his federal constitutional claim, the state constitutional limitation need not be construed as a bar, for no state limitation on legislative action can prevent relief which the Federal Constitution, as construed by the Supreme Court, requires.” We hold that the decision of the Supreme Court of Errors in Cahill v. Leopold, 141 Conn. 1, 103 A.2d 818 (1954), cannot bar or delay prompt redistricting of the Senate to comply with federal constitutional requirements. . The Connecticut house is the largest state legislative body in the United States, except for the New Hampshire house. . This is referred to as the “grandfather clause”. . The statistical analysis in this paragraph is based on the Naess Affidavit, supra note 3. . Supra note 4. This ratio of disparity of representation between the most populous and least populous towns is the highest of any state legislative house in the United States, except for Vermont where the apportionment of both houses has been challenged. Buckley v. Hoff, Civil No. 3653, D.Vt. (Complaint filed January 22, 1963; hearing held October 29 and 30, 1963; not yet decided). Supra note 5. . Supra note 6. . See Judge CLARK’S opinion for a brief summary of the history of apportionment in the House. Appendix, p. 769. . The Pinney intervenors say in their brief (pp. 41-2) : «* * * What is the policy behind the system of unit representation in the Connecticut House? It is nothing loss than the protection of the little from the big. * * * [T]he system was designed to prevent that tyranny of the majority whereby the large and populous urban centers could, by indifference or design, ride roughshod over the needs and desires of the less populated communities. It was an attempt to protect the minority rights of those who, absent a system of unit representation in one house of the legislature, would be penalized for choosing to live elsewhere than a city. * * * ” . U.S.Const. amend. XIV, § 1. . While Gray v. Sanders is not decisive on all aspects of state legislative apportionment cases, its condemnation of weighting votes in rural areas more heavily than votes in urban areas in choosing a governor applies in principle to choosing a legislature. . Appendix, p. 773. . Infra, p. 764. . U.S.Const. art. VI, cl. 2. . Valenti v. Dempsey, supra note 10, at 913. . Appendix, p. 773. . Weaver and Hess, A Procedure For Nonpartisan Districting: Development of Computer Techniques, 73 Yale L.J. 288 (1963). . Valenti v. Dempsey, supra note 10, at 913. . Ibid,
J. JOSEPH SMITH, Circuit Judge (concurring). I concur in Judge TIMBERS’ opinion .and would add only a brief statement. The great disparity between the effective weight of voters in choosing legislators in different senatorial districts and towns •shows a marked discrimination against those in the districts and towns of larger population. Baker v. Carr, 369 U.S. 186, .82 S.Ct. 691, 7 L.Ed.2d 663 (1962) has established that such a discrimination raises a question of deprivation of equal protection of the laws in violation of the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution of the United States which it is the •duty of the federal courts to resolve if the legislature and the state courts fail to do so. On the showing made here, no compelling reasons for so wide a discrimination having been shown, the court must find that the discrimination is invidious and a violation of the constitutional rights of the plaintiffs. No case yet decided in the other states is fully comparable on the facts, although Sweeney v. Notte, R.I., 183 A.2d 296, which invalidated the Rhode Island legislative structure is perhaps the closest, since there the basic unit in the lower house was also the town. There it was suggested that the legislature set up districts composed of groupings of the smaller towns, or so increase the size of the House that proportional representation could be accomplished while retaining a representative for each town. The latter alternative would of course be impractical in our case because of the great increase of members required in a body already composed of 294 members. Districts can, however, undoubtedly be designed to assure representation of points of view of rural, urban and suburban electors, if indeed such separate points of view exist, while giving equal weight to the votes of individual electors in the choice of the membership of the House. I take it that while exact equality of population of every representative or senatorial district is not required, and some room remains for weighting other factors than population, such as contiguity and compactness, deviations from substantial equality are to be the exceptions, and the showing of necessity therefor plain. No convincing showing of necessity has been made. I would therefore follow the general outline for relief proposed by Judge TIMBERS and the late Judge CLARK. APPENDIX [OPINION OF THE LATE CIRCUIT JUDGE CHARLES E. CLARK] CLARK, Circuit Judge. Baker v. Carr, 369 U.S. 186, 82 S.Ct. 691, 7 L.Ed.2d 663, opened a new era of federal judicial responsibility in its holding that an assertion of constitutional right as impaired by the malapportionment according to population of representatives in state legislatures presented a justiciable issue, to be passed upon by the federal courts. Prior to that decision it had been held or assumed that this was a “political question” not to be considered by the judiciary. The announcement of the decision, however, brought forth an immediate response from voters all over the country, so that already some 44 actions in 39 of the 50 states are pending to test the constitutionality of state legislative apportion-ments. This action tests the Connecticut system as instanced in both Houses of the Connecticut General Assembly. It is not merely new and strange territory into which we, in common with our federal judicial colleagues generally, must now venture; but it is an awesome responsibility, the difficulties and uncertainties of which we are fully conscious. But it is quite clear that it is one upon which we cannot turn our backs. The plaintiffs are ten voters from six different urban towns of the State, suing for themselves and others similarly situated, who assert that they are denied the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution by reason of the malapportionment, and consequent discrimination against them, of representatives in both the Senate and the House of Representatives. The defendants are the Governor of the State and other high officials, including the Secretary of State, who is also the Commissioner of Elections and who is sued as representative of all officials, state and municipal, charged with duties pertaining to the holding of general elections. Relief sought is a declaratory judgment holding the plaintiffs’ constitutional rights violated by the malapportionment of both the House and Senate, together with injunctive relief against the holding of general elections, other than elections at large to the Senate and House in 1964, until such reapportionment is had as will not impair the plaintiffs’ constitutional rights. The Attorney General answered on behalf of the defendants, but the real burden of defense has been assumed by intervenors whose petitions for intervention were allowed by this court. Jurisdiction in this court is clear under 42 U.S.C. §§ 1983, 1988, and 28 U.S.C. § 1343(3, 4). Since the action brings in question statutes as well as constitutional provisions of the State, a special statutory court of three judges has been convened by order of the Chief Judge of the Circuit, pursuant to 28 U.S.C. §§ 2281 et seq., to hear the case. In their complaint the plaintiffs make specific allegations of malapportionment of both the Senate and the House. Inter-venors Pinney, chairman of the Republican State Central Committee, and three-associates admit the malapportionment, of the Senate, but vigorously assert that, the election of members of the House is; legal and valid. Intervenor Bailey, chairman of the Democratic State Central Committee, admits the malapportionment of both Houses and essentially joins forces with the plaintiffs. The parties have followed the suggestion of the court to agree on the facts — which, indeed, are well known — and to present such expert and other evidence upon which they rely in written form, so that the case has been fully submitted on the merits and full oral argument had supplementing the briefs. The presentation has been of an unusually high order; and the court wishes to express its deep sense of obligation to counsel for so thoroughly and carefully initiating it into ground-breaking territory. As it turns out, the issue here becomes a comparatively narrow one, although of great importance; it appears in somewhat similar, although far from identical, form in some, though not all, of the cases pending elsewhere. As framed by the Pinney intervenors, it is whether or not the House may legally choose its representatives according to what they term the “unit principle,” relying on town areas, so long as in one body, here the Senate, there is followed the principle of equality of population. Before we turn to a detailed consideration of this contention, it is well to state what appears to be common ground. First with respect to the Senate there is no question but that its apportionment is based primarily on population. This was established in 1901 by Article Third, Section 5, of the Connecticut Constitution, which raised the minimum number of Senate Districts to 24, and the maximum to 36. Power to redistrict was vested in the General Assembly convening next after the completion of a United States census. The last general redistricting was had in 1903, when the General Assembly divided the State into 35 districts, becoming 36 in 1941 with the addition of the district of Greenwich. Section 5 provides that “regard shall be had to population in the several districts, that the same may be as nearly equal as possible under the limitations of this section.” The limitations which follow are that senatorial districts shall always be composed of contiguous territory, that neither the whole nor a part of one county shall be joined to the whole or a part of another county to form a district, and that no town shall be divided unless for the purpose of forming more than one district wholly within the town. An attempt of the legislature in 1953 to redistrict the Senate was struck down by the Connecticut Supreme Court of Errors in Cahill v. Leopold, 141 Conn. 1, 103 A.2d 818, upon the ground that Section 5 allowed only that session of the General Assembly immediately following the taking of the census to redistrict. Outside of this abortive effort nothing has been done in sixty years, although legislative proposals have been numerous. The difficulties of following the constitutional formula are obvious; in addition there appears to have been an understandable reluctance of Democratic leaders to support redistricting the Senate while the Republican hold on the House through its rural vote continues. Admittedly the malapportionment of the Senate is now substantial. Turning to the House we find that it now numbers 294 — the largest state house except one, New Hampshire. And the malapportionment of representation based upon population is striking — indeed is said to be one of the most extreme of any state. Thus the Town of Union, with a population of 383, has 2 representatives, or the same number as the largest cities: Hartford (162,178) and Bridgeport (156,748). The vote of a resident and voter of Union is thus weighted 424.5 times as heavily as the vote of a resident and voter of Hartford. This striking disproportion is carried out generally through the 169 towns, as is more fully illustrated in the footnote. Indeed there can be little doubt, as is substantially conceded, that if equality of population is to be the test the House is grossly malapportioned. The real defense of the Pinney intervenors comes in their argument for the validity of the “unit principle.” Now it should be noted that the unit principle in what we must assume as its purest form of one representative to each town has never been the law of this State. It has always been diluted in a substantial way because of history and because of population to achieve a result for which a theoretical basis is hard to discover. Going back in our history, the Fundamental Orders of 1638-9, Section 8, provided representation in the unicameral legislature according to population. The three original towns of Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield were to send “four of their Freemen” as their deputies to every General Court, and new towns were to send “so many deputies as the Court shall judge meet, a reasonable proportion to the number of Freemen that are in the said towns.” Colonial Records of Connecticut, 1636-1665, 20, 24. The Charter of 1662, granted by Charles II, set the basic pattern in existence today, providing that the General Assembly should have not more than two persons from each town. Statutes of Connecticut, 1808, 3. In 1698 the second house was added. The pattern for apportionment for the House continued until the Constitution adopted in 1818, which provided in Article III, Section 3, that in the House existing towns should have the same number of representatives “as are at present practised and allowed; new towns, formed after the adoption of the Constitution, should have one”. This is the forerunner of the present provision, Article Third, Section 3. Two modifications of the system have been made. By constitutional amendment in 1874 every town having more than 5,000 was given two representatives, while in 1876 the requirement was added that new towns must have a population of at least 2,500 before becoming entitled to one representative. Thus it will be observed that the system of apportionment for the House goes back two centuries without fundamental change populationwise, although proposals by commissions and others for changes by constitutional conventions and otherwise have been too numerous to note here. And there has been no change of any kind since 1876, although the mal-apportionment according to population has steadily worsened. The provision that the towns shall retain the representation they had in 1818 explains why Union and some 32 other towns of present population under 5,000 still have two representatives, while 44 other towns of similar population have only one. The prohibition against more than 2 representatives per town shuts off more representation of the large cities; while the grant of one more representative when a town attains a population of 5,000 assures a constantly increasing house, as does the possibility of the legislative creation of new towns as soon as the new entity attains a population of 5,000. That is why the present number is 294, as compared to 279 in 1959, 255 in 1903, and 203 in 1821. When, however, we turn to the alternative claim of one representative per town we have not made a significant advance. For it has no historical support in this State, and in fact none generally outside the State. Only two other states, Vermont and Rhode Island, have representations by towns; and in both these the system is under attack in pending litigation — indeed in Rhode Island it has been found unconstitutional. Sweeney v. Notte, R.I., 183 A.2d 296, 303. In New York representation in the House is by assembly districts; this is true in our other neighbor, Massachusetts, which, as pointed out in note 3 supra, has a high record for equality of representation. Accepting this alternative system would not change, but would only slightly rearrange, the present malapportionment. Thus Union and Hartford would each have one representative, so that each Union vote would be weighted 423.4 times as heavy as the Hartford vote, instead of 424.5 times as at present. Thus the potential rural veto of all urban proposals would still remain. We have considered the possibility of building a reasonable plan of House apportionment upon rejecting only a part of the present requirements of the state constitution. But this amounts to so little and would be so disappointing to the reasonable expectations of those who have sought an outright vindication of their rights as hardly to justify the repudiation of the state constitution which it would definitely represent. Thus assume a plan of one representative for each town under 5,000 in population and two representatives for each town of 5,000 or over; this would give a slightly more favorable balance to the cities, but not enough to count materially in any practical sense. Truly the mountain would have groaned and groaned and brought forth a mouse. The Pinney intervenors have argued that this is but “a numbers game,” and that the arguments for the system lie deeper than statistics such as we have quoted. We will do well to look at these reasons. But we must first put them in the context of this actual case. And here it must be noted that we are dealing not with abstract principles of government, but with the plaintiffs’ claims that their constitutional rights have been impaired. Our American way of allowing practically all questions to turn into legal cases has at least the advantage of narrowing the issues and bringing individual rights into sharp focus, however much it may blur the more remote facets of the problem. So even if the rural despotism is a benevolent one, the plaintiffs may nevertheless insist that it deprives them of their rights under the Fourteenth Amendment to the U. S. Constitution. And we are constrained to say that application of the unit principle either in its pure form or in its present Connecticut adaptation results in such great disparities of voter representation in both the House and the Senate as to violate the plaintiffs’ constitutional rights. But since the Pinney intervenors have argued with force and indeed eloquence for the unit principle or principles, we think we should state why we have not found those arguments persuasive even as an abstract proposition of political or governmental science. For stripped of all historical support (which we have found most ambiguous) or support from the supposed “federal analogy” (which we do not find in point) the contention comes to this that the towns represent important minority interests or values which should be conserved in one of the Houses. The argument is pressed by all four of the experts whose affidavits have been presented by the Pinney in-tervenors and is lucidly explained in a book by one of them, deGrazia, Essay on Apportionment and Representative Government, 1963. Against these expressions of view others of most persuasive nature can be adduced, and the many briefs filed in the several cases pending in the Supreme Court, together with the arguments therein, add to the store of at least theoretical reasoning. Of course that Court may give a precise answer which will be awaited by us all, but it seems more likely that according to custom and practice its views will be given ad hoc in each case adjudicated. Hence we find no ground for delaying our decision to await Supreme Court adjudications; we shall of course remain alert to any suggestions or help to decision which may come from that quarter. Now there seem to us two major difficulties with the argument as presented. The first is that there seems no coherent minority group or opinion which the 169 towns can be assumed to represent— nothing at all comparable, for example, to labor union members or, indeed, to members of the Republican or Democratic Parties. On such matters as securing local appropriations for highways or schools their interests are quite competitive, and this we fear is likely to be true of most minority problems; there will be 169 objectives, rather than a single one. In fact experience suggests that about the only view upon which a consensus can be expected is the negative one of opposing change. And second, the concept of the duty of a representative to support the minority interest of his town seems a limited and a barren one, adding to the declining importance of legislative bodies in general and state legislatures in particular. The separate interests of the towns should be, and are, vigorously represented by their chief executive officers: the mayor or the first selectman, as the case may be. These can properly press for substantial highway and school appropriations or other favors for the cities or towns they represent. But the legislators should have a broader view; they should represent the people as a whole, and not confine themselves to purely parochial decisions based upon the supposed self-interest of their towns. Indeed, the decline of the two-party system and its significance in American life is often traced to these limited views. Whatever else the Baker-Carr case achieves, it should lead to experimentation in true democracy, with equal or nearly equal representation of the population. This cannot be truly tried if the members of the House represent only Union or Warren or Hartford or Bridgeport, and not the people of the State of Connecticut. The conclusion to which we must come seems to us clear, namely, that the mal-apportionment of both the House and the Senate represents a denial of the equal protection of the laws to the plaintiffs; and they are entitled to a declaratory judgment to that effect. We realize that this is hardly more than the beginning of our task and that the more difficult portion of it lies before us as we try to implement this decision. Plaintiffs ask that we adjourn these proceedings for a time to give the Governor the opportunity to call the legislature in special session and to allow that body the opportunity to formulate plans for redistricting which will satisfy constitutional requirements. We accept this suggestion and are adjourning these proceedings for some time, which we shall be glad to extend if or when it appears that the General Assembly is disposed to function. But we are sensible of the long deadlock of many years’ duration over the issue, and even the lack of action at the session last spring, when we delayed action in this very case to await the rising of the General Assembly. As Mr. Justice Clark, concurring in Baker v. Carr, 369 U.S. 186, 260, 82 S.Ct. 691, 733, 7 L.Ed.2d 663, well puts it, we do not want to take the position of “blackjacking the Assembly into reapportioning the State.” And we are sensible that primaries for the fall elections will soon be coming up and that we should settle the issues as promptly as possible, to allow time for appeal — all before the fall elections. So, while still cherishing the hope of legislative action, we believe we must establish a schedule for ourselves in the event that it is not forthcoming. At hearings to be held hereafter, we shall therefore expect counsel to propose and to consider appropriate decrees to execute the decision we have here stated. This will involve the development of formulas for the redistricting of both House and Senate along lines we shall now consider to secure a constitutional apportionment in each House. And we shall further discuss with counsel whether the court, acting under F.R.Civ.P. 53, should appoint a master to hold hearings and settle the details of the redistricting following the court’s instructions and to report to the court with reasonable promptness as to the final decree to be entered. In fixing the Senate and House formulas to be followed, the court is disposed to rely heavily on the plans suggested in the Report of the Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, December 1962, on apportionment of State Legislatures, which we have referred to in note 8 supra, applying the allowance of permissible deviation from a state ratio somewhat less rigidly than the Commission recommends. This concession seems reasonable in view of the fact that we do have the division into towns and that these form convenient units for voting and in combination may well provide for appropriate districts to be represented in the General Assembly. Some experimentation will be needed to see how the existing governmental units may be arranged to achieve the maximum results for comparable units of substantially equal units of population. We suggest here some purely tentative guide lines, subject to revision in later proceedings in this case. It would seem appropriate to have in mind a total membership of the House ranging somewhere from 200 to 300, with the ideal figure as low as is possible to secure a workable series of unit districts. Then it would seem desirable not to divide towns, though the crossing of the ancient county lines would seem appropriate so long as reasonable homogeneity of the units would be achieved. In result the cities would elect several representatives at large, while several small towns would be combined where appropriate ■ to make a single legislative district. On this basis a deviation from the state ratio quite a little in excess of the 10% maximum suggested by the Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations would not seem objectionable. And for the Senate a membership of from 30 to 36 would seem appropriate, with perhaps less deviation from the State ratio here expected than in the House. Here it is apparent, as seemingly all parties agree, that the restrictions stated in Article III, Section 5, of the State Constitution cannot be accepted as arbitrary limitations on the framing of new Senatorial districts. In this connection it is to be noted that the Pinney intervenors, while accepting the overriding importance of federal constitutional principles to invalidate the state restrictions on redistricting the Senate, nevertheless assert the still binding force of the State Constitutional provisions, Article III, Section 3, as to the House. We have no hesitation in finding no such differentiation to exist and in concluding that local constitutional, as well as statutory, requirements of legislative apportionment must give way to federal constitutional principles. That, indeed, seems to be the teaching of Baker v. Carr, 369 U.S. 186, 82 S.Ct. 691, 7 L. Ed.2d 663, itself, as well as the cases now following it. At any rate, it is clear that we have jurisdiction, as well as a constitutional duty, to act. Cooper v. Aaron, 358 U.S. 1, 3, 78 S.Ct. 1401, 3 L.Ed.2d 5; American Federation of Labor v. Watson, 327 U.S. 582, 66 S.Ct. 761, 90 L.Ed. 873; Sweeney v. Notte, R.I., 183 A.2d 296. We realize that the course we have outlined involves extensive judicial action as to governmental matters hitherto considered beyond the ken of the judicial branch. But we conceive that this follows with inexorable logic from Baker v. Carr, 369 U.S. 186, 82 S.Ct. 691, 7 L.Ed.2d 663. The House is grossly mal-apportioned; the Senate less so, but enough to impair the plaintiffs’ constitutional rights. We have decided that we cannot turn our backs on the House situation because of historical or other reasons which seem to us unpersuasive. There are two general courses then open to us with regard to the House. One is to order redistricting anew and from the bottom up, without reference to existing town lines. But the confusion which would result — even the rejection of well known and operable systems of voting in the polls of the town, as well as in the primaries — causes us to reject this method as not so much illegal as overwhelmingly inconvenient. Accepting the towns as existing voting units and seeking reasonable equality according to population of such units, we must attempt reasonable means to effect reasonable population equality, with the possible deviation indicated above. This will involve, inter alia, some experimentation as to the size of the legislative body. To this we are forced if the legislature does not act hereafter. But we are convinced that, viewed as an experimental approach to reasonableness, results can be achieved which give effect to the principle of equal representation of the people without overviolent dislocation of existing governmental units. . The towns are East Hartford, Fairfield, West Hartford, Manchester, Bridgeport, and New Haven, ranging in size popula-tionwise fror¿_ the 156th to the 169th or largest in the State. . Taking the 1960 census with a state population of 2,535,234, the average or norm for the 36 districts is 70,423. But the average population of the five most populous districts (ranging from 175,940 down to 144,160) is 159,721 or 226.8% of the norm; while the average population of the five least populous districts (ranging from 21,627 up to 32,534) is 28,722 or 40.8% of the norm. Nineteen Senators — a majority — are elected by Senatorial Districts having a population of 811,242 or 31.9% of the total state population. Seventeen of the 36 districts have populations 25% or more below the norm; 8 districts have populations 25% or more above the norm, etc. It should be noted that it seems virtually impossible to obtain fairly equal districts if the constitutional limitations are to be observed. For example, Stamford is underrepresented and Waterbury is overrepresented; but attempts to change this seem likely merely to reverse this situation. And the county restriction adds its own complications. All the parties agree that redistricting of the Senate should be had without these hampering limitations. . The population of the 10 most populous towns and cities, 988,818, represents 39% of the total population of the State and elects 20 representatives or 6.8% of the total number; while the population of the 10 least populous towns, 7,554, represents 0.3% of the total population and elects 12 representatives or 4.1% of the total. Towns having a population of 301,485 or 11.9% of the total elect 148 or a majority of the House. One hundred nineteen (119) of