Full opinion text
LASKER, District Judge. In this age of change the quality of life has been fundamentally altered and influenced by the development of the automobile, the computer and television. Millions of viewers spend untold hours weekly viewing television. During the larger part of that time the viewer is a listener to programs which utilize music, whether as background, as theme or as a feature. This case relates to the method by which networks are licensed to use copyrighted music on television. The Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) brings this antitrust action against the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP), Broadcast Music, Inc. (BMI) and their members and affiliates. It complains that the present system by which ASCAP and BMI issue blanket licenses for the right to perform any or all of the compositions in their repertories over the CBS network in exchange for a flat annual fee violates the Sherman Act, 15 U.S.C. §§ 1 and 2. The complaint seeks an injunction under § 16 of the Clayton Act, 15 U.S.C. § 26, directing ASCAP and BMI to offer CBS performance right licenses on terms which reflect the nature and amount of CBS’ actual use of music, or in the alternative, enjoining them from offering blanket licenses to any television network. CBS also seeks a declaration of copyright misuse under the Declaratory Judgment Act, 28 U.S.C. §§ 2201, 2202. I. Introduction A. The Parties Prior to ASCAP’s formation in 1914 there was no effective method by which composers and publishers of music could secure payment for the performance for profit of their copyrighted works. The users of music, such as theaters, dance halls and bars, were so numerous and widespread, and each performance so fleeting an occurrence, that no individual copyright owner could negotiate licenses with users of his music, or detect unauthorized uses. On the other side of the coin, those who wished to perform compositions without infringing the copyright were, as a practical matter, unable to obtain licenses from the owners of the works they wished to perform. ASCAP was organized as a “clearinghouse” for copyright owners and users to solve these problems. The world of music has changed radically since 1914. Radio and television broadcasters are the largest users of music today; they “perform” copyrighted music before audiences of millions. In 1975 ASCAP and BMI licensed these large users, including CBS and the other networks as well as smaller ones such as concert halls and background music services. Because of the multitude of performances of music they generate each year, virtually all radio stations and television networks secure the rights to perform the music they use by a “blanket” license. An ASCAP blanket license gives the user the right to perform all of the compositions owned by its members as often as the user desires for a stated term, usually a year. Convenience is the prime virtue of the blanket license: it provides comprehensive protection against infringement, that is, access to a large pool of music without the need for the thousands of individual licenses which otherwise would be necessary to perform the copyrighted music used on radio stations and television networks in the course of a year. Moreover, it gives the user unlimited flexibility in planning programs, because any music it chooses is “automatically” covered by the blanket license. ASCAP’s current membership includes some 6,000 music publishing companies and 16,000 composers. Its members have granted ASCAP, as their licensing agent, the nonexclusive right to license users to perform the compositions owned by them. ASCAP provides its members with a wide range of services. It maintains a surveillance system of radio and television broadcasts to detect unlicensed uses, institutes infringement actions, collects revenues from licensees and distributes royalties to copyright owners in accordance with a schedule which reflects the nature and amount of the use of their music and other factors. BMI, a non-profit corporation, was organized in 1939 by members of the radio broadcasting industry, including CBS. It is affiliated with approximately 10,000 publishing companies and 20,000 writers and functions in essentially the same manner as ASCAP. Although CBS sold back its BMI stock to the corporation in 1959, BMI is still owned entirely by broadcasters. As a practical matter virtually every domestic copyrighted composition is in the repertory of either ASCAP, which has over three million compositions in its pool, or BMI, which has over one million. Like ASCAP, BMI offers blanket licenses to broadcasters for unlimited use of the music owned by its “affiliates.” Almost all broadcasters hold blanket licenses from both ASCAP and BMI. As is generally known, CBS operates one of three national television networks, as well as AM and FM radio stations in seven major cities. It has held blanket licenses from ASCAP for its radio broadcast operations since 1928, and from BMI since' soon after that organization was founded in 1939. It has held ASCAP and BMI blanket licenses for its television network on a continuous basis since the late 1940’s. CBS supplies television programs to approximately two hundred affiliated television stations throughout the country, and telecasts about 7,500 programs per year. Many of these programs make use of copyrighted music which is recorded on the soundtrack. However, CBS does not produce most of the programs seen on its network. Instead it purchases the right to broadcast programs produced by independent television production companies, known as “program packagers.” Most of the popular prime-time serials fall into this category. In addition CBS itself produces a television serial (“Gunsmoke”), two day-time serials, a number of “specials,” usually variety shows, as well as news, public affairs and sports programs. Agreements between program packagers and CBS normally stipulate the price at which the packager will produce a program in a series and furnish it to CBS for broadcast. Pursuant to the agreements, packagers are responsible for obtaining and furnishing to CBS most rights necessary for the use of copyrighted music by the network, such as the right to record a copyrighted song in synchronization with the film or video tape (“synch” rights). However, program packagers do not, in the present scheme of things, furnish to CBS the right to perform the copyrighted music for profit as part of a television broadcast. Ever since television became commercially practicable in the late 1940’s, CBS has obtained such “performance” rights for packaged programs, as well as for the programs it produces itself, from ASCAP and BMI by purchasing blanket licenses. From time to time it has renewed its licenses after negotiations with ASCAP and BMI. In the history of the parties the fee for the blanket license has been expressed in terms of a percentage of CBS’ advertising revenues. For example, for many years prior to the institution of suit, the BMI blanket license fee remained at 1.09% of net receipts from sponsors after certain deductions. This resulted in payment to BMI of about $1.6 million in 1969. For access to AS-CAP’s considerably larger repertory, CBS paid about $5.7 million in 1969. Averaging the total of $7.3 million paid by CBS in that year over 7,500 programs, its cost for ASCAP or BMI music runs about $1,000. per program; Of course, as detailed later, many of CBS’ programs, such as news and public affairs shows, use no music at all; while others, such as variety shows, use a great deal. $1,000. is a small fraction of the total cost of the program. CBS pays about $200,000. for each episode of a one hour variety show or dramatic serial, and as much as $750,000. for a made-for-TV movie. Since the commencement of this action, CBS has held interim blanket licenses from ASCAP and BMI at a total annual cost of some $6 million. B. The Consent Decrees Neither ASCAP nor BMI is a stranger to antitrust litigation. In 1941 the government sued ASCAP for antitrust violations. The action resulted in a consent decree which largely governs AS-CAP’s relationships with licensees such as CBS and other users. As amended in 1950, the decree requires ASCAP to offer a “per program” license to broadcasters in addition to the blanket license it has traditionally offered. Both forms of license grant the right to use any or all of the works in ASCAP’s repertory. However, the blanket license allows use of the entire inventory for a designated period of time, usually a year, for which the user pays a flat fee, while the per program license permits use of the entire repertory but requires payment only with respect to programs which actually make use of copyrighted music. The 1950 decree mandatorily enjoins ASCAP to set its fees for these licenses in a manner which gives the user a genuine choice between them, and prohibits it from requiring or influencing the prospective licensee to negotiate for a blanket license before negotiating for a per program license. If ASCAP and the licensee are unable to agree on a fee, the latter may apply to the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York for determination of a ‘‘reasonable fee.” In such proceedings, ASCAP bears the burden of establishing the reasonableness of the fee it requests. Finally, ASCAP’s licensing authority is not exclusive. The 1950 decree provides that music users may bypass AS-CAP entirely, and negotiate for a license directly with the composer or publisher holding the copyright. Under the terms of a consent decree entered in 1966 in United States v. BMI (S.D.N.Y.), BMI is required to offer a per-program license in addition to a blanket license. The difference in the terms of these licenses must be justified by “applicable business factors.” Although the form of the BMI decree differs from that of the ASCAP decree, the parties have stipulated that CBS could secure direct licenses from BMI affiliates with the same ease or difficulty, as the case may be, as from ASCAP members. (CX 3) C. CBS’ Complaint CBS does not allege that ASCAP and BMI have violated the terms of the consent decrees. It claims, rather, that the licensing alternatives which the decrees specify are not flexible enough to meet its needs, and are not realistically available to it. Thus, CBS’ complaint charges that the blanket license “compels” it to pay performance royalties with respect to television programs which use no music and that the per-program license requires it to pay the same royalty for a program which uses a single copyrighted composition as for one which uses many. (Complaint ¶¶ 14, 19). In other words, CBS asserts that defendants are “using the leverage inherent in [their] copyright pool to insist that plaintiff pay royalties on a basis which does not bear any relationship to the amount of music performed.” (Complaint ¶[ 19) As to the third alternative specified in the consent decrees —the possibility of bypassing ASCAP and BMI entirely and seeking licenses for the specific compositions it wishes to perform directly from the copyright proprietors—CBS alleges that any attempt by it “to .acquire such a large body of rights from the [individual copyright proprietors] . . . would be wholly impracticable . . . ” (¶ 15) CBS’ disenchantment with the blanket licensing system takes form in several legal claims: first, that the writer and publisher members of ASCAP and BMI have combined through their common licensing organizations to eliminate price competition among themselves and, by pooling the grant of their respective licenses through ASCAP and BMI, to fix the price which a television network must pay to secure the rights; second, that ASCAP and BMI insist on granting only blanket licenses and have therefore imposed an unlawful tie-in, in that CBS is required to purchase the rights to music it does not want to buy in order to secure the rights to music it does want; third, that by forming pools of music and requiring CBS to deal with the common licensing agent of the pools, the writer and publisher members and affiliates of ASCAP and BMI are engaging in a concerted refusal to deal directly with CBS; fourth, that through ASCAP and BMI the writers and publishers are guilty of monopolization, both attempted and achieved; and fifth, that the activities described constitute copyright misuse. Despite this rather imposing line-up of charges, the central issue in the case is not complex. The essence of CBS’ claim is that ASCAP and BMI are illegal combinations whose purpose and effect is to exact royalties from CBS for music it does not wish to license. The validity of the claim turns on whether CBS is in fact compelled to take a blanket license from the licensing organizations in order to secure the performance rights it needs. ASCAP and BMI contend that CBS is not compelled to do so, but has, in common with the ABC and NBC television networks and virtually all radio broadcasters, found it most convenient to license music by the blanket method. Defendants argue that if CBS no longer wishes to secure performance rights through centralized agents such as ASCAP and BMI, it can obtain the necessary rights directly from the individual members and affiliates of AS-CAP and BMI by negotiating with them for performance rights to the particular compositions it wants. As defendants view the case, if CBS is to prevail it must prove that direct licensing with members of the alleged combination is an unfeasible alternative to the blanket license. Proof that licenses could not be obtained directly from copyright proprietors, despite the fact that ASCAP and BMI are required by consent decrees to permit their members and affiliates to license their compositions to users direetly, would support the inference that defendants have formed illegal combinations in order to foreclose competition in the market for performance rights to music for network use. Conversely, proof that direct licensing is a feasible alternative method by which CBS could satisfy its music needs would undercut its claims that copyright proprietors have combined to monopolize the market for performance rights and have used their leverage to fix prices and impose unlawful tie-ins. CBS vigorously disagrees with this view of the case. It argues, as though it could have moved for summary judgment years ago, that ASCAP and BMI are guilty of per se violations of the antitrust laws because the blanket licensing system, which is the only method by which CBS and the other networks have evér licensed performance rights, has .“thoroughly eliminated” price competition among copyright owners as a matter of historical fact. (CBS Post-Trial Brief at 15) CBS views the question of the feasibility of direct licensing as irrelevant to the issue whether defendants have restrained trade. It argues that the sole questions to be determined are (1) whether defendants’ restraint is justified or reasonable in view of the unique economic setting of the music licensing market; and (2) whether licensing can be accomplished on a more competitive basis. We find CBS’ analysis unpersuasive. Nevertheless, we set forth our views on the questions CBS raises because of their central importance to the ease. To do this, we must retrace some of the steps taken to define the issues prior to the trial. II. The Issue Presented for Decision A. ASCAP’s Motion for Summary Judgment At an earlier stage in the litigation ASCAP moved for summary judgment, relying principally on the decision in K-91, Inc. v. Gershwin Publishing Corp., 372 F.2d 1 (9th Cir. 1967), cert. denied, 389 U.S. 1045, 88 S.Ct. 761, 19 L.Ed.2d 838 (1968). In K-91 several members of ASCAP sued a radio broadcaster for infringement. The broadcaster admitted the infringement but defended On grounds similar to those asserted by CBS: that ASCAP is an unlawful combination engaged in price-fixing and block-booking of its members’ compositions. In rejecting the claims, the Ninth Circuit observed that ASCAP does not fix prices because, under the 1950 consent decree, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York is the ultimate price-fixing authority in the event of disagreement as to the reasonableness of ASCAP’s fees. As to the other claims, the court observed: “No contention is made here that AS-CAP’s actual activities do not comply with the decree. In short, we think that as a potential combination in restraint of trade, ASCAP has been ‘disinfected’ by the decree. There is an additional reason why the activities disclosed by this record do not violate the antitrust laws. AS-CAP’s licensing authority is not exclusive. The right of the individual composer, author or publisher to make his own arrangements with prospective licensees, and the right of such prospective licensees to seek individual arrangements, are fully preserved [by the 1950 decree].” 372 F.2d at 4. Although we agreed with the K-91 court, and continue to agree, that the activities of ASCAP and. BMI are not illegal per se, we denied ASCAP’s motion for summary judgment, because of a critical difference between the case presented in K-91 and the one at hand. In K-91 the parties stipulated that it would be virtually impossible for broadcasters and copyright proprietors to arrange separate licenses and payments for each radio performance of a copyrighted composition, and no proposal was made to the court of a practicable alternative to blanket and per-program licenses. In contrast to K-91, CBS’ claims are premised on the practicability of alternatives to the system now in effect. As noted earlier, CBS seeks an injunction either enjoining ASCAP and BMI even from offering blanket licenses or, in the alternative, and preferably, establishing what CBS calls a “per-use” system, by which ASCAP and BMI (rather than individual copyright owners) would be required to license individual compositions in accordance with a schedule of fees under court supervision. Moreover, far from being a stipulated fact, the impracticability of CBS’ “bypassing” ASCAP and BMI to secure licenses directly from copyright proprietors is the key factual issue in the case. Accordingly, we held that the feasibility of less restrictive alternatives to the blanket licensing system presented a genuine issue as to a material fact in the case and denied summary judgment to ASCAP. Subsequent to determination of AS-CAP’s motion and in accordance with our holding, we ordered trial of the following specified issues: “(i) Whether defendants’ conduct constitutes an actionable restraint of trade and compels the plaintiff as alleged in the complaint ; (ii) Whether, if such restraint or compulsion exists, it is reasonable and justified or whether it may be achieved by less anticompetitive means.” B. CBS’ ‘‘Per Se” Contention Despite our earlier holding that the activities of ASCAP and BMI are to be judged by the rule of reason and the specification of the issues to be tried in light of that holding, CBS now takes the position that the primary question presented for determination is whether the present system can be amended to operate on a more competitive basis. As noted earlier, it argues as to the first issue, that it has established an illegal restraint of trade as a matter of law because the blanket licensing arrangement has “thoroughly eliminated” price competition among copyright owners as a matter of historical fact. (CBS Post-Trial Brief at 15) Coming after an eight week trial and the accumulation of, a bulky factual record, the timing of this contention is unusual. For the reasons stated below, we find it to be unmeritorious as well. In support of its contention that ASCAP and BMI are illegal combinations merely because they offer blanket licenses, CBS cites cases in which sellers agreed among themselves as to the.prices to be charged buyers for their products. See, e. g., United States v. Socony-Vacuum Oil Co., Inc., 310 U.S. 150, 60 S.Ct. 811, 84 L.Ed. 1129 (1940); United States v. Trenton Potteries Co., 273 U.S. 392, 47 S.Ct. 377, 71 L.Ed. 700 (1927). The cases are inapposite. Unlike the plaintiffs in the cited cases, CBS does not claim that the individual members and affiliates (“sellers”) of ASCAP and BMI have agreed among themselves as to the prices to be charged for the particular “products” (compositions) offered by each of them. It makes the very different claim that a combination of individual sellers offering the entire pool of their products through a common sales agent at a negotiated package price is per se illegal, regardless whether the sellers are willing to sell their products on an individual basis. The claim fails as a matter of law. In Automatic Radio Co., Inc. v. Hazeltine Research, Inc., 339 U.S. 827, 70 S.Ct. 894, 94 L.Ed. 1312 (1950), the parties entered into an agreement by which Automatic Radio acquired a license for a ten year term to incorporate into its products any or all of several hundred patents held by Hazeltine. Automatic Radio was not obligated to use any of the patents in the manufacture of its products, but agreed in any event to pay Hazeltine royalties based on a percentage of its total sales. Automatic argued that the terms of the license constituted per se patent misuse and an illegal tying arrangement because the agreement exacted payment of a royalty on all sales whether or not its products used the patents, and in effect required it to purchase licenses for products for which it needed no license as well as for those which did. In rejecting the argument, the Court stated: “We cannot say that payment of royalties according to an agreed percentage of the licensee’s sales is unreasonable. Sound business judgment could indicate that such payment represents the most convenient method of fixing the business value of the privileges granted by the licensing agreement. We are not unmindful that convenience cannot justify an extension of the monoploy of the patent. But as we have already indicated, there is in this royalty provision no inherent extension of the monopoly of the patent. Petitioner cannot complain because it must pay royalties whether it uses Hazeltine patents or not. What it acquired by the agreement into which it entered was the privilege to use any or all of the patents and developments as it desired to use them. If it chooses to use none of them, it has nevertheless contracted to pay for the privilege of using existing patents plus any developments resulting from respondent’s continuous research. We hold that in licensing the use of patents to one engaged in a related enterprise, it is not per se a misuse of patents to measure the consideration by a percentage of the licensee’s sales.” 339 U.S. at 834, 70 S.Ct. at 898 (citations omitted). In Zenith Radio Corp. v. Hazeltine Research, Inc., 395 U.S. 100, 89 S.Ct. 1562, 23 L.Ed.2d 129 (1969) the Court refined the standards by which the validity of package licenses are to be judged. At issue in that case was the propriety of an injunction entered by the district court enjoining Hazeltine from: “A. Conditioning directly or indirectly the grant of a license to . . . [Zenith] . . . under any domestic patent upon the taking of a license under any other patent or upon the paying of royalties on the manufacture, use or sale of apparatus not covered by such patent.” 395 U.S. at 133-34, 89 S.Ct. at 1582 (emphasis in original). The quoted provision was directed at Hazeltine’s proven policy of insisting upon acceptance of its standard five-year package license agreement covering some 500 patents, and reserving royalties based on Zenith’s total radio and television sales whether or not the licensed patents were actually used in the products manufactured. The Court of Appeals had stricken the last clause of the quoted paragraph, relying on Automatic Radio for the proposition that conditioning the license upon payment of royalties on unpatented products was not misuse of the patent. The Supreme Court disapproved this construction of its earlier decision. It distinguished between the situation presented in Automatic Radio, in which the parties agreed on a package license “as a convenient method designed by the parties to avoid determining whether each radio receiver embodied [a Hazeltine] patent,” and the situation in Zenith, where the patent holder compelled the licensee to choose between a package license conditioned on the payment of royalties on unpatented products, or no license at all. 395 U.S. at 135-37, 89 S.Ct. 1562. In other words, the critical difference between an illegal licensing arrangement and a legal one is the fact of coercion or compulsion by the licensor. We disagree with CBS that such compulsion inheres in the present licensing system as regulated by the consent decrees and that defendants are therefore guilty of per se violations. As noted earlier, CBS makes no claim that either ASCAP or BMI has violated any provision of the consent decrees. The terms of the decrees do not by any construction suggest that CBS is in fact compelled to take a blanket license. To the contrary, ASCAP and BMI are required to offer per program licenses under which a fee is charged only with respect to programs in which a composition within the repertory has been performed; and to structure the fees for blanket and per program licenses so that the user has a genuine choice between them. Apart from the licenses available from ASCAP and BMI, the decrees leave a music user free to obtain licenses directly from copyright owners. This factor alone markedly distinguishes the present ease from Zenith, in which Hazeltine, as the sole supplier of the patents in issue, had, for all practical purposes, unlimited leverage in bargaining the terms of any license to them. C. CBS’ Theory of the Burden of Proof Taking a different tack, CBS also argues that “it is clear that [ASCAP and BMI] insist on licensing exclusively on a blanket basis” and that because they insist on such an “inherently restrictive” method of sale, they have the burden of proving the availability in the market place of acceptable substitutes, i. e., that CBS could obtain direct licenses sufficient to meet its needs from copyright proprietors. (CBS Post-Trial Brief at 15, 26-27) Neither the facts nor the law support the argument. As outlined later in this opinion, the evidence does not establish that ASCAP and BMI insist or have ever insisted on licensing on a blanket basis; and, of course, if they did, they would flatly violate the terms of the consent decrees. In any event, the argument fails as a matter of law. CBS cites a number of cases for the proposition that a defendant who argues that the plaintiff can avoid injury by obtaining a substitute product bears the burden of proving such an assertion. See, TV Signal Co. of Aberdeen v. American Telephone & Telegraph Co., 462 F.2d 1256 (8th Cir. 1972); Fontana Aviation, Inc. v. Beech Aircraft Corp., 432 F.2d 1080 (7th Cir. 1970), cert. denied, 401 U.S. 923, 91 S. Ct. 872, 27 L.Ed.2d 826 (1971); Gamco, Inc. v. Providence Fruit & Produce Bldg., Inc., 194 F.2d 484 (1st Cir.), cert. denied sub nom., Providence Fruit & Produce Bldg., Inc. v. Gamco, Inc., 344 U.S. 817, 73 S.Ct. 11, 97 L.Ed. 636 (1952); Stanton v. Texaco, Inc., 289 F.Supp. 884 (D.R.I.1968). To secure injunctive relief in a private antitrust suit, the plaintiff must prove an actual violation of the antitrust laws or that such violation is impending and that as a result the plaintiff is threatened with loss or injury. Zenith Radio Crop. v. Hazeltine Research, Inc., supra, and Credit Bureau Reports, Inc. v. Retail Credit Co., 476 F.2d 989 (5th Cir. 1973). In the cases on which CBS relies, the plaintiff had indisputably established the first element, i. e., that the defendant had illegally denied him something he wished to purchase, for example, space in a fruit market, access to telephone poles for a cable TV installation, or an aircraft dealership. The defendant in those cases argued that the plaintiff had failed to establish the second element of its claim—injury or the threat of injury—because he had not proven that he could not avoid injury simply by purchasing a substitute product elsewhere in the market. The court in each case held that a plaintiff does not have the burden of proving the nonexistence of suitable alternatives in order to prove injury or the threat of injury, particularly when it is clear that no substitute will have the unique attributes of the product which the defendant denied the plaintiff. However, in none of the cases did the court suggest that the plaintiff does not have the burden of proving the first element: the restraint of trade itself. Accordingly, the validity of CBS’ argument that it does not bear the burden of proving that direct licensing is not a feasible alternative to the blanket license turns on whether the issue of “alternatives” relates to the element of restraint, or the element of injury. We believe that it relates to the first factor: that is whether ASCAP and BMI have restrained trade. In the cases just discussed, plaintiff alleged that the defendant would not sell him something which he wanted to purchase, and the defendant argued that the plaintiff was not injured by the refusal because market substitutes were available. The present case poses an entirely different claim. The alleged restraint of trade is not that CBS is excluded from purchasing the services offered by ASCAP and BMI, and told to find substitutes elsewhere; but that (1) they allegedly offer only blanket licenses, which CBS says it does not want; (2) have combined to make any effort to obtain an alternative form of license (such as direct licensing) unfeasible; and (3) thereby compel CBS to continue to take a blanket license and to pay for music which it does not want to buy. Unlike the situations in the cases on which it relies, CBS does not want the organizational defendant-seller's product at all. Far from spurning “substitute” products, CBS claims that the lack of a substitute constitutes an alleged restraint of trade. So much is clear when one considers the nature of the direct licensing alternative. It is not at all a “substitute” in the sense used in the “injury-avoidance” cases; it is another means of licensing (on an individual basis) the use of precisely the same music which CBS would perform if it purchased a blanket license. If direct licensing is realistically available, it would enable CBS to pay only for the music it uses and for no other music, and would demonstrate that CBS’ complaint in this action is unjustified. In sum, we adhere to our earlier conclusion, as embodied in the pre-trial order, that to prevail here CBS must prove that defendants’ conduct in combining into ASCAP and BMI compels CBS to take a blanket license as alleged in the complaint. Proof that direct licensing is not a feasible alternative to the blanket license is an essential element of CBS’ claim, on which it accordingly bears the burden of proof. Conversely, proof that CBS could obtain the necessary performance licenses directly from copyright proprietors would be fatal to its claim that they have pooled the rights to perform their music in a manner which illegally restrains trade in those rights. If the restraint is proven, only then do defendants have the burden of proving that the restraint is justified by the economic context in which music licensing for network television use takes place, and cannot be achieved by less anti-competitive means. III. The Stipulation as to Competitive Disadvantage Prior to trial, the parties executed a stipulation which states in part: “ . . . There is a portion of the performance rights to ASCAP music appearing on [CBS] programs as to which it would be impracticable for [CBS] or such producers to negotiate for licenses directly with the owners of the performance rights of said music. [Without limiting the parties’ rights to adduce and offer additional proof with respect to any subject, both parties specifically reserve the right to adduce and offer proof regarding the reasons for such impracticability.]” (CX 2, ¶ 13; bracketed portion in original.) “If [CBS] chose not to have an AS-CAP license, the producers of [CBS] programs did not obtain such licenses, and [NBC] and [ABC] had such licenses, to the extent that [CBS] or the producers of [CBS] programs did not otherwise obtain the performance rights to the ASCAP music which they desired to use on [CBS] programming, [CBS] would be at a competitive disadvantage vis-a-vis [NBC] and [ABC] .” (Id. ¶ 15) CBS argues that, putting aside its proof at trial as to the impracticality of the direct licensing alternative, ASCAP and BMI have ceded the primary issue in the case by stipulating that CBS could not obtain direct licenses for all its music needs and that consequently, if it dropped its blanket license, it would be at a competitive disadvantage vis-a-vis networks which continued to hold such licenses. We disagree with the contention that defendants have stipulated the case away. Paragraph 13 does not specify the “portion” of the compositions in the ASCAP repertory as to which it would be “impracticable” for CBS to license directly; and the extent of “impracticability” is critical to the feasibility of direct licensing. As detailed later in this opinion, the evidence establishes that musical compositions are substantially interchangeable and that for any proposed use there are several, if not scores, of compositions which are equally suitable. Accordingly, even if CBS had access to far less than all of the compositions in the ASCAP and BMI repertories, that would not in itself render direct licensing unfeasible. Because a fair reading of Paragraph 13 does not indicate that ASCAP and BMI have admitted the unfeasibility of direct licensing, Paragraph 15 loses the dispositive force which CBS attributes to it. It is obvious that CBS might be at a competitive disadvantage vis-a-vis other networks if it held no music license. But that fact only raises, but does not settle, the question of what licensing methods are available to CBS. We regard the stipulation merely as an aid to the definition of the issues of the case. The extent of CBS’ use of music, the kinds of compositions it needs, and the persons with whom it must deal to negotiate licenses for them are factors whose relevance to the feasibility of direct licensing is only suggested by the stipulation, on which the parties reserved the right to offer proof. The decision in this case rests on the evidence as to those factors, not the stipulation itself. Accordingly, we turn to the question whether CBS is in fact “compelled” as alleged in the complaint. IV. Compulsion: The Quality of the Evidence Defendants argue that CBS’ case, which alleges the refusal of the defendants to license on terms which require CBS to pay only for the music it uses, falters at the threshold because CBS has not shown that it ever made a clear demand on defendants which they have rebuffed. It is true that several courts have imposed such a requirement in treble damage cases based on a conspiracy to deprive the plaintiff of a particular product. See, e. g., Royster Drive-In Theaters, Inc. v. American Broadcasting-Paramount Theaters, Inc., 268 F.2d 246, 251 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, 361 U.S. 885, 80 S.Ct. 156, 4 L.Ed.2d 121 (1959); Webster Rosewood Corp. v. Schine Chain Theaters, Inc., 263 F.2d 533, 536 (2d Cir.), cert.denied, 360 U.S. 912, 79 S.Ct. 1296, 3 L.Ed.2d 1261 (1959); Milwaukee Towne Corp. v. Loew’s, Inc., 190 F.2d 561 (7th Cir. 1951), cert. denied, 342 U.S. 909, 72 S.Ct. 303, 96 L.Ed. 680 (1952). However, the requirement has not be imposed in any case of which we are aware, when the relief sought is an injunction rather than damages. Cf. Zenith Radio Corp. v. Hazeltine, supra; Credit Bureau Reports, Inc. v. Retail Credit Co., supra. Although we agree with CBS that it is not required as a condition to suit to have been unequivocally refused the kind of license it now seeks, defendants’ argument highlights the unusual nature of CBS’ claim and the kind of evidence on which it relies. CBS does not claim that it is compelled to take a blanket license because ASCAP and BMI, or individual copyright proprietors, have actually refused or threatened to refuse to negotiate with it for alternative methods of licensing. Instead, its position is that ASCAP and BMI would refuse to negotiate new forms of licenses whose fees are based on actual music use; and that individual copyright proprietors would refuse to deal with it on a direct licensing basis, or at least make it such a difficult proposition that CBS would be forced to resume its blanket license. Although proof of what might or might not occur under hypothetical circumstances in the future is customary when the plaintiff in a private antitrust action seeks to establish a threat of injury, CBS relies heavily on hypothetical proof in order to establish the existence of the restraint itself—the nonavailability of direct licensing. The other side of the coin just described is that CBS has made no effort to obtain the kinds of licenses it now complains defendants are unwilling to grant. Although the absence of such evidence does not establish that CBS is not compelled to take a blanket license, we nevertheless regard it as highly relevant to that issue. Y. The Break-TJp of an Amicable Marriage Until the institution of the present suit CBS appears to have lived quite happily with the blanket arrangement which it now disavows. Since 1929 it has obtained ASCAP blanket licenses for its various broadcast operations, the earliest one purchased on behalf of a radio station; and when CBS and other broadcasters established BMI in 1939, they agreed to take blanket licenses. Since its establishment in 1946, the CBS television network (CTN) has continuously held blanket licenses from ASCAP and BMI. Since 1950, CBS’ negotiations with ASCAP for licenses for its television network have of course been conducted within the framework of the amended consent decree. Although, as noted earlier, the terms of the 1950 decree prohibit ASCAP from negotiating a blanket license prior to determining whether the user would prefer a per-program license, CBS has never applied for relief under the decree complaining that ASCAP insisted on blanket licenses. Nor has the court ever been required to set a “reasonable fee” for the blanket licenses negotiated by the parties from time to time. CBS has never negotiated or held a per-program license from AS-CAP or BMI for its television network and has never attempted to fulfill its music requirements by bypassing either organization and securing performance rights directly from copyright owners. This suit did not follow a breakdown in negotiations for a new form of license, but for a renewal of CBS’ blanket license from BMI. In April, 1969, CBS and ASCAP submitted for court approval agreements providing for final license fees as adjusted for 1969 and several prior years. Because the payments provided for in the agreements would have had the effect of sharply widening the historical ratio between BMI and AS-CAP fees from CBS, BMI’s President, Edward Cramer, protested to Donald Sipes, CBS’ Vice President in charge of business affairs for the network, that BMI would insist on maintaining parity with ASCAP. After several meetings between Sipes and Cramer in 1969 during which the latter was unable to negotiate higher fees, BMI gave notice on October 29, 1969 that it was exercising its right under the consent decree to terminate CBS’ license, effective January 1, 1970. CBS did not apply for relief under the decree. Instead, on December 19, 1969, more than a month and a half after BMI’s notice of termination, and less than two weeks before termination would become effective, the President of the CBS television network, Robert D. Wood, wrote to ASCAP and BMI requesting each of them to “promptly submit to us the terms upon which you would be willing to grant a new performance rights license which will provide, effective January 1, 1970, for payments measured by the actual use of your music.” This was the first such demand CBS had made. By letter dated December 23, 1969, Herman Finkelstein, AS-CAP’s general counsel, replied that AS-CAP would consider the proposal at its next Board of Directors meeting on January 29, 1970; that it regarded CBS’ letter as an application for a license in accordance with the consent decree; that CBS would in the meantime have an interim license for 60 days “at rates and terms to be negotiated, or determined ultimately by the court;” and that representatives of ASCAP would meet with CBS counsel on January 12, 1970 to discuss the application further. (PX 201) By letter dated December 23, 1969 Cramer replied to CBS’ request on behalf of BMI and stated that “The BMI Consent Decree provides for several alternative licenses and we are ready to explore any of these with you.” (PX 202) CBS did not, however, pursue the matter further. Instead it commenced this lawsuit a week later, on December 31,1969. Neither the history of the relationship between the parties nor the events leading to this action remotely suggest that CBS has been compelled to take a blanket license it did not want. Indeed, CBS does not even appear to have seriously considered available alternatives to the blanket license prior to the commencement of suit. CBS’ Vice President in charge of business affairs and planning for the network, Donald Sipes, was its principal witness as to the undesirability of blanket and per program licenses, and the need for a license under which the fee would be based strictly on actual use. Sipes testified that he first decided to explore alternatives to the blanket license sometime in 1968 or 1969. Although he was almost completely unacquainted with the intricacies of music licensing, he spoke to only three people in the course of his exploration. Two of these, Robert Evans and John Appel were house counsel for CBS. Sipes spoke to them only in their capacity as counsel, and did not seek their advice on the business aspects of licensing. The third person Sipes consulted was Emil Poklitar, the CBS employee in charge of the clerical personnel who process music logs and case sheets submitted by program producers to be sure the necessary rights have been cleared. Poklitar is not a business man and his duties involve a narrow portion of the music licensing spectrum. Despite Sipes’ lack of expertise, neither he nor his colleagues at CBS consulted any music writers, publishers, television producers or any other expert in the field about possible alternatives to the blanket license. (Tr. 151, 204, 358, 371) No one at CBS ever conducted a feasibility study about presently available or proposed methods of licensing the music to be performed on its television network. (Tr. 156-57) Indeed, Sipes testified that he did not even speak to other CBS executives about alternatives to the blanket license; he considered the alternatives entirely on his own initiative. (Tr. 180, 369) In sum, CBS thought very little indeed about revising its licensing practices prior to Robert Wood’s “demand” letter to ASCAP and BMI just prior to the commencement of this suit. The evidence described hardly supports CBS’ contention that it has been compelled to take a blanket license. To the contrary, it suggests that CBS did not even view music licensing as a business problem until immediately prior to suit. VI. The Claim That the Structure of the Market Bars Direct Licensing In the absence of direct evidence that ASCAP and BMI and their members and affiliates have refused to negotiate licenses which reflect actual music use, CBS’ claim that it is compelled to take a blanket license hinges on proof that the direct licensing alternative which exists in theory under the consent decrees is not a viable method for securing the necessary performance rights. CBS claims that it established at trial that the defendants have structured the market in such a way as to lock it into a blanket licensing arrangement and to make any attempt to license its music needs directly so prohibitively risky as to preclude it even from trying. The basic elements of this claim are illustrated by the following syllogism: First, it would be uneconomic for CBS to attempt direct dealing while it still holds a blanket license, because it would then be paying twice for the same music: that is, since the blanket license fee covers unlimited use of the ASCAP or BMI repertory, direct licensing transactions would involve the purchase of additional licenses for music already covered under the blanket arrangement. Second, because copyright proprietors and television networks have never engaged in direct dealing, the transactional machinery necessary to negotiate and clear direct licenses between CBS program producers and the large number of individual copyright proprietors has not been developed; and the absence of such machinery creates a “barrier” to direct licensing. Third, because the blanket license system insulates copyright proprietors from price competition among themselves, they have no incentive to create the necessary machinery, and indeed would refuse to deal with CBS if it attempted to license its needs directly. Fourth, the risk of a refusal to deal is particularly acute in relation to CBS’ present inventory of programs and films, which contains a large number of performances of copyrighted music whose initial runs on television were licensed under a blanket license. If CBS dropped its blanket license, it would need to seek direct licenses for the music contained in any programs which it plans to rerun because a rerun constitutes a performance for profit. Accordingly, the CBS inventory would be vulnerable to “hold-ups” by copyright proprietors who could either refuse to license their music at all, or exact a premium price for it. In sum, CBS claims to have established that because there is at present (1) no market machinery for direct dealing; (2) no expectation that it will be created; and (3) reason to believe that proprietors would refuse to deal with CBS, particularly with regard to programs in its existing inventory which it wishes to rerun, direct licensing is not a feasible alternative and defendants illegally compel CBS to continue to take a blanket license. To understand the evidence relating to these claims, it is necessary first to describe the nature and extent of CBS’ use of music. VII. CBS’ Use of Music Music is used on network television in three principal ways: as theme, background or feature music. Theme music is the music used to introduce and close a program. Background music is used to complement action on the screen. Feature music is music used as “the main focus of audience attention” (PX 469); for example, a performer singing a song on a variety show. Occasionally, however, well-known compositions suitable for feature use may be used as background music, for example, “Tea for Two” as background to a tea party scene. CBS concedes that it would be a simple matter for it to obtain direct licenses for most of the theme and background music it uses, and that the key to the feasibility of the direct licensing method is whether it can obtain licenses for the feature music and some of the background music it needs. To understand why this is so, some familiarity with the manner in which television programs are produced is necessary. As noted earlier, CBS itself produces virtually none of its “entertainment” programming. Apart from the news, public affairs, sports and special events programs—which CBS does produce and which make little use of music-—-the bulk of the programs broadcast over the network are acquired from independent program production companies, or “packagers.” Some of the packagers are well-known Hollywood “majors,” such as MGM, Universal and Paramount. Variety shows and some of the filmed serials are produced by smaller production companies, which are sometimes owned by the star of the show. For example, the “Mary Tyler Moore Show” is produced by MTM Company, Ms. Moore’s own; and “The Carol Burnett Show” is produced by her husband’s company. Ordinarily, the music used on entertainment serials is almost exclusively theme and background music composed especially for the program. For example, after the program has been filmed or taped, the producer typically hires a background composer to view the film, decide which action requires musical background, score the music and arrange and conduct the music scored. The producer pays the writer a fee for this work and acquires the copyright from him, as an “employee for hire.” Theme music is created the same way, but the same music is of course used from week to week over the life of the series. The producers of most of CBS’ regular programs own publishing subsidiaries which acquire the copyrights for the music which has been specially composed for the program. For example, CBS itself owns April Music, which in turn owns the rights to the background music used in “Gunsmoke.” The producer of “The Carol Burnett Show” owns Burngood Music and Jocar, which acquire the music specially created for that show such as background music for comedy sketches. Major studios, such as Universal, own major publishing houses, such as Leeds Music, which in turn own the rights to music created for Universal’s television programs. The publishing subsidiaries receive royalty distributions from ASCAP or BMI for performance of music on the shows created by their parent company. The royalties are of coursé a small fraction of the amount the producer receives from CBS for the program package itself. CBS may pay upwards of $200,000. for a one hour episode of a dramatic serial; the publisher’s performance royalties for that program may amount only to about $1,500. This description of the process by which theme and background music is created makes clear that CBS can easily acquire performance rights for such music as part of the same transaction by which it acquires the program itself. Because the program production company, or its publishing subsidiary controls the rights to music specially created for the program, CBS could license the right to perform that music at the same time and place as the overall right to televise the program. In contrast to theme and background music, feature music is not usually composed especially for the program. Rather, it is music which has been previously composed, and is controlled by a publisher who is not connected with the program production company. Feature music, and theme and background music whose copyrights are controlled by an “outside” publisher, cannot of course be licensed as a part of the overall transaction by which CBS acquires the program. Instead, in order to obtain rights to such music, it would be necessary for CBS or the program producer to approach the publisher who owns the rights to the music in question. As noted earlier, it is the feasibility of obtaining the licenses to this “outside” music on which the viability of the direct licensing alternate substantially depends. In order to establish how much of CBS’ music needs would require “outside” direct licensing transactions (as opposed to “inside” transactions with the program producer or his publishing affiliate whose feasibility CBS generally concedes) both sides have introduced into evidence computer runs which they claim establish the extent of CBS’ music use in the three basic categories. In general the computer runs and the testimony relating to music use verify what the average television viewer would assume. CBS’ news and public affairs programs use virtually no music; the staple situation comedy, crime and drama series use almost exclusively theme and background music specially composed for the program; and feature and background music controlled by outside publishers not connected with the program producer is used regularly on a small group of programs: variety shows and variety specials, sports shows (e. g., football halftime shows), late night talk shows, and the “Captain Kangaroo Show.” Although the parties are in agreement as to the general pattern of CBS’ music use, they differ in their claims as to precisely how much music CBS uses in each category and how evenly its use of music is distributed over the program schedule. We believe it fruitless and unnecessary to determine the question whether CBS or defendants have more accurately interpreted the data as to CBS’ use of music. It is fruitless because, as both sides concede, the data of record do not permit complete analysis. It is unnecessary because the validity of the conclusions which the parties seek to draw does not at all hinge on the few percentage points which separate the parties. Thus, defendants argue that the available data show that some 85-90% of CBS’ programs use only “inside” music which could be conveniently licensed through the program packager, or no music at all; and that the music for another 5% of the programs could be licensed by seeking performance rights from only one “outside” publisher. According to defendants, only 8-4% of CBS’ schedule is made up of programs (such as variety shows) which make heavy use of outside music, requiring licenses from several outside publishers. Accordingly, defendants argue, CBS could acquire the necessary performance rights for nearly all of its programming without the creation of the “machinery” which CBS claims (as discussed below) is required to facilitate transactions between producers and publishers. This assertion is not inconsistent with CBS’ argument that, even adopting defendants’ figures, direct licensing for the few programs which do make heavy use of “outside” music would be impracticable in the absence of “machinery” to service the large number of transactions which would be required. In short, no matter whose figures are closer to the truth, the question would remain whether the lack of “machinery” destroys the feasibility of direct licensing as an alternative to the blanket license and constitutes an illegal restraint of trade. VIII. Are There “Mechanical” Obstacles to Direct Licensing? A. The Legal Significance of “Machinery” Prior to trial the parties stipulated that ASCAP members and BMI affiliates “have not established facilities or procedures” for processing requests by music users for direct licenses for performance rights. (CX 2, CX 3) CBS argues that the fact that the individual defendants have not established such “machinery” constitutes a “barrier” to direct licensing which compels it to take a blanket license. (CBS Post-Trial Reply Brief at 29) Putting aside the question of the kind of machinery CBS claims to be necessary and whether its absence does in fact make direct licensing of outside music unfeasible, we disagree with CBS that defendants’ mere failure to have created machinery amounts, without more, to an illegal refusal to deal. (CBS Post-Trial Reply Brief at 27) • As outlined above, CBS has not, in the many years it has held blanket licenses, indicated a wish to fill its music needs by means of direct licensing. There is no evidence of substance that before bringing this suit it ever considered such an alternative in its own business planning. The only expression1 of its dissatisfaction with the blanket system was the “demand” letter sent by the network President, Robert Wood, two weeks before the commencement of this suit. That letter did not even refer to direct licensing, nor of course to obstacles, such as the lack of “machinery,” which arguably prevented CBS from engaging in direct dealing with copyright proprietors. Rather, the letter related only to CBS’ request for alternative methods of licensing through ASCAP and BMI. In short, there is no evidence that CBS gave any thought to the need for machinery, or noticed its absence, prior to this litigation. It is simplistic, in view of these facts, to argue that “by virtue of [defendants’] preemption of the field, there are absolutely no facilities in existence for direct licensing . . . ” (CBS Proposed Findings at 37). The “field” consists of buyers as well as sellers, and by taking a blanket license for twenty years, CBS (as well as other broadcasters) has “preempted” any need for the machinery whose absence is now claimed to constitute an antitrust violation. We are unable to accept the proposition that defendants have had the obligation to create the framework for a direct licensing system, particularly in the absence of any indication that CBS would ever wish to use it. There is no evidence, and indeed CBS does not claim, that defendants have refrained from creating the necessary machinery for the purpose of injuring CBS. In these circumstances, the fact that defendants have so far done nothing to facilitate direct licensing does not support the conclusion that they are illegally restraining it. B. Problems Allegedly Created by the Lack of “Machinery” Putting aside the question whether the mere absence of machinery illegally restrains trade in the market for performance rights, CBS has failed to prove that there are substantial mechanical obstacles to direct licensing. CBS postulates that under its new proposed licensing system it would pass on the job of licensing “outside" music to the production companies. In such a case, inside music would be conveniently licensed through the program packager and its publishing subsidiary. However, the producer would take on the additional job of obtaining rights to the outside music to be used on the program by contacting the publishers in question (or their agents, as described below) and dealing for the performance rights. CBS’ principal witnesses as to the need for machinery were Robert Wright, associate producer of “The Carol Burnett Show," and Edward Vincent, a former staff member of several network programs. Wright and Vincent are in the position of those who would use whatever machinery is required for direct licensing. In general the testimony of these witnesses was not persuasive, and their views on machinery were vague and abstract. (e. g., Tr. 482-83, 500, 687) Three basic claims emerge from their testimony. First, CBS asserts that the producer in a direct licensing world would sometimes have difficulty in identifying the publisher of a given composition in order to approach him for a license. The argument is based on the fact of life in the industry that publishers’ catalogs shift as they buy and sell copyrights, so that the publisher listed on the sheet music or record label may no longer own the composition when the producer wants to license it. CBS further claims that even assuming the producer can locate the publisher, the negotiations will be beset by confusion because, as defendants concede, music publishers have no established procedures for dealing with requests for performance licenses. Accordingly, the argument goes, direct licensing would be impracticable until settled ways of negotiating licenses are developed and publishers train their staffs to handle licensing. Finally, even assuming the producer can speak to the publisher in a language he can understand, CBS claims that difficulty would be caused by provision in certain 'contracts, between writers and publishers requiring that the writer’s consent be obtained prior to the grant of a direct license by the publisher. A provision requiring such consent appears in the form contract of the American Guild of Authors and Composers (AGAC). CBS claims that AS-CAP’s computer runs of CBS’ music use show that some 40% of the outside music it uses is written by AGAC composers, a figure we adopt arguendo; and that the need to obtain writer consents for the use of that music would delay direct licensing transactions and disrupt the t