Full opinion text
OPINION ENSLEN, District Judge. Plaintiffs bring this action under 42 U.S.C. §§ 1983, 1985, 1986 claiming violations of rights secured to them by the first and fourteenth amendments to the United States Constitution. Jurisdiction is based on 28 U.S.C. §§ 1331 and 1343. Specifically, plaintiffs allege that they are required by state law to pay to the defendant unions an agency shop or service fee in lieu of union dues and that this agency shop fee is not applied by the unions exclusively to purposes germane to their duties as collective bargaining representative for plaintiffs’ bargaining unit. Plaintiffs also claim that the procedures implemented by the unions to determine and collect service fees are inadequate. Plaintiffs argue that defendants’ practices violate their constitutional rights. Both damages and injunctive relief are sought against the union defendants. However, pursuant to an approved stipulation contained in the Pretrial Order of January 15, 1985, solely injunctive relief is sought against the nonunion defendants. Pretrial Order at 89-90. On the basis of this stipulation, the nonunion defendants did not participate at trial. This case was originally filed in this district on May 22, 1978, and was ultimately tried to the bench over 12 trial days in January and April of this year. The court entertained the testimony of 12 witnesses and accepted 90 exhibits into evidence. The parties completed their post-trial briefing on June 6. This opinion is entered pursuant to Fed.R.Civ.P. 52(a). I. FINDINGS OF FACT A. Stipulated Facts Plaintiffs James P. Lehnert, Elmer S. Junker, James E. Lindsey and John R. Schauble are tenured members of the faculty of Ferris State College (Ferris). Plaintiffs Theodore D. Speerman and Sam C. Peticolas were tenured members of the Ferris faculty until their respective retirements on November 22, 1978 and May 15, 1982. Defendant Ferris Faculty Association-MEA-NEA (FFA), an affiliate of the Michigan Education Association (MEA) and the National Education Association (NEA), has served as the exclusive bargaining representative of the faculty of Ferris pursuant to Mich.Comp.Laws § 423.211 at all times pertinent to this case. Pursuant to the unified membership concept, membership in the FFA also constitutes membership in the MEA and NEA. The MEA is a Michigan corporation; the NEA is incorporated under a special act of the United States Congress. Defendant Board of Control of Ferris State College is a public body corporate established and existing under the constitution and laws of the State of Michigan. Mich. Const, art. VIII, § 6; Mich.Comp. Laws § 390.801 et seq. It is empowered to control and manage Ferris. In addition to the Board of Control, other nonunion defendants are the individual members of the Board of Control and the President and Vice-President for Business Affairs of Ferris, in their official capacities. Since on or about February 22, 1975, the FFA and Ferris have entered into successive collective bargaining agreements containing agency shop provisions. After the FFA and Ferris entered into their first agency shop agreement, the authorizing statute, Mich.Comp.Laws § 423.210, was challenged in the Michigan courts and eventually appealed to the United States Supreme Court. In Abood v. Detroit Board of Education, 431 U.S. 209, 97 S.Ct. 1782, 52 L.Ed.2d 261 (1977), the Court upheld the constitutionality of the statute and outlined the permissible uses of agency shop fees in public employee unions. The concept of the current agency shop provision was proposed thereafter by Ferris during factfinding upon the advice of its counsel and with the intent of complying with Abood, There are three principal differenees between the early agency shop provisions and those in effect since November 19, 1981. The first difference is that under the present provision, Ferris does not discharge nonunion members for failure to pay the service fee. Rather, as authorized by Mich.Comp.Laws § 408.477, Ferris will now deduct the appropriate service fee from the paycheck of the dissenting member of the bargaining unit after due notice and opportunity to comply. The second distinction of the modern agency shop provision is that the service fees are now computed as the equivalent to the amount of the dues required of FFA members, “less any amounts not permitted by law.” The third and final major change is that dissenting members of the bargaining unit may now “object to the use of the service fee for matters not permitted by law” by utilizing the procedure “officially adopted by the Association.” Pursuant to stipulations and orders entered on April 21, 1983, and October 22, 1984, to avoid litigation expense and time, defendant unions have refunded, or agreed to refund, with simple interest, all service fees paid by plaintiffs, and waived any claims they might have had against plaintiffs for service fees not paid, for periods prior to the 1981-1982 fiscal year (September 1, 1981 to August 31, 1982). Pursuant to the stipulation and order entered April 21, 1983, plaintiffs have deposited with the registry of the court the MEA’s and FFA’s portions of the service fees demanded for the 1981-1982 and 1982-1983 academic and fiscal years; plaintiffs still in the bargaining unit are obligated during the pendency of this litigation to similarly deposit subsequent service fees after notice of the MEA and FFA portions; and defendant unions are enjoined from otherwise enforcing the agency shop agreement against plaintiffs during the pendency of this litigation. The amounts deposited with the court are: James P. Lehnert, Elmer S. Junker, James E. Lindsey and John R. Schauble, $455.00 each; Sam C. Peticolas, $215.00. No subsequent deposits have been made because the FFA has not given notice to plaintiffs of the appropriate amounts. Also to avoid expense and time, the parties have further agreed that the issue of which union expenditures constitutionally are chargeable to plaintiffs shall be tried only with regard to fiscal year 1981-1982. However, the proportions of the expenditures of defendant unions for various purposes during that year shall not be treated as representative of the proportions of their expenditures during subsequent fiscal years. During the 1981-1982 academic and fiscal year there were an average of approximately 502 full-time equivalent employees, including five of the plaintiffs, in the bargaining unit represented by the FFA. In practice, the amount of the service fee certified to Ferris by the FFA (in cases where service fee payors have not asserted constitutional objections) has been equivalent to the amount of dues required of members of the FFA. Of course, under the agreement of April 25, 1979, mentioned above, plaintiffs have paid reduced service fees into an interest-bearing escrow account and no payroll deductions from their salaries have been made by Ferris since that time. Pursuant to and in furtherance of the governance documents of the FFA, MEA and the NEA, a substantial portion of the service fees collected from nonunion members of the bargaining unit has been and will continue to be transmitted by the FFA to the MEA and the NEA. In fiscal year 1981-1982 an individual’s total dues (or service fee in the case of a nonmember not asserting a timely constitutional objection) amount of $284.00 was disbursed as follows: FFA, $24.80; MEA, $211.20; and NEA, $48.00. In fiscal year 1981-1982, $10.00 of the MEA’s portion of the service fee was placed in a Teacher Assistance Program (TAP) Fund. A major purpose of this TAP Fund was to provide direct financial assistance to teachers who were out of work permanently or temporarily as a result of a strike. After the decision in Male v. Grand Rapids Education Ass’n, 98 Mich.App. 742, 295 N.W.2d 918 (1980), app. denied, 412 Mich. 851 (1981), became final, the MEA acknowledged that the $10.00 portion of the service fee allocable to the TAP Fund would additionally be considered nonchargeable for objecting nonunion employees. Union defendants’ exhibit G additionally renders nonchargeable a portion of MEA staff time spent administering the TAP Fund. Plaintiffs are not and have not been members of the FFA. Both before and after filing the instant action, and in their complaint itself, they notified the FFA, MEA and NEA of their objection to the use, even temporarily, of any portion of their service fees for purposes other than negotiating a collective bargaining agreement with the Board of Control, administering that agreement, and adjusting grievances arising under it. The MEA and NEA have spent and will continue to spend portions of service fee monies to support activities other than negotiating a collective bargaining agreement with the Board of Control, administering that contract and adjusting grievances arising under it. Although the parties agree that collective bargaining, contract administration and grievance adjustment occurring at bargaining units other than Ferris can affect collective bargaining, contract administration and grievance adjustment occurring at Ferris, the parties disagree as to whether the plaintiffs constitutionally may be required to support such activities occurring other than at Ferris. The MEA and NEA have adopted procedures by which dissenting service fee payers, such as plaintiffs, may register their protest against the use of their money for certain purposes. The MEA Policy and Procedures Regarding Objections to Political-Ideological Expenditures, as revised by the MEA Board of Directors on August 6, 1982, is union defendants’ exhibit J. The NEA’s Political Activity Rebate Procedure, as last amended by the NEA Executive Committee on March 27, 1979, is plaintiffs’ exhibit l. The fiscal year 1981-1982 expenditures of the FFA from dues and service fee monies are set forth in Appendix A. Although the parties disagree as to the chargeability of many of the activities upon which the FFA, MEA and NEA expend service fee monies, they do agree on the general proposition that administrative or overhead expenses should be allocated proportionally between expenses (not including administrative or overhead expenses) found by the court to be chargeable and those found not chargeable. The expenses of the MEA Building and Site Fund during fiscal year 1981-1982 are to be treated as overhead expenses. B. Adjudicated Facts 1. Ferris Faculty Association-MEA-NEA In the Fall of 1981, at the beginning of the 1981-1982 fiscal year, the FFA was engaged in the process of negotiating a new collective bargaining agreement with Ferris. Negotiations did not go smoothly and, as reflected in plaintiffs’ exhibit 33, a letter from the President of the FFA to the President of the MEA dated October 8, 1981, the FFA was considering going out on strike. In response to this situation, the MEA conducted a “job action investigation” at Ferris. Warren D. Culver, who in 1981-1982 was the statewide Director of the MEA’s UniServ division, testified that the term “job action” is synonomous with “strike” and that the purpose of a job action investigation is to appraise the status of the ongoing negotiations, to determine the willingness of the local’s membership to support a strike if necessary, and to put pressure on the employer by making outward preparations for a possible strike. The effectiveness of this third function as a bargaining tool is evidenced by Mr. Culver’s testimony that only one out of every seven or eight job action investigations actually culminate in a strike. The remaining six or seven troublesome negotiations are resolved at the bargaining table short of a strike. The court finds Mr. Culver’s testimony on this point to be credible. In conjunction with the job action investigation undertaken at Ferris in the fall of 1981 the FFA, in conjunction with the MEA, established what the union defendants designate a “crisis center;” plaintiffs call it a “strike headquarters.” Once again referring to the credible testimony of Mr. Culver, the court finds that whatever label is attached to this facility, prior to a strike it serves as a meeting place for the local’s membership, a base from which tactical activities such as informational picketing can be conducted, and serves to apply additional pressure on the employer by suggesting, whether true or not, that the local is prepared to strike if necessary. While the parties stipulated at the trial that the FFA did not engage in a strike in 1981-1982, Appendix A establishes that the FFA did expend a total of $3821.04 on the crisis center/strike headquarters. Appendix A also reflects that a total of $832.96 was spent for informational picketing, media exposure, signs, posters and buttons. In the negotiations period, these expenses are incurred for the purpose of informing the public of the issues involved in an attempt to bring public pressure to bear on the employer. This type of public opinion and support is very important during contract negotiations involving public sector labor unions such as the FFA given the nature of the employment and the funding available to the college. The court also finds that $4788.77 was expended by the FFA during 1981-1982 on collective bargaining, contract ratification, negotiations training, and arbitration. Another $150 was spent for rent to hold membership meetings. A total of $1026.84 was used to send FFA representatives to the MEA and NEA Representative Assemblies. The FFA also spent $666.42 on the 13E Coordinating Council. That council is the UniServ unit for the separate bargaining units at Ferris State College and Central Michigan University. In terms of FFA expenses for 1981-1982 related to political activities, Appendix A reveals that $149.99 was spent on the Preserve Public Education (PPE) Conference. There was much testimony given and many exhibits received regarding the nature of the PPE program in 1981-1982. The court finds that this program was best summed up in the credible testimony of Warren Culver: The “Preserve Public Education Program” was an attempt on the part of the [MEA] to develop meaningful coalitions in the various communities so that we could pass millages, fight ballot issues, and do the kind of things that are absolutely necessary to fund public education, so that we have some reason to be able to continue to exist, bargain the contracts, and gain some benefit for our members. ... I think that one of the most important things that has to be understood about public employee bargaining is that the amount of money that we get comes from either local property taxes, state taxes and some federal tax. And if we have no way of raising that money, which is all allocated through the legislative process or an election, then we have no way to bargain. So it is really the front line bargaining of our contracts. Transcript of Culver Testimony at 4-5. Further, a total of $102.69 was expended for the purposes of lobbying the state legislature and attending an MEA Legislative Dinner. However, no attempt was made to identify the specific issues on which the FFA was lobbying with respect to these expenditures. Finally, Appendix A states that $2500 was loaned by the FFA to another association in 1981-1982. At trial, it was stipulated that this was a no-interest loan made to the MEA local in the Hisperia School District to support it in a strike. It was further stipulated that this loan was repaid in full the following fiscal year. The remainder of the expenses of the FFA during 1981-1982 were administrative in nature. 2. Michigan Education Association The MEA is a labor organization which, through 800-900 local affiliates such as the FFA, represents public school employees throughout Michigan. Like most public sector labor unions, it is a highly politicized organization, active in causes both related and unrelated to collective bargaining, contract administration and grievance adjustment. Prior to August 1981, the MEA had been divided into eight divisions. Four of these divisions were administrative in nature: General, Human Resources, Finance, and Internal Operations. The remaining four divisions were UniServ, Public Affairs, Professional Development and Human Rights (PDHR), and Program Development and Support. The UniServ division was the MEA’s main line of contact with the local affiliates. It also accounted for approximately 60% of the MEA’s total budget. Basically, UniServ directors (of which there were 97 in 1981-1982) were responsible for delivering the full range of MEA services to the members of the local units. It appears from all the testimony received that these directors spent the majority of their time on activities directly related to collective bargaining, contract administration and grievance adjustment. Further, the UniServ division included the Legal Services program. Through this program, the local associations were provided with legal representation on all employment-related matters. This service was provided on an “as needed” basis by private law firms and in-house counsel. UniServ also employed three negotiations specialists and two organizing specialists who were all supervised by the Director of Organizing and Negotiations. The Public Affairs division was responsible for the lobbying activities of the MEA and for a majority of its communications and public relations activities. The MEA’s lobbying activities traditionally cover a broad spectrum of issues ranging from pursuing state and local aid for public education to supporting the Equal Rights Amendment. Much of this political activity was undertaken to insure that the state’s public schools were adequately funded and the union’s members would be able to negotiate beneficial contracts. Of course, any legislative activity in the area of Michigan’s Public Employment Relations Act, which affects the MEA’s ability to engage in collective bargaining, was closely monitored. Public Affairs also kept abreast of changes in federal laws and regulations which would impact on collective bargaining, contract administration and employee representation. In addition, the Teacher’s Voice, the primary publication of the MEA reporting on all activities of the organization, was published by this division and distributed to all members of affiliated bargaining units. Finally, the Public Affairs division administered the association’s political action committee — MEA-PAC. The PDHR division engaged four of its eleven professional staffers as research consultants. These research consultants collected data on school finance, collective bargaining and other areas related to public school employment. They then prepared a negotiations data book used by the UniServ staff in bargaining contracts and maintained comprehensive statistics on contract settlements throughout the state. The research consultants also prepared prepackaged surveys for the local associations to use in polling their members to determine the members’ interests and concerns going into negotiations. These surveys often concerned the comparability of terms and conditions of employment in surrounding or similar schools. This type of information is highly relevant to the development of bargaining demands. Research services were available to the locals on an as needed basis. In addition to the research consultants, the division also employed seven PDHR consultants. These consultants engaged in three primary areas: professional development (including instruction, curriculum development and staff development), leadership training, and human rights. The Program Development and Support division was primarily concerned with conventions and internal governance. The division’s budget included the salaries of the MEA Division Directors, the Executive Director, the President and Vice-President, and the administrative assistants to these individuals. In August 1981, the MEA Board of Directors approved a reorganization of the association’s internal structure. That reorganization was completed by the end of the 1981-1982 fiscal year and resulted in the reduction of the number of budget divisions from eight to five. The reorganized budget still had a General category and four main institutional divisions. Uniserv remained the largest single division in the MEA although its size was reduced slightly and some of its smaller departments were transferred. Three new divisions were created: Administrative, Program Services, and Corporate Affairs. The Administrative division had three primary program areas: the Department of Finance and Membership, the Department of Internal Operations, and the Department of Human Resources. The Program Services division began the 1981-1982 fiscal year with five departments: Government Affairs, Legal Services, PDHR, Organizing and Bargaining, and Membership Services. However, the Board of Directors eliminated Organizing and Bargaining as a separate department during that year; it is unclear whether those functions were then performed by some other department within Program Services or another division. Finally, the Corporate Affairs division was engaged in developing and delivering special services to the membership. Included in this division were the following: the Michigan Educators Financial Services Association (MEFSA) (providing individual economic benefits and financial services to members), the Michigan Education Association Legal Services Plan (MEALS) (providing free legal services for members), and the Michigan Education Special Services Association (MESSA) (providing various insurance benefits for members). Considerable testimony was offered concerning the financial and accounting systems utilized by the MEA. Most of this testimony revolved around the bi-annual budget. In the spring of 1980, a budget was approved by the MEA Representative Assembly covering fiscal years 1980-1981 and 1981-1982. However, as a result of a decline in MEA membership, a revised budget for the 1981-1982 fiscal year was developed by the Board of Directors and approved by the fall 1981 Representative Assembly. This revised budget is Union defendants’ exhibit A. According to the testimony of Catherine Anderson, Director of Finance at the Michigan Education Data Network Association (MEDNA), a reorganized budget was subsequently prepared for 1981-1982 to reflect the administrative reorganization of the MEA during that year. With respect to the MEA’s revised 1981-1982 budget, the four divisions of an administrative nature had individual budgets of the following amounts: General, $425,-629; Human Resources, $255,041; Finance, $632,400; Internal Operations, $1,257,300. In addition, the Building and Site Fund, which the parties stipulated would be treated as an administrative or overhead expense, was budgeted at $494,000 for that year. This results in a total budgeted administrative or overhead expense of $3,064,370. The remaining four divisions responsible for direct (as opposed to administrative) expenses had the following individual budgets: Program Development and Support, 1,551,300; UniServ, 11,453,700; Public Affairs and Communications, 1,373,-200; and Professional Development and Human Rights, 973,600. Therefore, direct budgeted expenditures for 1981-1982 were $15,351,800, and the overall MEA revised budget for that year was $18,416,170. When the MEA prepared its reduced fee calculations for 1981-1982, it acknowledged that most of its employees engaged in some activity that was arguably nonchargeable. Therefore, the association had its division and department directors estimate the approximate percentage of time that the average person in his or her area historically spent on nonchargeable activity. These time estimates were generally made after consultation with legal counsel, but rarely involved the review of contemporaneous hard data. Indeed, witness after witness testified that it was not and had not been the practice of MEA staffers to record the nature of their daily activities on time sheets. After these estimates of the percentage of nonchargeable time were prepared, a “cushion” was added to increase the effective nonchargeable percentage to cover any error. The final nonchargeable percentage was then applied to the annual dues of MEA members which were computed on the basis of the 1981-1982 revised budget. The results of this calculation are set forth in union defendants’ exhibit G. Catherine Anderson testified that the MEA’s records for 1981-1982 are insufficient to enable an independent certified public accountant to conduct an audit of union defendants’ exhibits G and OOOO. Transcript of Anderson Testimony at 33-34. At trial, the MEA continued to argue the validity of its final reduced fee calculation by presenting evidence regarding the estimated nonchargeable portion of its 1981-1982 revised budget. Although evidence of actual expenditures for that year, as opposed to budget figures, should have been available to the MEA, the only such evidence that was introduced was the schedule of expenses contained on the last page of plaintiffs’ exhibit 613. Moreover, this schedule of expenses was formatted not on the revised budget for that year but on the reorganized budget. Ms. Anderson also testified that actual total expenditures for any given year generally vary less than 2% from the total budgeted amount. However, she conceded that individual line items may vary by more than 2%. The court finds that Ms. Anderson’s concession is an understatement. By reference to the actual versus budgeted figures for 1978-1979 and 1981-1982 listed in union defendants’ exhibit A and plaintiffs’ exhibit 613 respectively, it is clear that individual line items often vary considerably more than 2%. The court was not at all aided in its calculation of a chargeable reduced service fee by evidence of estimated nonchargeable percentages of time and activity. Further, aside from the fact that exhibit 613 contains sparse detail of activity expenditures, the difference in the structures between union defendants’ exhibits A and G (based on the revised budget) and plaintiffs’ exhibit 613 (based on the reorganized budget) made an extrapolation of a reasonably accurate chargeable service fee impossible. For these reasons, I conclude that there are few instances indeed in which the MEA has established the chargeability of discrete actual expenditures. The procedure by which the MEA implemented the service fee for nonunion objectors in 1981-1982 is set forth at note 4, supra. Recently, in the wake of the United States Supreme Court’s Opinion in Chicago Teachers Union v. Hudson, — U.S. -, 106 S.Ct. 1066, 89 L.Ed.2d 232 (1986), a new policy and procedure regarding objections to the service fee was implemented. On May 7, the MEA Board of Directors adopted a new policy regarding objections to political-ideological expenditures. Shortly before that, the Executive Director of the MEA adopted, upon the advice and recommendation of the Director of Legal Services, new administrative procedures to implement this policy. The new policy and procedures are currently in effect and are contained in union defendants’ exhibit QQQQ. Due to their importance to the ultimate remedy in this case, they are also set forth in full in the margin. 3. National Education Association The NEA is a national voluntary labor organization of public school employees. The MEA is a state affiliate and the FFA is a local affiliate of the NEA. Through its various state and local affiliates, the NEA represents approximately' 12,000 bargaining units nationwide. Like the MEA, the NEA is a highly politicized organization which engages in a variety of activities aimed primarily at promoting public education and public school employee welfare, in addition to improving the bargaining ability and position of its members and affiliates. The NEA is governed by the National Education Association Representative Assembly, Board of Directors and Executive Committee. Its actual expenses for 1981-1982 totaled $70,420,142. At the outset, the court will make some findings regarding plaintiffs' claim that the NEA has waived its right to any and all service fees from these individual plaintiffs. It appears that in 1981, the NEA made some settlement offers to plaintiffs whereby the NEA would refund service fees collected and waive its right to some future fees in an attempt to avoid the prohibitively high expense of the instant litigation. Plaintiff Speerman, who had already retired at that time, accepted the NEA’s offer of refund but the remaining plaintiffs did not. The parties could not agree on exactly what future fees were subject to the waiver and the settlement and release of the NEA did not transpire. Furthermore, plaintiffs were unwilling to forego their claim against the NEA for injunctive relief regarding its rebate procedures. In 1982, the court denied defendants’ motion to dismiss for mootness on similar grounds. Lehnert v. Ferris Faculty Ass’n-MEA-NEA, 556 F.Supp. 309 (W.D.Mich.1982). Finally, on October 22, 1984, the plaintiffs and the NEA stipulated that the NEA would refund all pre-1981-1982 service fees in exchange for limited discovery and litigation solely as to the 1981-1982 school year. The court finds that this stipulation would have been meaningless had the parties thought that the NEA had waived its right to all service fees. Since plaintiffs offer no other evidence suggesting that the NEA has made such a waiver, the court expressly finds that the NEA has not waived its right to collect service fees from plaintiffs for any fiscal years from 1981-1982 forward. From the evidence received at trial, the court finds that the NEA can be broken down functionally into 12 areas. Eight of those areas involve so-called direct expenditures: Affiliate Services, Communications, Government Relations, Human and Civil Rights, Instruction and Professional Development, Legal Services, Political Affairs, and Research. The remaining four areas, Administration, Business and Finance, Data Processing, and Governance, can be characterized as administrative or overhead. A brief description of the role of those areas and their actual expenditures in 1981-1982 is taken from union defendants’ exhibits EEEE, FFFF and GGGG. The Affiliate Services area operates to deliver NEA programs to NEA affiliates in the field. This is accomplished through six NEA Regional Offices. The total 1981-1982 Affiliate Services expenditures of $27,498,475 are further broken down into the following eight general areas: membership promotion and recruitment, $2,042,482; leadership training, $1,177,354; staff training, $1,010,138; coordination of services to affiliates, $3,529,672; bargaining and negotiation support, $1,171,938; field support for legislation and political affairs, $778,-792; organizing, $4,615,088; and UniServ, $13,173,011. The mission of the Communications area is to provide internal and external communications to NEA leaders, members, potential members and the general public. Internal communication was effected primarily through the NEA’s various publications. External communication was accomplished through the media. The Communications area expended a total of $7,904,237 in 1981-1982, $5,846,892 internally and $2,057,344 externally. Through the Government Relations area in 1981-1982, the NEA lobbied Congress on various issues related to employment and public education, monitored the activities of the Reagan Administration and several federal agencies, coordinated its efforts regarding passage of the Equal Rights Amendment, and communicated pertinent information to the state and local affiliates. The Governmental Relations area spent $1,652,718 on its attempts to achieve federal legislation and $433,435 on monitoring the administration and agencies for a total of $2,086,153. The Human and Civil Rights area is sometimes referred to as Teacher Rights. The area is responsible for developing and implementing programs to prevent violations of teachers’ rights, to protect and defend teachers whose rights have been violated, and to increase the involvement of minorities and women in the NEA. In 1981-1982, the area expended $255,751 on programs and litigation to protect teacher rights, $649,692 to enhance civil rights in education, $474,797 to increase minority involvement, and $234,232 to enhance equal educational opportunity, for a total of $1,614,472. The Instruction and Professional Development (IPD) area is responsible for assisting affiliates with the development and application of guidelines for licensure, accreditation and continuing education for teachers. It also provides training to teachers in numerous areas of professional and educational interest. With respect to higher education, it assists faculty in implementing guidelines to evaluate governance, tenure and academic freedom. The area’s total 1981-1982 expenditures of $2,275,960 were divided as follows: professional excellence, $514,054; organizational excellence through IPD, $856,534; integrity in educational opportunities, $546,743; and national recognition for quality education, teaching and critical educational issues, $358,629. nance on the 1982 NEA Representative Assembly. The Legal Services area offers a variety of programs and activities designed to assist and protect members and affiliates in all types of legal matters. The area operates a unified legal services program, a subsistence loan program, offers liability insurance and assists states in establishing attorney referral programs. Total area expenditures for 1981-1982 were $7,174,718. The Political Affairs area concentrates primarily on administering NEA-PAC and fostering individual involvement in campaigning and electoral politics. The area spent a total of $1,081,629 in 1981-1982. The NEA has agreed that this figure is nonchargeable. The final area involving “direct” expenditures is Research. This area is responsible for gathering and analyzing data, developing and conducting surveys, providing consultant and technical services, and training affiliated staff and elected leaders. In 1981-1982, the Research area expended $1,377,730 on the research computer network, $284,814 on collective bargaining/benefits services, $320,771 on information services, $1,024,908 on surveys, and $548,695 on studies/special projects, for a total of $3,556,918. The four areas responsible for administrative and overhead expenses, Administration, Business and Finance, Data Processing, and Governance, had total 1981-1982 expenditures of $17,227,585. Of particular note was the $1,408,670 spent by Gover- As union defendants’ exhibit L reflects, the NEA also computed its 1981-1982 political activity rebate by having its departmental area directors estimate the approximate percentage of time that staffers in their area spent on nonchargeable activity. Although certain NEA employees do keep daily time sheets of their activities, it is unclear to what extent this data was reviewed in making the nonchargeable estimates. Further, to a greater degree than the MEA, the NEA introduced into evidence data regarding actual expenditures for the fiscal year 1981-1982, as opposed to a mere budget. See union defendants’ exhibits EEEE (financial statement as of August 31, 1982 with auditor’s report) and GGGG (1981-1982 program accomplishment report). While the program accomplishment report is the type of hard data necessary in litigation such as this to establish chargeable expenditures, very little relevant interpretive testimony was offered to clarify the individual line items. II. ANALYSIS AND LEGAL CONCLUSIONS A. Chargeable Expenditures 1. Applicable Law In 1973, the Michigan legislature amended its Public Employment Relations Act (PERA) to expressly authorize an agency shop system for union representation of public employees. The constitutionality of the amended Act was challenged in the Michigan courts and ultimately appealed to the United States Supreme Court. In Abood v. Detroit Board of Education, 431 U.S. 209, 97 S.Ct. 1782, 52 L.Ed.2d 261 (1977), the Court held that an agency shop clause in a collective bargaining agreement between the Board of Education and the Detroit Federation of Teachers did not violate the first and fourteenth amendment rights of freedom of expression and association of nonunion members of the bargaining unit who were required to pay service fees, at least insofar as the service fees were used to finance union expenditures for the purposes of “collective bargaining, contract administration, and grievance adjustment.” Id. at 225-26, 97 S.Ct. at 1794. The Court also indicated that a service fee payor could not be required to fund union expenditures for political activity or ideological causes not germane to the union’s duties as collective bargaining representative. Id. at 235-36, 97 S.Ct. at 1799-1800. The Abood decision was not the first time that the Supreme Court had the opportunity to pass on the constitutional implications of union security provisions such as the agency shop. In Railway Employees’ Dept. v. Hanson, 351 U.S. 225, 76 S.Ct. 714, 100 L.Ed.2d 1112 (1956), the Court held that section 2, Eleventh, of the Railway Labor Act (RLA) as amended, 45 U.S.C. § 152, Eleventh, which authorized railway carriers and labor organizations acting as exclusive representatives of bargaining units to enter into union shop agreements, did not violate the first and fifth amendments to the Constitution. The Court acknowledged the congressional intent of eliminating the free rider problem by requiring those who enjoy the benefits of union representation to contribute to the support of the union. 351 U.S. at 231, 76 S.Ct. at 717. Further, the Court stated that such congressional action was a valid exercise of power under the commerce clause given the legitimate governmental interest in industrial peace and stabilized labor-management relations. Id. at 233-34, 76 S.Ct. at 718-19. One question left undecided by the Hanson Court — whether the required payment of union dues in a union shop could be used to force support of ideological causes or political candidates, see id. at 238, 76 S.Ct. at 721 — was decided several years later in International Association of Machinists v. Street, 367 U.S. 740, 81 S.Ct. 1784, 6 L.Ed.2d 1141 (1961). Street also involved a union shop under section 2, Eleventh of the RLA. In that case, the union had expended union funds, over the objection of dissenting union members, in the support of political causes to which plaintiff-dissenters were opposed. The Court held that the union’s use of an employee’s money, over his objection, “to support candidates for public office, and advance political programs, is not a use which helps defray the expenses of the negotiation or administration of collective agreements, or the expenses entailed in the adjustment of grievances and disputes.” Id. at 768, 81 S.Ct. at 1800. Construing the RLA in such a way as to avoid constitutional issues, the Court held that the statute did not give the union this power. Id. at 768-69, 81 S.Ct. at 1799-1800. A third case concerning the RLA, Brotherhood of Railway Clerks v. Allen, 373 U.S. 113, 83 S.Ct. 1158, 10 L.Ed.2d 235 (1963), described the burden of persuasion in cases where objecting nonmembers challenge the chargeable service fee: Since the unions possess the facts and records from which the proportion of [nonchargeable] political to total union expenditures can reasonably be calculated, basic considerations of fairness compel that they, not the individual employees, bear the burden of proving such proportion. Absolute precision in the calculation of such proportion is not, of course, to be expected or required; we are mindful of the difficult accounting problems that may arise. And no decree would be proper which appeared likely to infringe the unions’ right to expend uniform exactions under the union-shop agreement in support of activities germane to collective bargaining and, as well, to expend nondissenters’ such exactions in support of [nonchargeable] political activities. Id. at 122, 83 S.Ct. at 1163-64. This language was quoted with approval in Abood, 431 U.S. at 239 n. 40, 97 S.Ct. at 1802 n. 40. Subsequent to Abood, the Supreme Court decided yet another case involving section 2, Eleventh of the RLA. In Ellis v. Brotherhood of Railway Clerks, 466 U.S. 435, 104 S.Ct. 1883, 80 L.Ed.2d 428 (1984), the Court went beyond Hanson, Street, Allen and Abood and actually undertook to define the line between chargeable and nonchargeable union expenditures under the RLA. Applying the test of “whether the challenged expenditures are necessarily or reasonably incurred for the purpose of performing the duties of an exclusive representative of the employees in dealing with the employer on labor-management issues” id. at 448, 104 S.Ct. at 1892, the Court addressed six particular types of union expenditures: conventions, social activities, publications, organizing, litigation, and death benefits. In making this inquiry, however, the Court first construed the applicable provisions of the RLA in an attempt to avoid unnecessary constitutional issues. See id. at 444-45, 104 S.Ct. at 1890-91. With respect to the first two categories of union expenditures, conventions and social activities, the Court held that the RLA allowed the expenditures to be charged to objecting service fee payors. The Court stated that periodic, national union conventions at which union officers are elected and overall union policies, including bargaining goals and priorities, are set, are necessary for the union to “maintain its corporate and associational existence.” Id. at 448, 104 S.Ct. at 1892. For this reason, the Court held that conventions are necessary in order that the union may carry out its statutory function as exclusive representative, and therefore, the entire cost of such conventions are chargeable under the RLA. Id. at 448-49, 104 S.Ct. at 1892-93. As to the ,7% of total union expenditures spent on social activities, the Court noted that these functions were formally open to nonmember employees and were otherwise important to the membership because they helped maintain “harmonious working relationships.” Id. at 449, 104 S.Ct. at 1892-93. Although conceding that social expenditures were not central to the union’s statutory function, the Court refused to hold that such de minimus expenditures were beyond the scope of the RLA. Id. at 449- 50, 104 S.Ct. at 1893. The Court also considered a portion of the amount of money expended by the union on publications sent to all employees— members and nonmembers alike — to be chargeable to objecting nonmembers. Such publications, the Court observed, are the union’s primary means of reporting on its activities and communicating with represented employees on issues of mutual concern. The Court held that the cost of such publications is chargeable under the RLA to the proportional extent that the publications report on chargeable activities. Id. at 450- 51, 104 S.Ct. at 1893-94. Presumably, this calculation should be made on a column inch basis, see id. at 450, 104 S.Ct. at 1893; but absolute precision in the calculation is not required. Allen, 373 U.S. at 122, 83 S.Ct. at 1163. Since the Court found that these three expenditures were chargeable under the RLA, it also had to consider whether charging for the same activities increased the degree of infringement of the first amendment rights of the objecting employees beyond that impingement inherent in the union shop and, if so, whether the additional infringement is adequately justified by the governmental interest in labor peace. As to the expenditures for social activities, the Court held that the only communicative aspect of the compelled subsidy was the fact that such activities were sponsored by the union — a fact that was already taken into consideration in allowing the union shop. Therefore, forcing the nonmember to subsidize such social activities in no way increased the degree of infringement of first amendment rights. Id. 466 U.S. at 456, 104 S.Ct. at 1896. The Court recognized that conventions and publications presented more serious questions of communicative content. However, the small additional infringement of first amendment rights was justified by the legitimate governmental interest. The Court added that “[t]he very nature of the free-rider problem and the governmental interest in overcoming it require that the union have a certain flexibility in the use of compelled funds. ‘The furtherance of the common cause leaves some leeway for the leadership of the group.’ ” Id. (quoting Abood, 431 U.S. at 222-223, 97 S.Ct. at 1793). There was no explanation for the discrepancy in holdings ■ that the union could charge for the entire cost of conventions under the statute and the first amendment, but only for the portion of union publications relating to chargeable activities. It is beyond peradventure that aspects of union conventions are devoted to activities considered nonchargeable under the Court’s definition. Nevertheless, Justice Powell’s separate Opinion clearly pointed out this anomaly so it cannot be argued that the Court’s holding regarding the expenses of the convention was anything less than deliberate. See id. at 457, 104 S.Ct. at 1897 (Powell, J., dissenting in part). The Court held that the union’s expenditures for organizing efforts were completely nonchargeable under the RLA. Although organizing efforts outside the bargaining unit arguably are undertaken to make the union stronger and to bolster its bargaining ability, the connection between such efforts and collective bargaining was thought to be too tenuous. Id. at 451, 104 S.Ct. at 1893. With respect to intra-unit organizing, the Court stated flatly that “it would be perverse to read [the RLA] as allowing the union to charge to objecting nonmembers part of the costs of attempting to convince them to become members.” Id. at 452 n. 13, 104 S.Ct. at 1894 n. 13. In addressing the union’s expenses related to litigation, the Court construed the RLA to impose two qualifiers on chargeability. First, it held that only litigation before agencies and in courts that “concerns bargaining unit employees and is normally conducted by the exclusive representative” is chargeable. Id. at 453, 104 S.Ct. at 1895. This includes, but is not limited to, litigation incident to bargaining, contract administration, grievance and dispute resolution, fair representation matters and inter-union jurisdictional disputes. The second qualifier to chargeability under the statute is that litigation expenses must be broken down on a unit-by-unit basis. Id. This latter requirement is unique to litigation expenditures in the Ellis Opinion. Indeed, the requirement of a unit-by-unit breakdown of chargeable expenditures has never, to my knowledge, even been suggested in any of the Supreme Court's prior (or subsequent) union/agency shop decisions. Nevertheless, the Court offered no explanation of why the RLA required such a cost allocation and no rationale of why this type of allocation was appropriate to litigation expenses and no others. With respect to the issue of the union’s payment of death benefits to designated beneficiaries of deceased employees, the court of appeals in Ellis had held that since insurance benefits are a mandatory subject of bargaining, the union’s decision to insure its own members rather than seek benefits from the employer was a legit-¡mate tactical decision, “germane to the work of the union within the realm of collective bargaining.” 685 F.2d 1065, 1074 (9th Cir.1982). The Supreme Court did not reach the issue because, at the time of the Opinion, the union was no longer the exclusive representative of the unit and the objecting nonmembers were no longer participating in the benefit system. The Court did, however, rule that the objecting nonmembers were not equitably entitled to a refund of their past contributions because they had enjoyed the benefit of insurance coverage. Id. at 454-55, 104 S.Ct. at 1895-96. At least with regard to political or ideological expenditures of the union, there is a fundamental distinction between cases like Hanson, Street, Allen and Ellis involving private sector employment, and those like Abood and the case at bar involving public sector employment. The Abood Court recognized that this distinction is not to be found in the nature of the employee or in the work performed, but rather in the character of the employer. 431 U.S. at 229-30, 97 S.Ct. at 1796-97 (citing Summers, Public Sector Bargaining: Problems of Governmental Decisionmaking, 44 U.Cin.L.Rev. 669, 670 (1975)). While Street and Allen appear to have settled the question whether political or ideological expenditures by the union can ever be chargeable to an objecting member of a private sector bargaining unit, the same reasoning does not necessarily apply in the public sector where the legislature and other political bodies are integrally involved in the collective bargaining process or otherwise directly impact on the terms and conditions of employment. See Developments, supra note 9, at 1732-33. The Abood Court did not rule on this point, but it nevertheless framed the issues: There will, of course, be difficult problems in drawing lines between collective-bargaining activities, for which contributions may be compelled, and ideological activities unrelated to collective bargaining, for which such compulsion is prohibited. The Court held in Street, as a matter of statutory construction, that a similar line must be drawn under the Railway Labor Act, but in the public sector the line may be somewhat hazier. The process of establishing a written collective-bargaining agreement prescribing the terms and conditions of public employment may require not merely concord at the bargaining table, but subsequent approval by other public authorities; related budgetary and appropriations decisions might be seen as an integral part of the bargaining process. 431 U.S. at 236, 97 S.Ct. at 1800 (footnote omitted). The leading post-Abood federal case on political expenditures by public sector unions is Robinson v. New Jersey, 741 F.2d 598 (3d Cir.1984), cert. denied, 469 U.S. 1228, 105 S.Ct. 1228, 84 L.Ed.2d 366 (1985). In that case, public employee plaintiffs challenged, inter alia, portions of the New Jersey EmployerrEmployee Relations Act, N.J.S.A. 34:13A-5.1 et seq., which allowed agency shop arrangements and authorized the use of service fees for support of certain lobbying activities directly related to collective bargaining, contract administration or the terms and conditions of employment, but not partisan political activities or ideological causes only incidentally related to such functions. Id. 34:13A-5.5(b) and (c). Plaintiffs argued that such forced political support violated the first and fourteenth amendments. After a thorough discussion of the Supreme Court’s RLA cases and the Abood decision, concentrating on the distinctive nature of public sector employment relations, the Robinson court concluded: So long as the lobbying activities are pertinent to the duties of the union as a bargaining representative and are not used to advance the political and ideological positions of the union, lobbying has no different constitutional implication from any other form of union activity that may be financed with representation fees. 741 F.2d at 609. See also Cumero v. Public Employment Relations Board, 167 Cal.App.3d 131, 145-46, 213 Cal.Rptr. 326, 336-37 (1985); cf. Beck v. Communications Workers of America, 776 F.2d 1187, 1210-11 & n. 31 (4th Cir.1985) (lobbying expenditures not chargeable in private sector union context). Although the Third Circuit’s decision in Robinson is not controlling in the instant case, I find the reasoning in that opinion very persuasive. Further, although the New Jersey statute at issue in Robinson provided explicitly that certain lobbying expenditures were chargeable by the union, and Michigan’s PERA is silent on this issue, I do not think that the two statutes can fairly be distinguished in this respect. It appears that the New Jersey and Michigan legislatures had similar intents when passing their respective amendatory statutes — to foster the roles of exclusive representatives in the public employment sector and to promote labor peace by eliminating, to the greatest extent possible, the problem of “free riders” in the collective bargaining unit. Compare Robinson, 741 F.2d at 609-10 with Mich.Comp. Laws § 423.210(2) and Abood, 431 U.S. at 224, 97 S.Ct. at 1793 (discussing PERA). Unlike PERA, the New Jersey statute was amended after, and with the benefit of, the Supreme Court’s decision in Abood. If there is a distinction to be made between the two statutes, it is that PERA sought to make the full equivalent of ordinary union dues chargeable to the service fee payor while the New Jersey statute provided that the service fee could not exceed 85% of ordinary dues. See N.J.S.A. 34:13A-5.5(b). Therefore, it cannot be argued that the Michigan legislature did not intend for service fee payors in an agency shop to contribute to the cost of the union’s lobbying activities to the extent that the activities are germane to the union’s duties as bargaining representative and the compelled contribution is otherwise constitutionally permissible. In accordance with the foregoing discussion, I find that such lobbying expenditures are constitutionally chargeable to public sector service fee payors under PERA. Another issue in contention is public sector organizing. As I have already discussed, the Supreme Court held in Ellis that expenditures related to organizing, both in and out of the bargaining unit, are nonchargeable under the RLA. The union defendants in the case at bar seek to distinguish Ellis on three grounds. First, they restate the importance of the distinction between public and private unions, and especially the inability of school employee unions in Michigan to engage in a lawful strike. These defendants argue that the relative strength of a public bargaining unit in this case is more directly connected to their ability to collectively bargain than in the Ellis, private sector union context because the threat of an illegal strike will be taken more seriously by the governmental employer if it knows that a greater percentage of the employees will support the strike. Secondly, the union defendants argue that the majority of the organizing conducted by them in 1981-1982 was aimed at school support personnel — not teachers. In other words, the unions were organizing within the bargaining unit but not attempting to convince objecting nonmember teachers, such as the instant plaintiffs, to become members. Cf. Ellis, 466 U.S. at 451-52 & n. 13, 104 S.Ct. at 1893-94 & n. 13. Lastly, the union defendants distinguish the Ellis decision on this point because the Court’s holding with respect to organizing was made under the RLA, not under the Constitution. While these defendants’ arguments regarding the differences between the organizing undertaken in the case at bar and that considered in Ellis are not entirely unpersuasive, this court is not convinced that the differences are so compelling as to justify a contrary conclusion. The Ellis Court stated, in unambiguous language, that it considered organizing efforts “aimed toward a stronger union” to have only an “attenuated connection with collective bargaining.” Id. at 451, 104 S.Ct. at 1894. This court is satisfied that the constitutional standard of Abood requires a more direct connection. Accordingly, I hold that the union defendants' expendítures for organizing are not chargeable to the plaintiffs. The final issue in contention is litigation expenses. As I have already stated, the Ellis Court construed the RLA in such a way as to require such expenses to be chargeable to service fee payors only where the litigation was related to the union’s duties as exclusive representative and where it involved members of the service fee payors’ bargaining unit. I fully recognize that the Ellis Court engaged in statutory interpretation in an effort to avoid the constitutional issue. By contrast, the constitutional question of the chargeability of public sector litigation expenses is squarely before this court. Though Ellis is not binding on this issue, the Supreme Court’s statutory rationale ordinarily would be accorded the greatest persuasive weight in analyzing the constitutional requirements. However, I am deeply troubled by the complete lack of rationale offered for the Ellis requirement of a unit-by-unit breakdown. I am also very concerned about the adverse implications of according constitutional significance to this particular statutory requirement and applying the new rule to the facts of the instant case. The inconsistency of requiring only litigation expenses to be broken down by bargaining unit in determining chargeability is readily apparent. Much if not all litigation that is related to the union’s duties as exclusive representative addresses issues of shared concern. See Developments, supra note 9, at 1731. Furthermore, since unions operate on a cost-sharing basis, extraordinary expenses incurred by any one unit in any given year are spread out over all units represented by the union. This cooperative cross-funding enables the union to effectively represent individual members and units in hard cases that will have an impact on the greater whole while maintaining stable dues levels. Since dues levels are incorporated as benchmarks for service fees in union/agency shop statutes, see, e.g., 45 U.S.C. § 152, Eleventh; Mich. Comp.Laws § 423.210; N.J.S.A. 34:13A-5.-5(b), service fees may not exceed ordinary union dues even in a situation where a disproportionately high percentage of the union’s litigation expenditures for a given period are directly attributable to a particular bargaining unit. In other words, a unit-by-unit breakdown of litigation expenses, or any other expenditure, in a determination of the chargeable service fee — even assuming such a breakdown were possible or practicable from a cost effectiveness standpoint — would logically lead to drastic fluctuations in the amount of the service fee charged to the objecting nonmembers of individual units. Nevertheless, because most union/agency shop statutes tie the amount of the service fee to the amount of ordinary union dues, service fees can never legally exceed dues. Therefore, a unit-by-unit breakdown of chargeable expenditures would only exacerbate the free rider problem and thereby frustrate the governmental interest that the Court has repeatedly recognized lies at the heart of statutes authorizing union/agency shops. In addition to these general legal problems, imposing a constitutional requirement of a unit-by-unit breakdown of litigation (or any other) expenses would create an unreasonable and unmanageable administrative burden on the instant union defendants. The MEA has hundreds of affiliated local bargaining units; the NEA has thousands. Assuming arguendo that these bodies were able to breakout discrete expenses by bargaining unit — an assumption that is not warranted by the facts at trial — I have little doubt that the marginal revenue received from service fee payors would not justify the cost of modifying the existing accounting systems to accommodate the requirement. Thus, from a cost-benefit standpoint, a decree requiring a unit-by-unit breakdown of chargeable litigation expenses would be “likely to infringe the union’s right to expend uniform exactions under the [agency] shop agreement in support of activities germane to collective bargaining____” Allen, 373 U.S. at 122, 83 S.Ct. at 1164 {cited in Abood, 431 U.S. at 239 n. 40, 97 S.Ct. at 1802 n. 40.) In my opinion, such an extreme decree is not warranted by the Constitution or by log