Full opinion text
ROSENBAUM, District Judge. In this class action lawsuit, plaintiffs allege that defendants have engaged in sexually discriminatory employment practices in violation of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, 42 U.S.C. § 2000e, et seq., and the Minnesota Human Rights Act, Minnesota Statutes, Section 363.01, et seq. The Court has jurisdiction over plaintiffs’ federal claims pursuant to 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-5(f)(3) and 28 U.S.C. §§ 1331 and 1343. The Court has pendent jurisdiction over plaintiffs’ state law claims. This matter is currently before the Court on a contested motion for final approval of a proposed settlement agreement, pursuant to Rule 23(e) of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure. The Court, after considerable reflection and soul-searching, finds the proposed settlement to be a fair, reasonable, and adequate resolution of the matters at issue between the parties. See Grunin v. International House of Pancakes, 513 F.2d 114, 123 (8th Cir.), cert. denied, 423 U.S. 864, 96 S.Ct. 124, 46 L.Ed.2d 93 (1975). Final approval is granted to the proposed settlement. I. Facts A. The Parties The plaintiff class, as certified, consists of over 7,800 women who were employed by Burlington Northern Railroad Company (Burlington Northern, BN, or the railroad company) after July 27, 1977, and whose claims of discrimination arose after that date. The certified representatives of the plaintiff class are Margaret Holden, Cecilia Hoffman, Kathryn Lindaman, Delores Marsh, Darlene Sisk, Judith Pluff, Beverly Adams, Faye Plucker, Joleen Mcllravy, and Margaret Serbus. Each certified representative’s specific claim is set forth in the March 5, 1985, order of the Honorable Paul A. Magnuson. Two additional women, Karla Keefe and Diane Kubes, are named as plaintiffs in this case, but were found to be inadequate representatives of the certified class. The proposed settlement expands the scope of the class to include women who were either employed by BN or who were denied such employment after March 3, 1970. This is, in fact, the class the plaintiffs sought to certify before Judge Magnuson. The settlement class consists of approximately 13,700 women. The representatives of that class are the certified class representatives plus Karla Keefe and Diane Kubes. The plaintiffs are represented by the law firm of Sprenger, Olson & Shutes, P.A., (the Sprenger firm) of Minneapolis, Minnesota. The law firm of Davis, Barnhill & Galland, P.C., (Davis, Barnhill) of Chicago, Illinois, joined the Sprenger firm in its representation of plaintiffs in June, 1984. Davis, Barnhill appears as assisting counsel to the Sprenger firm. It does not represent, in its own right, any class members nor does it appear on behalf of any objectors to the proposed settlement. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) was allowed to intervene in this case by the April 10, 1984, order of the Honorable Floyd E. Boline. By that order, the EEOC’s intervention was limited to the scope of the claims asserted by the private plaintiffs. The EEOC is not a party to this action nor does it appear on behalf of any of the plaintiffs in this case. It is represented by attorneys from its Cleveland, Ohio, office. The named defendants in this case are Burlington Northern, Inc., a holding company, and three of its subsidiaries, Burlington Northern Railroad Company, Milestone Petroleum, Inc., and BN Timberlands, Inc. The railroad company is the subsidiary against which this action is directed and against which the plaintiff class is certified. Its size and scope are outlined in the March 5, 1985, order of the Honorable Paul A. Magnuson. Although this action is not directed against the holding company and the remaining subsidiaries, they were retained as defendants in the event injunctive relief would have to be ordered against the holding company, so as to fully implement any relief plaintiffs might obtain. The holding company and its subsidiaries are represented by the Saint Paul law firm of Oppenheimer, Wolff & Donnelly. Also named as defendants in this case are thirteen separate railroad unions. Each union has its own collective bargaining agreement with BN. Each such contract governs a subgroup of employees at the railroad. Various counsel throughout the United States represent the union defendants. B. The Procedural History The initial complaint in this action was filed on September 23, 1981. The 1981 complaint has been amended seven times, including one amendment as part of the present proposed settlement. In its final version, plaintiffs complain of failure to be hired; initial misassignment to positions traditionally held by females; inability to transfer to positions traditionally held by males; restraints upon upward mobility; diminished compensation; unfair demotion, discipline, and discharge; and physical and psychological assault through various forms of sexual harassment. Plaintiffs contend these wrongs were committed against them because of their female sex. Defendants deny they have discriminated against plaintiffs in any of their employment practices. Since the inception of this case, the parties have actively engaged in discovery and other pretrial proceedings. Extensive written and oral discovery was conducted. Over 150,000 documents were produced, discovery of computerized data was accomplished, and approximately 164 depositions were taken at locations throughout the United States. Numerous motions on various issues were briefed and argued by the parties and considered and ruled upon by the Court. The Court issued no fewer than 88 formal orders. In addition, numerous pretrial conferences were held, especially in the months just prior to trial, when they were held on a weekly basis. In short, this was a hard-fought lawsuit, with zealous advocates representing the interests of each of their respective parties. A class certification hearing, lasting approximately seven weeks, was held in November and December of 1984-. Subsequent to that hearing, this cause was certified as a class action lawsuit pursuant to Rule 23(a) and (b)(2) of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure. The certified class consists of “all women who are now or have been employed at any time after July 27, 1977, by Burlington Northern Railroad Company (or any of the subdivisions of predecessor Burlington Northern, Inc., from which Burlington Northern Railroad Company was created) and who have claims of discrimination which arose at any time subsequent to July 27, 1977.” See May 20, 1985, order of the Honorable Paul A. Magnuson. The class was notified of this lawsuit in November, 1985. Trial of this matter began on February 3, 1986, and proceeded until an agreement-in-principle was reached in June, 1986. At that time, trial was recessed and the parties crafted a formal proposed settlement agreement. A preliminary approval hearing regarding the proposed settlement was held on July 17, 1986. Based upon all submissions and arguments received, the Court concluded that the proposed settlement was within the range of possible approval. See Man ual for Complex Litigation, Second, Section 30.44. By its order of July 23, 1986, the Court preliminarily approved the proposed settlement agreement and directed that notice concerning it be disseminated to the class. At the same time, the Court explicitly stated that by granting preliminary approval, it was not expressing any opinion concerning the ultimate merits of the proposed settlement. A fairness hearing was held from September 30, 1986, to October 3, 1986. The parties were then given until October 20, 1986, to submit to the Court, in writing, any final thoughts they had regarding the proposed settlement. C. The Settlement History During the first three years after the initiation of this action, BN made no settlement offer. In November, 1984, on the eve of the class certification hearing, BN offered plaintiffs $750,000 to settle the entire case against the proposed class; including any claims for costs or attorneys’ fees. No affirmative job relief was offered. This proposal was rejected. In May, 1985, after a class had been certified and considerably reduced in size from that proposed, BN again offered $750,000, this time only for the named plaintiffs and the class. This proposal was conditioned on the parties’ ability to agree at a later time to a further sum for costs and fees. This offer was also rejected. No further settlement discussions between plaintiffs and BN occurred until December, 1985. Prior to December, 1985, plaintiffs and the defendant unions drafted a proposed consent decree resolving the matters at issue among them. This decree was presented to the Court for preliminary approval, over the objection of BN, in November, 1985. The Court declined to preliminarily approve the proposed decree. The parties then submitted to the Court a revised version of the proposed consent decree in January, 1986. BN also objected to the revised decree. It, too, was rejected by the Court. In an attempt to facilitate more expansive settlement discussions between the parties, the Court appointed a special master in December, 1985. One settlement conference was held before the special master to no avail. The parties discontinued further settlement discussions. Although some settlement discussions between plaintiffs and BN were had immediately prior to the February, 1986, commencement of trial, serious discussions did not resume until April, 1986, after the close of plaintiffs’ affirmative case. Initially, Court supervised discussions occurred between various representatives of the parties. These evolved in May, 1986, into discussions conducted by Paul Sprenger, lead counsel for the plaintiffs, and Wayne Faris, counsel for BN. In early June, certain counsel for the union defendants also became involved. Following these discussions, the parties informed the Court on June 17, 1986, that an agreement-in-principle had been reached resolving all matters in this case. Shortly after being advised of the agreement-in-principle, the Court learned that attorneys Bridget Arimond of Davis, Barn-hill, and Jack Sargent of the EEOC opposed the proposed agreement. They claimed the job relief outlined in the proposed settlement was illusory, the monetary relief was too low, and the proposed agreement was the product of fraud and collusion among negotiating counsel for the parties. In light of the clear disagreement among counsel regarding the proposed settlement, the Court, prior to the preliminary approval hearing, afforded all counsel the opportunity to submit memoranda regarding their competing views as to the efficacy of the proposed agreement. All counsel were also given the opportunity to argue their positions at the hearing. Prior to the fairness hearing, the Court again allowed all counsel to submit memoranda addressing whether the proposed settlement should be given final approval. Class members were also allowed to submit to the Court any written thoughts they had regarding the proposed settlement. At the fairness hearing, proponents and opponents of the proposed agreement addressed the Court orally regarding its pérceived merits and defects. D. The Proposed Settlement Agreement The proposed settlement agreement primarily provides two types of relief: job and monetary. This relief is available only to the individuals in the settlement class, defined as: All women who have been or will be employed, or who have been denied employment, after March 3, 1970, by Burlington Northern Railroad Company (or any of the subdivisions of predecessor Burlington Northern, Inc. from which Burlington Northern Railroad Company was created) and who have been, are being, or, as a result of present policies or practices, will be discriminated against in the failure to hire or, as to those hired, with regard to terms or conditions of employment including, but not limited to, initial assignment, compensation, seniority agreements, the unions’ duty of fair representation, maternity policies, merger protection, testing, training, disqualifications, surplus, harassment, apprenticeship, LETP training, dispatcher training, promotion, transfers, layoff, recalls, discipline, demotion and involuntary termination actions (discharge) because of their sex, except women who have opted out and who do not submit a claim form in the proceedings. See Proposed Settlement Agreement, paragraph 2. The scope of the class includes all female applicants for employment at, and all female employees of, BN having claims of discrimination arising out of events which occurred at any time from March 3, 1970, through July 23, 1986, the date the proposed settlement agreement was preliminarily approved. See Proposed Settlement Agreement, paragraph 3. The class excludes individuals who may claim discrimination by a BN-constituent railroad prior to the date of that railroad’s merger into BN. See Proposed Settlement Agreement, paragraph 2. 1. Monetary Relief The proposed settlement agreement provides that BN will pay the settlement sum of $5,742,773. This sum was deposited, upon execution of the proposed agreement, in an interest bearing account with the First Bank of Minneapolis. Interest on the deposited sum is currently accruing. From this amount, $2,044,001 is set aside for the named plaintiffs and the class they represent. This plaintiffs’ fund will remain at interest until all review of this decision is completed or until the total class distribution amount equals $2,500,000. As to the remainder of the settlement sum, $1,860,-138 will cover the out-of-pocket costs and expenses of the named plaintiffs, and $1,838,634 will pay plaintiffs for the attorneys’ fees they have incurred from the Sprenger firm. In addition to the settlement sum, the proposed agreement provides that BN will pay the expenses and attorneys’ fees plaintiffs have incurred from Davis, Barnhill, up to $424,327. BN is also obligated to make full contribution to the Railroad Retirement Board based upon backpay awards to the named plaintiffs and successful class claimants. This retirement board payment is estimated at $200,000. The proposed settlement further requires that BN pay the cost of notice to the class, both mailed and published, as well as the expenses of administration of the settlement. The costs of the published notice alone exceeded $400,000 and the expenses of administration are expected to be $176,000. In all, the settlement provides monetary benefits to the plaintiffs and the class of approximately $7,000,000. 2. Job Relief The proposed settlement agreement states that BN will provide up to 1150 jobs to class members as vacancies occur in the workforce, either through attrition or new hiring. BN will provide: 1) up to 500 jobs to women with scheduled hiring claims, 2) up to 250 jobs to women with scheduled initial misassignment claims, 3) up to 150 jobs to women with scheduled intercraft transfer claims, 4) up to 50 jobs to women with Locomotive Engineer Training Program (LETP) and Dispatcher Training Program claims, and 5) up to 200 jobs to women with promotion from scheduled to exempt claims. Those class members who are eligible for these positions will be selected from priority pools established in accordance with the terms of the proposed settlement agreement. The proposed settlement agreement provides that a class member who obtains a job under the agreement may qualify for rightful place seniority; that is, the seniority she would now have if she had obtained the job when she originally applied. A class member who obtains a job but does not qualify for rightful place seniority receives, for four years, or until June, 1993, whichever is earlier, fallback seniority instead. See Proposed Settlement Agreement, paragraph 37. This seniority allows the class member to retain her place in the seniority rank of her old job while accumulating seniority in the new position. In the event of lay-off or furlough from the new job, the class member may exercise her fallback right to obtain her old position. During any such lay-off or furlough, she continues to accumulate seniority in her new job even though she may have exercised her fallback seniority rights to keep herself working. 3. Additional Relief Beyond the direct job and monetary relief provisions, the proposed agreement mandates BN to revise its policy on sexual harassment. It also requires BN to train its supervisors on sexual harassment awareness and requires the railroad company to amend its safety rule book and manual of discipline investigations to specifically deal with sexual harassment. In addition, the proposed agreement obligates BN to post openings for entry level exempt positions and obligates the company to equalize the compensation rates for female and male exempt new hires. With the history of this case behind the Court and with the proposed terms of the settlement currently before it, the Court’s analysis now turns to whether those terms embody a fair, reasonable, and adequate resolution of this case. II. Discussion Those plaintiffs who advocate the proposed settlement, as well as the railroad and the unions, are now before the Court seeking final approval of that agreement. They are accompanied by their proponent-counsel. Federal courts look with favor on the voluntary resolution of litigation through settlement. Armstrong v. Board of School Directors, Etc., 616 F.2d 305, 312 (7th Cir.1980); Parker v. Anderson, 667 F.2d 1204, 1209 (5th Cir.), cert. denied, 459 U.S. 828, 103 S.Ct. 63, 74 L.Ed.2d 65 (1982). This is especially true in Title VII class action litigation, where the public interest in voluntary resolution is great. Armstrong, 616 F.2d at 313; Cotton v. Hinton, 559 F.2d 1326, 1331 (5th Cir.1977); Officers for Justice v. Civil Service Com’n, Etc., 688 F.2d 615, 625 (9th Cir.1982), cert. denied, 459 U.S. 1217, 103 S.Ct. 1219, 75 L.Ed.2d 456 (1983). Title VII class actions are generally very complex. Cotton, 559 F.2d at 1331. And the duration of litigation in such cases often rivals that of even the most notorious antitrust cases. Pettway v. American Cast Iron Pipe Co., 576 F.2d 1157, 1168 (5th Cir.1978), cert. denied, 439 U.S. 1115, 99 S.Ct. 1020, 59 L.Ed.2d 74 (1979). The resolution of Title VII class actions through settlement minimizes litigation expenses and also reduces the strain such litigation imposes upon already scarce judicial resources. Armstrong, 616 F.2d at 313; Pettway, 576 F.2d at 1218. Their resolution through settlement also promotes the goals of Title VII, since the Act itself emphasizes voluntary conciliation of disputes. Alexander v. Gardner-Denver Co., 415 U.S. 36, 44, 94 S.Ct. 1011, 1017, 39 L.Ed.2d 147 (1974); Armstrong, 616 F.2d at 317 n. 18; Cotton, 559 F.2d at 1331; United States v. Allegheny-Ludlum Industries, Inc., 517 F.2d 826, 846-848 (5th Cir.1975), cert. denied, 425 U.S. 944, 96 S.Ct. 1684, 48 L.Ed.2d 187 (1976). Despite the emphasis on settlement of Title VII class actions, such actions, unlike most private civil actions, may only be settled with District Court approval. Officers for Justice, 688 F.2d at 623; Parker, 667 F.2d at 1208. . Rule 23(e) of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure states that “[a] class action shall not be dismissed or compromised without the approval of the court.” Court approval of a class action settlement is necessary to assure that the interests of absent class members, as well as those of the named plaintiffs, have been protected. Grunin v. International House of Pancakes, 513 F.2d 114, 123 (8th Cir.) cert. denied, 423 U.S. 864, 96 S.Ct. 124, 46 L.Ed.2d 93 (1975); In re Corn Derivatives Antitrust Litigation, 748 F.2d 157, 165 (3rd Cir.1984) (Adams, J; concurring), cert. denied, 472 U.S. 1008, 105 S.Ct. 2702, 86 L.Ed.2d 718 (1985); In re General Motors Corp. Engine Interchange Lit., 594 F.2d 1106, 1122, 1139 (7th Cir.), cert. denied, 444 U.S. 870, 100 S.Ct. 146, 62 L.Ed.2d 95 (1979); In re Warner Communications Securities Litigation, 798 F.2d 35, 37 (2nd Cir.1986); Mendoza v. United States, 623 F.2d 1338, 1344 (9th Cir.1980), cert. denied, 450 U.S. 912, 101 S.Ct. 1351, 67 L.Ed.2d 336 (1981). The class action device, while capable of the fair and efficient adjudication of a large number of claims, is susceptible to abuse. In re General Motors, 594 F.2d at 1122; Officers for Justice, 688 F.2d at 623. The risk exists that the interests of some class members may be unduly sacrificed in an effort to achieve the “greatest good for the greatest number.” Mandujano v. Basic Vegetable Products, Inc., 541 F.2d 832, 835 (9th Cir.1976). The possibility also exists that substantial rights of the class may be bargained away in exchange for relief which inures primarily to the named plaintiffs or to class counsel. Armstrong, 616 F.2d at 313. Because of the potential for abuse, protection of class interests cannot be left to class counsel alone. In re General Motors, 594 F.2d at 1122. The Court must act as the guardian of the class. Grunin, 513 F.2d at 123; Mendoza, 623 F.2d at 1346. Although the Court must act to protect the interests of the class when reviewing the proposed settlement, the Court also recognizes that it is limited in its ability to change that agreement. The proposed settlement must stand or fall as a whole. Officers for Justice, 688 F.2d at 630. The Court is not to dictate or rewrite the terms of the proposed agreement. In re Warner Communications, 798 F.2d at 37; Officers for Justice, 688 F.2d at 630. The Court can make suggestions for modification of the proposed settlement’s terms (and it did so when that agreement was first presented at the preliminary approval hearing) but it cannot unilaterally change them. Officers for Justice, 688 F.2d at 630; Pettway, 576 F.2d at 1172. The Court’s role is properly limited to the minimum necessary to protect the interests of the class and the public. Armstrong, 616 F.2d at 315. To assure that the interests of all class members have been protected, the Court must be convinced that the proposed settlement is fair, reasonable, and adequate before it is given final approval. Grunin, 513 F.2d at 123; In re Flight Transp. Corp. Securities Litigation, 730 F.2d 1128, 1135 (8th Cir.1984), cert. denied, 469 U.S. 1207, 105 S.Ct. 1169, 84 L.Ed.2d 320 (1985); Bennett v. Behring Corp., 737 F.2d 982, 986 (11th Cir.1984); Georgevich v. Strauss, 772 F.2d 1078, 1085 (3rd Cir.1985), cert. denied, — U.S. —, 106 S.Ct. 1229, 89 L.Ed.2d 339 (1986); Officers for Justice, 688 F.2d at 625. The burden is on the proponents of the settlement to so convince the Court by a preponderance of the evidence. In re General Motors, 594 F.2d at 1126 n. 30; Manual for Complex Litigation, Second, Section 30.44. It is within the Court’s sole discretion, however, whether to finally approve the proposed settlement. In re Flight Transportation, 730 F.2d at 1135; Georgevich, 772 F.2d at 1085. In determining whether the proposed settlement is fair, reasonable, and adequate, by far the most important factor for the Court to consider is the strength of plaintiffs’ case balanced against the amount offered in settlement. Grunin, 513 F.2d at 124; Armstrong, 616 F.2d at 322. Some of the accompanying factors to consider include: 1) the opinions of the participants, including class counsel, class representatives, and class members; 2) the complexity, expense, and likely duration of further litigation; 3) the extent of discovery completed and the stage of the proceedings; and 4) the evidence, if any, that the proposed settlement is the product of fraud or collusion. Grunin, 513 F.2d at 124; In re Flight Transportation, 730 F.2d at 1135; Bennett, 737 F.2d at 986; Jones v. Nuclear Pharmacy, Inc., 741 F.2d 322, 324 (10th Cir.1984); Reed v. General Motors Corp., 703 F.2d 170, 172 (5th Cir.1983); Officers for Justice, 688 F.2d at 625. Each factor will be examined in detail below. A. The Strength of Plaintiffs’ Case Balanced Against the Amount Offered in Settlement 1. The Strength of Plaintiffs’ Case The Court is well aware of both the strengths and weaknesses of plaintiffs’ case. The trial of this matter began on February 3,1986, and encompassed approximately thirteen weeks of Court time. The Court heard the plaintiffs’ constructive case, and the cross-examination of that case. The Court then heard the first nine of BN’s witnesses. In all, the Court heard 88 witnesses, both in person and by way of deposition. In addition, several hundred documents were offered, admitted, and reviewed by the Court. In short, the Court is no stranger to this proceeding. Despite the Court’s familiarity with this case, it must not definitively comment on the strengths or weaknesses of plaintiffs’ claims. While there is a substantial factual record in this case, that record remains incomplete. The Court has heard only á limited portion of defendants’ constructive case and, of course, none of plaintiffs’ rebuttal. Because of the incompleteness of the record, the Court is not in a position to reach ultimate conclusions as to the facts or law underlying the dispute. Grunin, 513 F.2d at 123; Armstrong, 616 F.2d at 314; Officers for Justice, 688 F.2d at 625; Pettway, 576 F.2d at 1169, 1214 n. 69. The Court is free, however, to analyze the facts and law relevant to the compromise. Cotton, 559 F.2d at 1330; Pettway, 576 F.2d at 1214 n. 69. In reviewing the proposed settlement, the Court will not try the case on the merits. Cotton, 559 F.2d at 1330; Parker, 667 F.2d at 1209. Nor will it substitute its opinion for that of class counsel or the litigants. Armstrong, 616 F.2d at 315; Cotton, 559 F.2d at 1330. On balance, the Court can hope for more, but may not presume its determination will go beyond “an amalgam of delicate balancing, gross approximations and rough justice.” City of Detroit v. Grinnell Corp., 495 F.2d 448, 468 (2nd Cir.1974). Applying these principles, the Court sees that while the plaintiffs’ case has substantial strengths, it also has significant weaknesses. Integral to the consideration of the strengths of a case on the merits is a consideration of the risks accompanying continuation of the litigation. See Parker, 667 F.2d at 1209-1210. The plaintiffs face numerous risks. First, the Court is not convinced that plaintiffs would ultimately prevail. To prevail at trial, plaintiffs would have to show that BN engaged in a pattern or practice of discrimination against the class. Cooper v. Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond, 467 U.S. 867, 875, 104 S.Ct. 2794, 2799, 81 L.Ed.2d 718 (1984); International Bro. of Teamsters v. United States, 431 U.S. 324, 334-335, 97 S.Ct. 1843, 1854, 52 L.Ed.2d 396 (1977); Craik v. Minnesota State University Bd., 731 F.2d 465, 470 (8th Cir. 1984); Griffin v. Board of Regents of Regency Univer., 795 F.2d 1281, 1287 (7th Cir.1986). Isolated or sporadic discriminatory acts by BN are insufficient to establish a pattern or practice of discrimination; rather, plaintiffs must prove by a preponderance of the evidence that discrimination is BN’s standard operating procedure — the regular rather than the unusual practice. Cooper, 467 U.S. at 875-876, 104 S.Ct. at 2799; Teamsters, 431 U.S. at 336, 97 S.Ct. at 1855; Craik, 731 F.2d at 470; Griffin, 795 F.2d at 1287. The Court perceives this as a difficult task indeed. In their affirmative case, plaintiffs presented statistical evidence, buttressed by expert testimony and anecdotal witnesses to prove sexual discrimination at BN. Although some of this evidence was highly illustrative of individual instances of discrimination, the Court is not yet convinced the evidence was sufficient to support a finding of a pattern or practice of system-wide discrimination at Burlington Northern. “[A] class plaintiffs attempt to prove the existence of a companywide policy [of discrimination] ... may fail even though discrimination against one or two individuals has been proved.” Cooper, 467 U.S. at 878, 104 S.Ct. at 2800. There is generally no bright line indicating whether a company is simply a bruised apple or one that is rotten to the core. See Id. at 880, 104 S.Ct. at 2801. And whether plaintiffs had established such a line and whether BN had crossed it by the close of plaintiffs' case, the Court is not prepared to say. The Court can confidently say, however, that the relief provided plaintiffs in the proposed settlement agreement is 100 percent more than that which they would obtain if a pattern or practice of sexual discrimination at BN could not be established. The Court also perceives difficulties for the plaintiffs in expanding the scope of the originally certified class. The class certified in this action is the product of a seven week certification hearing, during which numerous witnesses were presented and numerous documents were produced. The class as certified does not include anyone with either hiring discrimination claims nor with claims from May 3, 1970 to July 28, 1977. At trial, plaintiffs vigorously urged inclusion of women with such claims into the class. They placed their proofs in this regard on the record in an effort to redefine the class as certified. At the time the proposed settlement agreement was presented to the Court for final approval, however, no hiring nor pre-July, 1977, class had been certified. At the close of plaintiffs’ case, defendants moved to dismiss the hiring and pre-July, 1977, issues, if any, from this case. That motion was under advisement at the time the proposed settlement was reached. The Court recognizes it has the power to modify the scope of the class at any time up to a resolution of the case on the merits. Fed.R.Civ.P. 23(c)(1); General Telephone Co. of Southwest v. Falcon, 457 U.S. 147, 160, 102 S.Ct. 2364, 2372, 72 L.Ed.2d 740 (1982). Before altering the established law of the case as to the certified class, however, the Court must be presented with sufficient evidence justifying such action. The Court will not definitively state whether the evidence presented would prompt it to alter the certified class. Suffice it to say, however, that the Court perceives the relief in the proposed settlement agreement which inures to those with hiring or pre-July, 1977, claims as distinctly advantageous to the plaintiff class. Plaintiffs’ statistical proof is absolutely insufficient to support the class’ discipline claim. Plaintiffs’ own statistical expert, Dr. Rebecca Klemm, acknowledged this from the witness stand. She noted that when accused of violating safety or work rules, women were simply not in violation of those rules more often than men. Dr. Klemm also found that for those determined to be in actual violation of a safety or work rule, the severity and extent of punishment did not differ between men and women. While the Court has in no regard resolved the issue, a substantial question remains regarding the adequacy of plaintiffs’ proof of sex discrimination as it relates to scheduled intercraft transfers other than transfers into the Locomotive Enginéer Training Program. Transferring from one craft to another at BN is generally governed by collective bargaining agreements which on their face are gender neutral. Plaintiffs allege, however, that some provisions in the various collective bargaining agreements allow for management discretion in the exercise of some transfer opportunities, such that gender bias in transfer occurs. Plaintiffs’ other statistical expert, Dr. Stephen Michaelson, pointed out to the Court those provisions which he believes allow for such management discretion. Whether those provisions do, in fact, provide for management discretion in the exercise of transfer opportunities or instead have been subjectively interpreted by plaintiffs’ expert without a foundational basis, the Court has, as yet, not decided. Even if the Court were to assume management had a say in which worker was allowed to transfer from one craft to another, the proof is not yet definitive that sexual discrimination in transfers occurred. Plaintiffs’ proof of discrimination in transfers consisted primarily of statistical evidence. It is true that statistics are a competent means to prove discrimination in employment. Teamsters, 431 U.S. at 339, 97 S.Ct. at 1856; Craik, 731 F.2d at 470. To be of value, however, statistical evidence must reflect valid comparisons of similarly situated people. For example, a statistical conclusion that women are paid less than men is of no significance unless the Court knows that the statistics take into account such items as differentials in hours worked, qualifications, experience, education, and expressions of interest. See Hazelwood School District v. United States, 433 U.S. 299, 308 n. 13, 97 S.Ct. 2736, 2742 n. 13, 53 L.Ed.2d 768 (1977); Coble v. Hot Springs School Dist. No. 6, 682 F.2d 721, 730 (8th Cir.1982); EEOC v. Sears Roebuck & Co., 628 F.Supp. 1264, 1285-1288, 1302-1303 (N.D.Ill.1986). In this case, Dr. Klemm found a deficit of female transfers between crafts. That deficit was found by comparing the gender breakdown of those in, for example, job A, and the gender breakdown of those in, for example, jobs B and C, which Dr. Klemm determined were “feeder pools” for job A. Dr. Klemm reasoned that in the absence of discrimination, the sexual make-up of job A should mirror the sexual composition of jobs B and C. It did not. Thus, plaintiffs concluded that discrimination in transfers occurred. Cross-examination revealed, however, that Dr. Klemm did not control for the interests of men and women in transferring to different crafts. At this moment, the Court declines to assume that both men and women have the exact same interest in doing the exact same job, especially in light of plaintiffs’ experts’ statement that “[ejxperience indicates that, for whatever reasons, people of different race, sex, or ethnic backgrounds apply in different proportions for different jobs.” Exhibit 2000, Vol. 10, page 6. While the proof was not yet presented by defendants, the Court understands that they may well have offered testimony regarding the kinds of work women choose to perform. And, if given, such testimony might explain the female deficits plaintiffs found. Interest, rather than discrimination then, may account for the deficit in female transfers Dr. Klemm observed. See Sears, 628 F.Supp. at 1305-1315. Assuming this to be true, it is at least conceivable that no finding of discrimination could be made on plaintiffs’ transfer issue if this case were finally resolved by a trial on the merits. Such a determination would immediately eliminate the substantial relief provided in the proposed settlement agreement to those with transfer claims. Absent a complete record on the merits, the Court must also question plaintiffs’ claim of discrimination in scheduled compensation. Dr. Michaelson testified that he found a disparity in earnings between men and women in the scheduled workforce, based upon his compensation analysis. He concluded that the disparity was a function of the initial job assignment women received after hire. That is, women were more often initially assigned to clerical jobs after hire. These jobs did not lead to higher paying job options during a future BN career. On the other hand, he found that men were more often initially placed in jobs that later led to high paying operating craft positions. The Court, while recognizing that the pay disparity Dr. Michaelson found may be attributable to discrimination by BN, cannot foreclose the possibility that at least some of the pay differential may again be the product of women’s interest and volition. That is, women may choose, at hire, to be placed in clerical positions as opposed, for example, to laborer positions which lead to the higher paying craft jobs. In fact, plaintiffs' initial assignment statistical study found that both women and men were most commonly assigned to the jobs they asked for at hire, although it must also be pointed out that plaintiffs’ expert found that of those not assigned to the job requested at hire, women, as opposed to men, were more often placed in clerical positions. Since choice may be a factor in the pay disparity between men and women in the scheduled workforce, the Court, at this point, cannot conclusively say that this disparity is the product of discrimination by BN. There are clearly areas of plaintiffs’ proof which were very compelling. But even as to these, the defense is not without its strengths. As an example, the plaintiffs have presented an impressive array of testimony regarding the physical, verbal, and mental harassment female employees at BN were subjected to on the basis of their sex. In spite of. this. evidence, the Court has not concluded at this time whether sexual harassment is an appropriate issue for class treatment. The Court recognizes that sexual discrimination which creates a hostile or abusive work environment violates Title VII. Meritor Sav. Bank, FSB v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57, 106 S.Ct. 2399, 2405-2406, 91 L.Ed.2d 49 (1986). And an employer who tolerates such discrimination is clearly in violation of the Act. Craik, 731 F.2d at 481. The question remains, however, as to when individual incidents of sexual harassment constitute a pattern or practice of discrimination such that classwide liability may be imposed on an employer. See Cooper, 467 U.S. at 875, 104 S.Ct. at 2799; Teamsters, 431 U.S. at 334-335, 97 S.Ct. at 1854; Craik, 731 F.2d at 470. In Craik, the Eighth Circuit concluded that despite evidence depicting about 50 incidents of sexual harassment over a ten year period, this evidence did not support a finding that the work place was so oppressive as to support a sexual harassment claim. Craik, 731 F.2d at 481. In this case, even though plaintiffs have presented strong evidence of individual incidents of sexual harassment at BN, this Court will not definitively state at this time, in light of Craik, whether a pattern or practice of harassment existed at the railroad company. Plaintiffs also appear to have a strong claim regarding BN’s failure to accept women into the Locomotive Engineer Training Program. Even though this is a strong aspect of plaintiffs’ case, Dr. Klemm, in the full fire of her affirmative proof, only found a shortfall of fewer than 30 female engineers. This fact must be kept in mind when evaluating the merits of the proposed settlement agreement. If plaintiffs were to prevail only on their LETP claim at trial, the number of people afforded relief would be few indeed. The proposed settlement agreement, on the other hand, provides relief to many, including those with LETP claims. It is clear then, that the proposed settlement agreement may provide much more.relief to the plaintiff class than it could obtain through a resolution of this case on the merits. In evaluating the varying strengths and attendant risks of plaintiffs’ case, the Court must also bear in mind that it has heard little of defendants’ affirmative case. The Court, however, received a preview of defendants’ claims and defenses through their vigorous cross-examination of plaintiffs’ anecdotal witnesses and statistical experts. In fact, as a result of defendants’ cross-examination, certain major changes were made in some of plaintiffs’ statistical proofs in the form of later introduced exhibits., By way of this preview, defendants have introduced nothing more than the merest suggestion of their defense. But if this defense is to be anything like the previews, the Court well expects it to be vigorous and unyielding. Such a vigorous defense may well undermine some of the strengths and will surely emphasize any weaknesses in plaintiffs’ case. Finally, in balancing the merits of plaintiffs’ case, the Court must wrestle with the extraordinarily complex question: what about the clerks? The clerks at Burlington Northern are scheduled employees represented by the Brotherhood of Railway, Airline and Steamship Clerks (BRAC). They encompass, by far, the largest number of female employees at the railroad company. They are employed in positions traditionally held by women: office, secretarial, support, clerical, filing and related services. These positions have not, generally, been gateways to executive or highly-compensated jobs at BN. In spite of the deficiencies in the clerk positions, the evidence at trial established that those positions are secure. Throughout BN’s recent history, it has either had surplus employees which it acquired through mergers with other railroads or it has had economic difficulties. Both of these situations have required BN to layoff or furlough many of its employees. During the lay-offs or furloughs, the clerks have remained unscathed. To the contrary, those employed in craft positions, which are male-dominated, have frequently been furloughed or permanently laid-off— and left without jobs or compensation. When faced with this reality, the Court must then consider what damages would appropriately compensate a class member who has been wrongfully assigned to a clerk position and, thus, employed, as opposed to properly placed in a job which no longer exists. When balancing being out-of-work in the craft position originally sought, against working in the clerk position to which she was misassigned as a result of alleged discrimination, the Court cannot automatically conclude that the class member has been totally disadvantaged by BN’s allegedly discriminatory decision. The Court recognizes that the railroad company’s decision to initially misassign the class member may have been wholly inappropriate. If discriminatory, that decision affronts her right to be free from discriminatory acts. But the Court then must factor in the possibility that BN’s wrongful decision has saved her economic livelihood. If found to be discrimination, the misassignment of a class member into the clerks’ ranks raises difficult questions indeed. In sum, plaintiffs have a case with objective merit, but in fairness it is not yet a case upon which they may fairly claim victory, at least by the close of their evidence. Significant flaws and weaknesses remain in major portions of their constructive proof. These weaknesses may well loom large in the Court’s pending decision on defendants’ motions to dismiss or decertify the class. The above brief overview of the relative strengths and weaknesses of plaintiffs’ case makes clear that plaintiffs’ ultimate success on the merits remains an open question. With this thought in mind, the Court turns to an evaluation of the amount offered to plaintiffs in settlement. 2. The Amount Offered in Settlement a. Monetary Relief As was briefly outlined in Section I.D. above, the Court is presented with an agreement, under the terms of which approximately $7,000,000 is at issue. Of that sum, $2,044,001 is reserved for payment to the class along with any interest accrued on the entire $7,000,000 until November 15, 1986. After November 15, 1986, plaintiffs will recéive interest only on those sums intended for disbursement to the class. When the total class payment fund equals $2,500,000 or more, the fund shall be disbursed to the class after first deducting $225,000, which is reserved for distribution to the named plaintiffs. The remaining $2,275,000 is to be divided among those with the 400 most meritorious claims for 1) denials of promotion to and within exempt positions, 2) denials of scheduled intercraft transfers, and 3) misassignment to jobs. The breakdown of the fund is as follows: Category A — Forty percent of the fund shall go to the 100 class members with the most meritorious claims of denial of promotions to and within exempt positions. The average award for these women shall be $9,100 with a minimum award of $3,000. Category B — Forty percent of the fund shall go to the 150 class members with the most meritorious claims of denial of scheduled intercraft transfers. The average award for these women shall be $6,067 with a minimum award of $3,000. Category C — Twenty percent of the fund shall go to the 150 class members with the most meritorious claims of job misassignments. The average award for these women shall be $3,033 with a minimum award of $1,000. It should be noted that class members with active or potentially active administrative charges of sex discrimination or sex discrimination lawsuits against BN, will automatically be placed in one of the above outlined categories, as will those who testified at trial concerning their claims against BN. Those opposing the proposed settlement contend the dollar amount reserved to the class is simply too low. They come to this conclusion by making their own assessment of the number of plaintiffs’ claims they believe to be certain winners. They then estimate the dollar values for such claims in accordance.with their own belief as to the value of those claims if plaintiffs had prevailed at trial. Based on their analysis, the objectors contend the class should receive well in excess of the $2,500,000 allocated for distribution to its members. It appears to the Court that in making their assessments, those opposing the proposed settlement have made three significant errors, which in the aggregate prove fatal to their position. First, the objectors base their dollar valuations on their own perceptions of plaintiffs’ strongest claims. Their perceptions are not determinative, however. It is this Court which determines the merits of plaintiffs’ claims and this Court’s determinations may not comport with the determinations of the objectors. As outlined above, the Court perceives that plaintiffs’ case is tenuous as to many of their claims. And even as to those claims that are strong, the Court has not conclusively determined whether they rise to the level of a pattern or practice of discrimination. See Cooper, 467 U.S. at 875, 104 S.Ct. at 2799; Teamsters, 431 U.S. at 334-335, 97 S.Ct. at 1854; Craik, 731 F.2d at 470. It is clear, then, that the opposition’s conclusions regarding plaintiffs’ meritorious claims may not be the appropriate basis upon which to assess the dollar value of plaintiffs’ case. Second, even assuming the objectors are correct in their assessment of plaintiffs’ most meritorious claims, there is nothing to indicate that the dollar amounts set by the objectors for those claims are appropriate. Not only do the objectors differ among themselves as to the value of any particular claim, they each are internally inconsistent with their valuations from memorandum to memorandum submitted to this Court. In addition, the factual basis for the valuation of any particular claim is never revealed. Instead, objectors ask the Court to assume a particular claim is worth X dollars and then go on to multiply X dollars by the number of women who have that particular claim to assess that claim’s value. The objectors’ valuations require the Court to engage in assumptions with no basis in fact. This the Court cannot and will not do. Finally, the objectors value plaintiffs’ claims based on their belief of the optimal amount the class could recover if it succeeded in this proceeding. They next apply a discount factor, which they assert accounts for the risks of continued litigation, to determine an appropriate settlement amount. The Court finds that this valuation method is inappropriate. Even if the class succeeded in this proceeding, there is nothing to say it would recover the optimal amount. The trial of a Title VII class action is generally bifurcated into a liability phase and a remedial phase. Craik, 731 F.2d at 470. If, at the liability phase, the class as a whole is successful in proving the defendant engaged in a pattern or practice of discrimination, then each individual class member enters the remedial phase with an established presumption of discrimination and a presumed entitlement to damages. Teamsters, 431 U.S. at 359, 361-362, 97 S.Ct. at 1867-68; Craik, 731 F.2d at 470. This presumption is rebuttable, however. At the remedial phase the defendant may show that despite its overall policy of discrimination, individual class members were not, in fact, victims of discrimination. Franks v. Bowman Transp. Co., Inc., 424 U.S. 747, 772, 96 S.Ct. 1251, 47 L.Ed.2d 444 (1976); Teamsters, 431 U.S. at 359, 362, 97 S.Ct. at 1866,1868; Craik, 731 F.2d at 470. If the defendant is successful in rebutting the presumption, the class member receives nothing. In this case, even if the class is successful in proving a pattern or practice of discrimination at BN, it is possible BN could prove that numerous individual class members faced no discrimination. This being so, it is quite possible that the agreed proposed settlement may provide more for the whole class than could be realized after multiple remedial phase proceedings. With this possibility in mind, the Court cannot conclude that the objectors’ optimal valuation of plaintiffs’ claims is an appropriate basis upon which to determine the amounts acceptable in settlement. Objectors forget that compromise is the essence of settlement. Armstrong, 616 F.2d at 315; Cotton, 559 F.2d at 1330; Pettway, 576 F.2d at 1214 n. 69. The inherent nature of compromise is the relinquishment of certain rights or benefits in return for others. Armstrong, 616 F.2d at 315; In re General Motors, 594 F.2d at 1135; see also Grunin, 513 F.2d at 125. Compromise requires “an abandonment of the usual total-win versus total-loss philosophy of litigation in favor of a solution somewhere between the two extremes.” Armstrong, 616 F.2d at 315. Here, it appears, the objectors would only be satisfied with a settlement that provides a dollar amount close to their own perception of a sum appropriate after a total victory. It is not necessary or expected, however, that litigants will obtain through settlement all they might have realized through a victorious trial. Pettway, 576 F.2d at 1214 n. 69; Boyd v. Bechtel Corp., 485 F.Supp. 610, 618 (N.D.Cal.1979). This is particularly true in cases, such as this, where monetary relief is but one form of relief provided to the plaintiffs. Officers for Justice, 688 F.2d at 628. It is the complete package, taken as a whole, rather than the individual component parts, which must be examined for overall fairness. Id. A cash settlement amounting to only a fraction of the potential cash recovery (and the present proposed settlement is not such a recovery) does not in itself render the settlement unfair or inadequate. Grinnell, 495 F.2d at 455; Officers for Justice, 668 F.2d at 628; Parker, 667 F.2d at 1210 n. 6; Boyd, 485 F.Supp. at 618. “In fact there is no reason, at least in theory, why a satisfactory settlement could not amount to a hundredth or even a thousandth part of a single percent of the potential recovery.” Grinnell, 495 F.2d at 455 n. 2; see also Parker, 667 F.2d at 1210 n. 6. The Court, in evaluating the merits of plaintiffs’ case against the dollars offered in the proposed settlement, concludes that the proposed settlement provides fair, reasonable and adequate monetary relief in a sum rationally calculated to compensate the women of the class. It is true that if this case proceeded to a resolution on the merits, some women could well take much more than is offered in settlement here. But many women could take much, much less or none at all. This alone, however, does not conclude the inquiry into whether or not the proposed settlement is fair, reasonable and adequate. As seen above, the objectors have made no real showing that the monetary relief the plaintiff class could obtain after a trial on the merits would be substantially greater than that they will currently receive from the proposed settlement. On the other hand, it is clear that any after trial relief would likely be substantially diluted by the delay inherent in acquiring it. See Officers, 688 F.2d at 629. Therefore, during the pendency of any continued litigation of this case, “many of the immediate and tangible benefits accruing from the settlement would be lost.” Id. This fact alone makes the proposed settlement an attractive resolution of this case. b. Job Relief As was more fully outlined in Section I.D., above, the proposed settlement agreement provides that BN will offer up to 1150 jobs, as vacancies occur, to class members with discrimination claims arising from failures in scheduled hiring, scheduled initial assignment, scheduled inter-craft transfer, locomotive engineer and dispatcher training, and promotion from scheduled to exempt positions. Class members who obtain these jobs will receive either rightful place or fallback seniority. They are to be selected from a priority pool of individuals determined in accordance with the terms of the proposed settlement agreement. (1) The Merits of the Job Relief The Court sees three major benefits which accrue to a class member under the job relief portions of the proposed settlement. First, and foremost, the class member gets the position she originally sought. This most important relief is a predicate to the second benefit — the availability of retroactive seniority. Under the terms of the proposed settlement, for example, a woman with a scheduled hiring claim who receives a job in July, 1987, may well report on the first day of that job with ten years retroac-: tive union seniority. This would leap-frog her seniority over that of many of her colleagues. According to union counsel, this rightful place seniority is rarely afforded in the settlement of discrimination cases. To the secondary benefit of rightful place seniority is added a third. Even if the class member who obtains a job pursuant to the proposed settlement agreement does not qualify for rightful place seniority, she will receive fallback seniority. This offers the class member transfer options she may never have realized before. Under the existing collective bargaining agreements at BN, a person transferring from one scheduled position to another either immediately loses seniority in the position from which she has departed, or loses it within a few months. The transferring person would go to the trailing end of the seniority line if she returned to the position from whence she came. • There was testimony at trial indicating this lack of fallback seniority protection often made transfer impossible. For example, a clerk covered by a BRAC collective bargaining agreement retains her clerk’s seniority for only three months after any transfer. It could well be professional suicide for a BRAC clerk with a number of years of seniority to attempt to transfer to a higher paying operating craft position, when the possibility looms large that she may be furloughed from that craft position three or more months after her transfer. If that occurs, she no longer has the immediate monetary benefits of the new craft position nor any of the benefits of the old clerk position. Under the proposed settlement agreement, the same BRAC clerk after transfer will accumulate benefits in her new position while retaining seniority in the old. In the event of furlough from the new position, she may exercise her fallback seniority rights to obtain her old position. And while she is working in that old position she will continue to accumulate seniority in the new job. The Court finds that the fallback seniority provisions of the proposed settlement agreement afford class members significant relief, even without the additional provisions for rightful place seniority. The Court recognizes two additional benefits in the job relief provisions of the proposed settlement agreement. First, up to 500 jobs are provided to those with hiring claims; and, second, up to 150 jobs are provided to those with scheduled intercraft transfer claims. As was noted in Section II., A., 1. above, at the time this proposed settlement was presented to the Court, a hiring class had not been certified. And from the proof presented to the Court by the close of plaintiffs’ case, it was in no regard clear that the certified class would be expanded to include those with hiring claims. In addition, there were significant unresolved . issues regarding plaintiffs’ proof of their intercraft transfer claim. In light of this, it is fair to say that the proposed settlement agreement provides a recovery potential for some who may well have, been denied any relief if forced to final judgment. These facts weigh in favor of approval of the proposed settlement agreement. (2) The Objections to the Job Relief In evaluating the job relief provisions of the proposed settlement, the Court has carefully considered the objections made by opposing counsel and class members. Their major objection is that the job relief afforded in the proposed agreement is “illusory.” They complain first, that over the life of the proposed settlement agreement, few, if any, vacancies will occur at BN such that the 1150 jobs provided for in the proposed agreement will be filled; and second, if vacancies occur, few, if any, women will receive rightful place seniority because of the procedures they must go through to obtain that seniority. The Court, in weighing these objections, does not find them significant enough to reject the proposed settlement. (a) The Likelihood of Vacancies Objectors contend that the jobs provided for in the proposed settlement agreement will never be obtained because vacancies will not occur at BN in the immediate future. This, the opposition claims, is because BN is downsizing the company and is not hiring new employees. The Court recognizes that BN has, in the recent past, been reducing its workforce. The Court does not find that only negative inferences can be drawn from this fact, however. The future can never be perceived, other than through a glass and darkly, but in this instance the Court is convinced that there is more than a substantial probability that the positions outlined in the proposed settlement agreement will be available. The past is not always the best predictor of the future. And what may today seem an unlikely possibility, may tomorrow be a reality- An example from the fairness hearing serves to illustrate this point: at the hearing it was disclosed that BN graduated eight LETP classes in 1986. This was an astounding revelation since BN has held very few LETP classes since 1980 and no classes since 1984. The Court questioned counsel for the EEOC at the fairness hearing about this turn of events. The Court found that this development was totally unexpected by the EEOC, and was told it had not believed any engineers would be trained in 1986. It became clear at the hearing that the new LETP classes resulted, at least in part, from: a) the complete absorption into BN of surplus engineers from its mergers with other railroads, b) the natural aging of engineers whose number had not been replenished by new entrants in the past half-decade, and c) regular attrition. But the key reason was set forth by counsel for the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers and Railroad Yardmasters of America. He pointed out that a new collective bargaining agreement was in effect between BN and the engineers which gave the railroad company an economic incentive to seek new engineering personnel. The new contract sets a lower pay scale for new engineers. As a result, BN has been “buying out” those highly-paid, high-seniority engineers, and replacing them with lower-paid, low-seniority engineers. Thus, eight new LETP classes in 1986. This development in the engineering program indicates the risks inherent in attempting to predict the future in a fluid economic market; a changed circumstance can instantly invalidate any set of assumptions. The job relief outlined in the proposed settlement agreement, far from being illusory as urged by the objectors, may, in fact, be an economic certainty. In this regard, Drs. Klemm and Michael-son have submitted a joint affidavit in support of the proposed settlement agreement. They point out that normal attrition