Full opinion text
MEMORANDUM OPINION AND ORDER REGARDING DEFENDANT’S MOTION FOR SUMMARY JUDGMENT BENNETT, District Judge. TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION AND PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND . 382 II. STANDARDS FOR SUMMARY JUDGMENT . 383 III. FINDINGS OF FACT.. CO cn A. Undisputed Facts. CO cn B. Disputed Facts . CO 05 IV. LEGAL ANALYSIS . A. Disability Discrimination Under Federal Law. 1. The Origins Of The ADA. 2. Disability Discrimination Under The ADA. a. Analytical framework for ADA claims ' b. The prima facie ease under the ADA 3. Hutchinson’s Qualification For ADA Protection .: B. Per Se Violations Of The ADA. 1. What constitutes a per se violation of the ADA? 2. May Hutchinson assert a per se violation?. C. Disability Discrimination Under Iowa Law. 1. Protected disability. 2. Qualified for the position. 3. Remaining elements of the prima facie case. V.CONCLUSION. 402 Who may benefit from the protections of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 42 U.S.C. § 12101 et seq., appears to this court to be the most frequently encountered question in the comparatively short life of the ADA. In this lawsuit, the plaintiff employee asserts that she is sufficiently disabled to pursue claims under the ADA as the result of a single restriction on her activities, or on the basis of the cumulative effect of several restrictions, while her employer asserts that the plaintiff currently has no impairment or combination of impairments precluding her from a broad range of employment opportunities, and thus is not sufficiently disabled to come within the ADA’s protective umbrella. In addition to consideration of the now-typical threshold question, “Is the plaintiff disabled enough to seek relief under the ADA?”, this case presents the comparatively rare question, “Can the plaintiff challenge certain of the employer’s policies and practices alleged to be per se violations of the ADA?” A related matter for the court to resolve is whether the answer for the plaintiff to the first question must be “yes” before the plaintiff even gets to ask the second question. I. INTRODUCTION AND PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND Plaintiff Cheryl Hutchinson filed her complaint in this matter on February 10, 1993, against her employer, defendant United Parcel Service (UPS), alleging discrimination on the basis of disability in violation of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 42 U.S.C. § 12101 et seq., and Iowa Code § 216.6. Hutchinson was a package delivery car driver for UPS, and has never been terminated from that position. Hutchinson alleges that she suffered injuries on or about November 29, 1990, again on or about November 29,1990, and a third time on or about June 3, 1991, as the result of which she was placed under certain restrictions by treating physicians. However, she alleges that since about August 10, 1992, she has offered her continued services to UPS, but UPS has refused to return her to active employment. UPS answered Hutchinson’s complaint on March 8, 1993, asserting as an affirmative defense that all of its actions with respect to Hutchinson’s return to work were based on bona fide occupational requirements and business necessity. By consent of the parties, UPS amended its answer on February 7, 1994, but the answer was merely to conform to facts. UPS moved for summary judgment on Jánuary 3, 1995, and Hutehin-son resisted the motion on February 21, 1995. UPS then filed a reply to Hutchinson’s resistance on March 1, 1995. UPS has moved for summary judgment on the ground that Hutchinson does not have a disability within the meaning of either the ADA or Iowa Code § 216.6. Specifically, UPS argues that Hutchinson has no impairment or combination of impairments that causes her to be substantially limited in any major life activity, or in the specific major life activity of “working.” UPS also asserts that Hutchinson has received a medical release to return to work, but she has refused to do so, even though she has been offered reinstatement to her former position. Hutchinson asserts that there are genuine issues of material fact precluding summary judgment in this case. Hutchinson asserts that she is disabled within the meaning of both the ADA and Iowa Code § 216.6, and furthermore, that she has been prevented from returning to work by a UPS policy which requires her to be “100% healed” prior to a return to work. She asserts that such a policy is a per se violation of the ADA. Hutchinson also asserts that another UPS policy is a per se violation of the ADA, because it provides for accommodation of employees with “work-related” restrictions, but requires that employees with “non-work-related” restrictions be “100% healed” before they can return to the workforce. Thus, Hutchinson asserts that there is a genuine issue of fact as to whether UPS has reasonably accommodated her disabilities. The court held oral arguments on UPS’s motion for summary judgment on April 20, 1995. Hutchinson was personally present at the oral arguments, and was represented by counsel Dennis McElwain of Smith, McEl-wain & Wengert in Sioux City, Iowa. UPS was represented at the oral arguments by counsel Kenneth Butters of Dreher, Simpson & Jenson, P.C., in Des Moines, Iowa. The oral arguments were animated, effective, informative, and of considerable assistance to the court in its deposition of this motion. In ruling on this motion, the court will first examine the standards for disposition of a motion for summary judgment, then turn to the merits of UPS’s motion. II. STANDARDS FOR SUMMARY JUDGMENT The Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals recognizes “that summary judgment is a drastic remedy and must be exercised with extreme care to prevent taking genuine issues of fact away from juries.” Wabun-Inini v. Sessions, 900 F.2d 1234, 1238 (8th Cir.1990). On the other hand, the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure have authorized for nearly 60 years “motions for summary judgment upon proper showings of the lack of a genuine, triable issue of material fact.” Celotex Corp. v. Catrett, 477 U.S. 317, 327, 106 S.Ct. 2548, 2555, 91 L.Ed.2d 265 (1986). Thus, “summary judgment procedure is properly regarded not as a disfavored procedural shortcut, but rather as an integral part of the Federal Rules as a whole, which are designed ‘to secure the just, speedy and inexpensive determination, of every action.’” Wabun-Inini, 900 F.2d at 1238 (quoting Celotex Corp. v. Catrett, 477 U.S. 317, 327, 106 S.Ct. 2548, 2555, 91 L.Ed.2d 265 (1986)); Hartnagel v. Norman, 953 F.2d 394, 396 (8th Cir.1992). The standard for granting summary judgment is well established. Rule 56 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure states in pertinent part: Rule 56. Summary Judgment (b) For Defending Party. A party against whom a claim ... is asserted ... may, at any time, move for summary judgment in the party’s favor as to all or any part thereof. (c) Motions and Proceedings Thereon _ The judgment sought shall be rendered forthwith if the pleadings, depositions, answers to interrogatories, and admissions on file, together with the affidavits, if any, show that there is no genuine issue as to any material fact and that the moving party is entitled to judgment as a matter of law. Fed.R.Civ.P. 56(b) & (c) (emphasis added); see also Celotex Corp. v. Catrett, 477 U.S. 317, 322-23, 106 S.Ct. 2548, 2552-53, 91 L.Ed.2d 265 (1986); Munz v. Michael, 28 F.3d 795, 798 (8th Cir.1994); Roth v. U.S.S. Great Lakes Fleet, Inc., 25 F.3d 707, 708 (8th Cir.1994); Cole v. Bone, 993 F.2d 1328, 1331 (8th Cir.1993); Woodsmith Publishing Co. v. Meredith Corp., 904 F.2d 1244, 1247 (8th Cir.1990); Wabun-Inini, 900 F.2d at 1238 (citing Fed.R.Civ.P. 56(c)). A court considering a motion for summary judgment must view all the facts in the light most favorable to the nonmoving party, here Hutchinson, and give Hutchinson the benefit of all reasonable inferences that can be drawn from the facts. Matsushita Elec. Indus. Co. v. Zenith Radio Corp., 475 U.S. 574, 587, 106 S.Ct. 1348, 1356, 89 L.Ed.2d 538 (1986) (quoting United States v. Diebold, Inc., 369 U.S. 654, 655, 82 S.Ct. 993, 994, 8 L.Ed.2d 176 (1962)); Munz v. Michael, 28 F.3d 795, 796 (8th Cir. 1994); Allison v. Flexway Trucking, Inc., 28 F.3d 64, 66 (8th Cir.1994); Johnson v. Group Health Plan, Inc., 994 F.2d 543, 545 (8th Cir.1993); Burk v. Beene, 948 F.2d 489, 492 (8th Cir.1991); Coday v. City of Springfield, 939 F.2d 666, 667 (8th Cir.1991), cert. denied, 502 U.S. 1094, 112 S.Ct. 1170, 117 L.Ed.2d 416 (1992). Procedurally, the moving party, here UPS, bears “the initial responsibility of informing the district court of the basis for [its] motion and identifying those portions of the record which show lack of a genuine issue.” Hartnagel, 953 F.2d at 395 (citing Celotex, 477 U.S. at 323, 106 S.Ct. at 2553); see also Reed v. Woodruff County, Ark., 7 F.3d 808, 810 (8th Cir.1993). UPS is not required by Rule 56 to support its motion with affidavits or other similar materials negating the opponent’s claim. Id. “When a moving party has carried its burden under Rule 56(c), its opponent must do more than simply show there is some metaphysical doubt as to the material facts.” Matsushita, 475 U.S. .at 586, 106 S.Ct. at 1356. Hutchinson is required under Rule 56(e) to go beyond the pleadings, and by affidavits, or by the “depositions, answers to interrogatories, and admissions on file,” designate “specific facts showing that there is a genuine issue for trial.” Fed.R.Civ.P. 56(e); Celotex, 477 U.S. at 324, 106 S.Ct. at 2553. Although “direct proof is not required to create a jury question, ... to avoid summary judgment, ‘the facts and circumstances relied upon must attain the dignity of substantial evidence and must hot be such as merely to create a suspicion.’ ” Metge v. Baehler, 762 F.2d 621, 625 (8th Cir.1985) (quoting Impro Products, Inc. v. Herrick, 715 F.2d 1267, 1272 (8th Cir.1983), cert. denied, 465 U.S. 1026, 104 S.Ct. 1282, 79 L.Ed.2d 686 (1984)), cert. denied sub nom. Metge v. Bankers Trust Co., 474 U.S. 1057, 106 S.Ct. 798, 88 L.Ed.2d 774 (1986). The necessary proof that the nonmoving party must produce is not precisely measurable, but the evidence must be “such that a reasonable jury could return a verdict for the nonmoving party.” Anderson v. Liberty Lobby, Inc., 477 U.S. 242, 248, 106 S.Ct. 2505, 2510, 91 L.Ed.2d 202 (1986); Allison v. Flexway Trucking, Inc., 28 F.3d 64, 66 (8th Cir. 1994). In Anderson, 477 U.S. at 249, 106 S.Ct. at 2510-11; Celotex, 477 U.S. at 323-24, 106 S.Ct. at 2552-53, and Matsushita, 475 U.S. at 586-87, 106 S.Ct. at 1355-56, the Supreme Court established that a summary judgment motion should be interpreted by the trial court to accomplish its purpose of disposing of factually unsupported claims, and the trial judge’s, function is not to weigh the evidence and determine the truth of the matter, but to determine whether there is a genuine issue for trial. Johnson v. Enron Corp., 906 F.2d 1234, 1237 (8th Cir.1990). The trial court, therefore, must “assess the adequacy of the nonmovants’ response and whether that showing, on admissible evidence, would be sufficient to carry the burden of proof at trial.” Hartnagel, 953 F.2d at 396 (citing Celotex, 477 U.S. at 322, 106 S.Ct. at 2552). If Hutchinson fails to make a sufficient showing of an essential element of a claim with respect to which she has the burden of proof, then UPS is “entitled to judgment as a matter of law.” Celotex, 477 U.S. at 323, 106 S.Ct. at 2552; Woodsmith, 904 F.2d at 1247. However, if the court can conclude that a reasonable trier of fact could return a verdict for the nonmovant, then summary judgment should not be granted. Anderson, 477 U.S. at 248, 106 S.Ct. at 2510; Burk, 948 F.2d at 492; Woodsmith, 904 F.2d at 1247. With these standards in mind, the court turns to consideration of the defendants’ motions for summary judgment. The Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals has cautioned that “summary judgment should seldom be used in employment-discrimination cases.” Crawford v. Runyon, 37 F.3d 1338, 1341 (8th Cir.1994) (citing Johnson v. Minnesota Historical Soc’y, 931 F.2d 1239, 1244 (8th Cir.1991); Hillebrand v. M-Tron Indus., Inc., 827 F.2d 363, 364 (8th Cir.1987), cert. denied, 488 U.S. 1004, 109 S.Ct. 782, 102 L.Ed.2d 774 (1989)); see also Hardin v. Hussmann Corp., 45 F.3d 262 (8th Cir.1995) (“summary judgments should only be used sparingly in employment discrimination cases,” citing Haglof v. Northwest Rehabilitation, Inc., 910 F.2d 492, 495 (8th Cir.1990); Hillebrand, .827 F.2d at 364). Summary judgment is appropriate only in “those rare instances where there is no dispute of fact and where there exists only one conclusion.” Crawford, 37 F.3d at 1341 (quoting Johnson, 931 F.2d at 1244). The court reasoned that “[bjecause discrimination cases often depend on inferences rather than on direct evidence, summary judgment should not be granted unless the evidence could not support any reasonable inference for the nonmovant.” Id. (holding that there was a genuine issue of material fact precluding summary judgment); Johnson, 931 F.2d at 1244. With these standards in mind, the court turns to consideration of what facts are undisputed, and which are disputed, in this matter. III. FINDINGS OF FACT A. Undisputed Facts The record reveals that the following facts are undisputed. Cheryl Hutchinson began working for UPS as a package delivery car driver on April 17, 1990, and she has never been discharged from that position. Hutchinson is a member of the Teamsters Union, and according to the Essential Job Functions for her position, as negotiated in the contract between UPS and the Teamsters Union effective until July 31, 1993, Hutchinson’s job at UPS required her to bend, stoop, crouch, climb, stand, sit, walk, and turn/pivot for up to 9.5 hours per day, 5 days per week and lift, lower, push, pull and carry up to 70 pounds with an average weight of the package being 11 pounds, A new Teamsters contract, which became effective August 1, 1994, increases the lifting requirement to 150 lbs., but provides that a package car driver is entitled to assistance in lifting any package weighing between 70 and 150 lbs. Hutchinson alleges injuries on three occasions during her employment with UPS. UPS does not dispute that Hutchinson has suffered these injuries, but has from time to time disputed whether the injuries occurred in the course of Hutchinson’s employment. On November 29, 1990, Hutchinson suffered a knee injury. On June 29,1990, Hutchinson suffered, upper back and left shoulder injuries when her package delivery car was struck by another vehicle while she was in the back sorting packages. On June 3, 1991, Hutchinson suffered her most severe injuries when her delivery truck slipped into the ditch on a muddy road and rolled onto the driver’s side. Hutchinson suffered reinjury to her left shoulder and back as the result of this accident. Hutchinson became an “inactive” employee on August 10, 1992, and has not returned to work at UPS as a package delivery car driver since that date, although UPS has always had such a position available for her. During her recuperation from the June 3, 1991, accident, Hutchinson was placed on various medical restrictions. On June 28, 1993, Dr. Anil Agarwal placed a lifting restriction of no more than 30 to 35 lbs on Hutchinson. Dr. Agarwal stated his belief that Hutchinson could not meet the 70 lbs. lifting requirement, because she had been off work for two years. However, it was his opinion that within 6 to 8 weeks of the date of his opinion letter, Hutchinson would be able to meet the 70 lbs. lifting requirement. Dr. Agarwal assessed no permanent disability to Hutchinson for the body as a whole, a 2% permanent disability to the upper extremities as the result of shoulder tendinitis, and no disability to the lower back. Hutchinson did not consult a doctor between June 28,1993, and November 17,1994, when, at the insistence of UPS, she again saw Dr. Agarwal. Dr. Agarwal’s opinion was that Hutchinson could fulfill the 70 lbs. lifting requirement and should therefore be able to return to work. His disability rating at this time was the same as otherwise stated in his June 28, 1993, assessment. UPS therefore requested that Hutchinson return to her position as a package delivery car driver. Hutchinson refused, on the ground that she had inadequate assurances that she would not have to lift more than 70 lbs. and that she was unable to do so alone owing to her disability. Hutchinson has not been terminated by UPS, but since December 13, 1993, has pursued alternative employment with Gateway 2000. Hutchinson works for Gateway 2000 as a production-assembly worker at a position that involves standing for up to 9 hours per day, 6 days per week, for a total of 45 hours or more per week. Her position with Gateway 2000 requires her to lift up to 70 lbs. upon occasion. B. Disputed Facts Hutchinson asserts that the following facts are both disputed and material to this lawsuit. She asserts that she has serious, well-documented impairments, and that UPS has refused to allow her to return to work even when medical restrictions were lifted. She asserts that she was instead required to be “100% healed” before she would be allowed to return to work. She points to three interim reports by Dr. Agarwal indicating that she could return to full or light duties with UPS. Those reports are, in pertinent part, as follows: 10/18/91: “Therefore, the only way progress will be made is if she can return to light duty. I believe she can return to any light duty work as tolerated with no specific restrictions. However, she may avoid lifting over 30 pounds at this point and avoid prolonged bending or stooping. These restrictions are temporary. I think that she can gradually return to regular duty,” 8/24/92: “This patient can return to work lifting up to 30 pounds initially which can be gradually increased starting 8/24/92.” 6/28/93: “[Gradually I anticipate these restrictions can be lifted and she can be returned to full-duty with lifting up to 70 pounds. I do not believe she can return to a delivery driver job with UPS as of today because of at least a 70 pound lifting requirement. However, eventually, that is within six to eight weeks, she should be able to do so.” Despite these assertions by a treating physician that Hutchinson could return to work with some, temporary modification .of her duties, Hutchinson asserts that UPS has refused to allow her to return to work because she was not 100% healed. At oral arguments counsel for UPS conceded that at one time there had been a “100% healed” policy for return to work at UPS, but that, upon advice of counsel, UPS had dropped any such policy. Hutchinson asserts that there is a genuine issue of material fact as to whether or not such policy is still being employed by UPS managers despite the advice of counsel on the basis of recent testimony of UPS officials. Hutchinson also asserts that UPS has a “Temporary Alternative Work” program or TAW involving light duties, but that she has been refused a position under this program, because UPS determined that her injury was not job-related. Hutchinson asserts, again on the basis of deposition testimony by a UPS official, that UPS only makes the TAW program available to people with job-related injuries, not for other disabled employees or applicants. Hutchinson also asserts that the new Teamsters contract does not make it an essential function of her position to. lift up to 150 lbs. unassisted, but that UPS has regarded that unassisted lifting requirement to be an essential function of her position which bars her from returning to work. She asserts that she could have met the requirement of lifting 70-lbs. with minimal or no accommodation from approximately October of 1991. She- also asserts that UPS has other positions available that do not have lifting requirements beyond her abilities, but that UPS has refused to make such positions available to her. TV. LEGAL ANALYSIS Hutchinson has brought her disability discrimination claims under both federal and state law. Her federal disability discrimination claim is based on the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 42 U.S.C. § 12101 et seq. Her state-law disability claim is brought pursuant to Iowa Code Ch. 601A, now Ch. 216. The court will consider the federal claim first, then turn to the state-law claim. A. Disability Discrimination Under Federal Law Before turning to the merits of Hutchinson’s claim under the ADA, the court believes it is beneficial to place it in the context of Congress’ endeavors to combat discrimination based on disabilities. Then the court may consider whether Hutchinson comes under the protective umbrella Congress has designed. 1. The Origins Of The ADA The ADA provides that no employer “shall discriminate against a qualified individual with a disability because of the disability of such individual in regard to ... the hiring, advancement or discharge of employees.... ” 42 U.S.C. § 12112. This language of the ADA is substantially identical to that of the Rehabilitation Act, 29 U.S.C. § 794, which forbids discrimination “by reason of his handicap.” Hedberg v. Indiana Bell Telephone Co., Inc., 47 F.3d 928, 932 (7th Cir.1995). The ADA and its attendant regulations were enacted, in part, to address perceived inadequacies in the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, 29 U.S.C. § 794; Helen L. v. DiDario, 46-F.3d 325, 329 (3d Cir.1995) (describing in detail the history of Congressional efforts to attack disability discrimination). Congress and the Executive found that section 504 of the prior act simply was not working as a means of eradicating discrimination and segregation in this country. For example, Congress found that, even though section 504 had been the law for seventeen years, society has tended to isolate and segregate individuals with disabilities, and despite some improvements, such forms of discrimination against individuals with disabilities continue to be a serious and pervasive social problem. 42 U.S.C. § 12101(a)(2). Because Congress found further that public officials historically have been among the major perpetrators of segregated services in this country, see Timothy M. Cook, The Americans With Disabilities Act: The Move To Integration, 64 Temp. L.Rev. 393, 400, 416 (identifying state laws mandating segregation of persons with disabilities and suggesting an analogy with the “Jim Crow laws” mandating racial discrimination), • Title II of the ADA, 42 U.S.C. §§ 12131-12134, incorporates the “non-discrimination principles” of section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act, but extends them to state and local governments. Helen L., 46 F.3d at 331; Easley v. Snider, 36 F.3d 297, 300 (3d Cir.1994). Section 202 of Title II provides as follows: [N]o qualified individual with a disability shall, by reason of such disability, be excluded from participation in or be denied the benefits of the services, programs, or activities of a public entity, or be subjected to discrimination by any such entity. 42 U.S.C. § 12132. The ADA was not the first attempt to address the limitations of existing legislation to eradicate discrimination on the basis of disabilities. Periodically through the mid-1980s there had been attempts to amend the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to include people with disabilities. ■ See, e.g.,. H.R. 370, 99th Cong., 1st Sess. (1985). In 1983, the United States Commission of Civil Rights observed that “[hjandicap discrimination and,’ as a result, its remedies differ in important ways from other types of discrimination and their remedies,” therefore disability rights laws explicitly modelled on prior civil rights statutes were not necessarily effective. U.S. Comm’N On Civil Rights, Acoommodating The SpeCTRum Of Individual Abilities 48, 149 (1983). A federal judge had a more blunt assessment: [T]he Title VII and Title IX models were not automatically adaptable to the problem of discrimination against the handicapped, but involved a very different undertaking. Indeed, attempting to fit the problem of discrimination against the handicapped into the model remedy for race discrimination is akin to fitting a square peg into a round hole_ Garrity v. Gallen, 522 F.Supp. 171, 206 (D.N.H.1981). Another commentator identified more specific weaknesses of prior laws that attempted to address disability discrimination: Problems involved in trying to transfer principles and legal analysis developed in race and sex' discrimination cases wholesale to disability discrimination were interwoven with other difficulties and shortcomings of disability nondiscrimination statutes prior to the ADA. Experience with the application of such prior statutes, including section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, uncovered or highlighted weaknesses of such laws arising from their statutory language, the limited extent of their coverage, inadequate enforcement mechanisms, and erratic judicial interpretations. Legal commentators have extensively described and lamented the flaws in the working, interpretation, and implementation of federal disability nondiscrimination statutes prior to the ADA. Robert L. Burgdorf, Jr., The Americans With Disabilities Act: Analysis And Implications Of A Second-Generation Civil Rights Statute, 26 Harv.C.R.-C.L.L.Rev. 413, 430-31 (1991) (footnotes omitted). In enacting the ADA, Congress found that “ [historically, society has tended to isolate and segregate individuals with disabilities, and ... such forms of discrimination ... continue to be a serious and pervasive social problem.” 42 U.S.C. § 12101(a)(2). Helen L., 46 F.3d at 332. The purpose of the ADA in light of this history of discrimination was summarized by Congressman Dellums: The history of different, separate, and unequal treatment of persons with disabilities, especially those with severe disabilities, could not be clearer. That history is in fact a stark reminder of the prejudice and misunderstanding that has characterized the treatment of minority citizens. This disparate treatment establishes an abundant factual predicate for the relief granted by [the ADA]. The Americans With Disabilities Act is a plenary civil rights statute designed to halt all practices that segregate persons with disabilities and those which treat them inferior [sic] or differently. By enacting the ADA, we are making a conscious decision to reverse a sad legacy of segregation and degradation. [t]he history of society’s formal methods for dealing with handicapped people can be summed up in two words: segregation and inequality. Individuals with handicapping conditions have faced an almost universal conspiracy to shunt them aside from the mainstream of society and to deny them an equal share of benefits and opportunities available to others.... At every juncture, the handicapped person has met with attempts to “push” him or her aside and to withhold that which is taken for granted from other persons. 136 Cong.ReC. H2599 (daily ed. May 22, 1990) (statement of Rep. Dellums)., Almost ten years earlier, a disabled legal scholar and disability rights advocate had written that Robert L. Burgdorf, Jr., The Legal Rights Of HANDICAPPED PERSONS: CASES, MATERIALS, And Text 51 (1980). Before passing the ADA, Congress conducted fourteen hearings at the Capitol, and another sixty-three field hearings, and reviewed hundreds of discrimination diaries submitted for the legislative record by persons with disabilities. Americans With Disabilities Act of 1989: Hearings on S. 933 Before the Senate Comm, on Labor and Human Resouroes and the Subcomm. on the Handicapped. 101st Cong., 1st Sess. (1989) (testimony of Justin Dart, Chairman of Task Force on Rights and Empowerment of Americans with Disabilities). Congress was confronted with testimony that [b]y almost any definition, Americans with disabilities are uniquely underprivileged and disadvantaged. They are much poorer, much less well educated and have much less social life, have fewer amenities and have a lower level of self-satisfaction than other Americans. Senate Subcomm. on the Handicapped, S. Hrg. 166, pt. 2, at 9 (1987) (statement of Humphrey Taylor); quoted in S.Rep. No. 116, 101st Cong., 1st Sess. 8 (1989); also quoted in H.R.Rep. No. 485, 101st Cong., 2d Sess., pt. 2, at 31, 1990 U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.News, pp. 267, 312, 313'(1990). Congress found that its hearings, investigations, and other sources revealed severe prejudice and discrimination towards disabled persons persisted in this country: Persons with disabilities, especially those with severe, noticeable disabilities, were told outright that they had been excluded because others would feel uncomfortable around them. See, e.g., S.Rep. No. 116, 101st Cong., 1st Sess; 7 (1989), and H.R.Rep. No. 485, 101st Cong., 2d Sess., pt. 2, at 30, U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.News 1990, pp. 267, 311 (1990) (a New Jersey zoo keeper refused to admit children with Down’s syndrome because he feared they would upset the chimpanzees; and, from remarks of Rep. Vanik, citing as an example of discrimination on the basis of disability from Alexander v. Choate, 469 U.S. 287, 307 n. 29, 105 S.Ct. 712, 723 n. 29, 83 L.Ed.2d 661 (1985), a child with cerebral palsy was excluded from public school, although he was academically competitive and his condition was not actually physically disruptive, because his teacher claimed his physical appearance “produced a nauseating effect” on his classmates); 135 Cong.Rec. S10720 (daily ed. Sept. 7, 1989) (statement of Sen. Duren-berger) (applicant with cerebral palsy described being told she was not qualified for job in metropolitan hospital because fellow employees would not be comfortable working with her); Senate Comm, on Labor and Human Resouroes, Rep. on the Amerioans With Disabilities Act, S.Rep. No. 116, 101st Cong., 1st Sess. 7 (1989) (applicant “crippled by arthritis” denied employment in higher education because “college trustees [thought] ‘normal students’ shouldn’t see her”); House Comm, on Education and Labor, Rep. on the Americans with Disabilities Act, HR.Rep. No. 485,101st Cong., 2d Sess., at 42, reprinted in 1990 U.S.Code Cong.' & Admin.News pp. 267, 303, 324 (1990) (testimony of Virginia Domini) (“[T]he general public doesn’t want to see you doing your laundry, being a case worker, a shopper, or a Mom. It is difficult to see yourself as a valuable member of society, and sometimes it is hard to see yourself as a person worthy of so much more respect than you get from the general public.”). Various draft bills to combat disability discrimination were introduced in 1988, and Congressional hearings followed. H.R. 4498, 100th Cong., 2d Sess., 134 Cong.ReC. E1307 (daily ed. April 29, 1988); S. 2345, 100th Cong., 2d Sess., 134 Cong.Rec. S5110 (daily ed. April 28, 1988): A revised ADA bill was introduced in the 101st Congress on May 9, 1989. S. 933, 101st Cong., 1st Sess., 135 Cong.Rec. S4978 (daily ed. May 9, 1989); H.R. 2273, 101st Cong., 1st Sess., 135 Cong. Reo. H1690 (daily ed. May 9, 1989). The House and Senate versions were eventually reported out of committees, the House version was passed on May 22,1990, by a vote of 403 to 20. 136 Cong.Rec. H2638 (daily ed. May 22, 1990). Following conferences on differences between the House and Senate versions, the House approved the final version of the bill by a vote of 377 to 28 on July 12,1990,136 CoNG.Rec. H4629 (daily ed. July 12, 1990), and the following day the Senate passed the ADA by a vote of 91 to 6. 136 Cong.Rec. S9696 (daily ed. July 13, 1990). In the final form of the ADA, Congress concluded that “[i]ndividuals with disabilities continually encounter various forms of dis-crimination_” 42 U.S.C. § 12101(a)(5). Helen L., 46 F.3d at 332. In furtherance of the objective of eliminating discrimination against the disabled, Congress stated that “the Nation’s proper goals regarding individuals with disabilities are to assure equality of opportunity, full participation, .independent living, and economic self-sufficiency for such individuals.” 42 U.S.C. § 12101(a)(8); Helen L., 46 F.3d at 332. Thus, the purpose of the ADA is “to provide a clear and comprehensive national mandate for the elimination of discrimination against individuals with disabilities.” 42 U.S.C. § 12101(a); Vande Zande v. State of Wis. Dep’t of Admin., 44 F.3d 538, 541 (7th Cir.1995). In his remarks to more than 3000 people, most of whom had disabilities, gathered on the South Lawn of the White House for the signing ceremony, President Bush described the ADA as an “historic new civil rights Act ...[,] the world’s first comprehensive declaration of equality for people with disabilities.” President George Bush, Remarks by the President During Ceremony for the Signing of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, 2 (July 26,1990) (on file with the Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review), quoted in Robert L. Burgdorf, Jr., The Americans With Disabilities Act: Analysis And Implications Of A Second-Generation Civil Rights Statute, 26 Harv.C.R.-C.L.L.Rev. 413 (1991). Title I of the ADA, prohibiting discrimination in employment on the basis of a disability, became effective on July 26, 1992. Pub.L. 101-336, § 108 (“This title [subchap-ter] shall become effective 24 months after the date of enactment [July 26, 1990].”). With this historical • context for the ADA as background, the court may now turn to the standards it is to apply in answering the threshold question in ADA litigation, “Is the plaintiff disabled enough- to seek relief under the ADA?” 2. Disability Discrimination Under The ADA Under the ADA, “disability” is broadly defined to include not only “a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more of the major life activities of [the disabled] individual,” but also “ha[ving] a record of such an impairment,” or the state of “being regarded as having such an impairment.” 42 U.S.C. §§ 12102(2)(A), (B), (C); Vande Zande, 44 F.3d at 541; Chandler v. City of Dallas, 2 F.3d 1385, 1391 (5th Cir. 1993), cert. denied, — U.S.-, 114 S.Ct. 1386, 128 L.Ed.2d 61 (1994) (“disability” under ADA means a condition that “substantially limits” major life activity). ■ In seeking further definition of the term “substantially limits” under the ADA, the First Circuit Court of Appeals looked to the regulations implementing the ADA: Those regulations indicate that the question of whether an impairment is substantially limiting turns on ‘(1) the nature and severity of the impairment, (2) the duration or expected duration of the impairment, and (3) the [actual or expected] permanent or long-term impact ... of, or resulting from, the impairment.’ 29 C.F.R. § 1630, App. at 403 (1992). Cook v. State of R.I. Dep’t of Mental Health, Retardation, and Hospitals, 10 F.3d 17, 25 n. 10 (1st Cir.1993). ADA regulations, as well as ADA interpretive guidance, make clear that temporary, minor injuries do not “substantially limit” a person’s major life activities. 29 CFR §§ 1630.2(j), 1630 App., at 407. The Seventh Circuit Court - of Appeals found the third prohibition, that the employer regards the employee as disabled, fits with the goals of the ADA, because “[m]any such impairments are not in fact disabling but are believed to be so, and the people having them may be denied employment or otherwise shunned as a consequence.” Vande Zande, 44 F.3d at 541. The Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals surveyed decisions in which courts considered the issue of how limiting an employer must consider an employee’s impairment to be before the employer is held to regard the employee as disabled under the Rehabilitation Act and other acts prohibiting discrimination on the basis of a disability. Chandler, 2 F.3d at 1391-93. The court noted that in Forrisi v. Bowen, 794 F.2d 931 (4th Cir.1986), [t]he Fourth Circuit held that the employer did not regard the employee as handicapped simply because it found that he could not meet the demands of this particular job. “The statutory reference to a substantial limitation indicates instead that an employer regards an employee as handicapped in his or her ability to work by finding the employee’s impairment to foreclose generally the type of employment involved.” Chandler, 2 F.3d at 1392 (quoting Forrisi, 794 F.2d at 934). The court next observed that in Jasany v. United States Postal Serv., 755 F.2d 1244, 1249-50 (6th Cir.1985), the court concluded that the employer had not regarded the employee as handicapped because his eyesight prevented his driving, because “[a]n impairment that affects only a narrow range of jobs can be regarded either as not reaching a major life activity or as not substantially limiting one.” Id. (quoting Jas-any, 755 F.2d at 1249 n. 3). The court then turned to one of its prior unpublished decisions in which it had that the employer’s perception that the employee could work in positions other than the one he had formerly occupied despite his impairment was evidence that the employer did not regard the employee as handicapped, again emphasizing that the employee was not regarded as being substantially limited in a major life activity or in performing work-related functions in general. Id. at 1392-93. From this survey, the court concluded that the rule is that [a]n employer’s belief that an employee is unable to perform one task with an adequate safety margin does not establish per se that the employer regards the employee as having a substantial limitation on [the employee’s] ability to work in general. Id. at 1393. The ADA defines a “qualified individual with a disability” as “an individual with a disability who, with or without reasonable accommodation, can perform the essential functions of the employment position that such individual holds or desires.” 42 U.S.C. § 12111(8); see White v. York Int’l Corp., 45 F.3d 357, 360 (10th Cir.1995) (citing this definition from the ADA); Tyndall v. National Educ. Ctrs, 31 F.3d 209, 212 (4th Cir.1994); and compare School Bd. of Nassau County v. Arline, 480 U.S. 273, 287 n. 17, 107 S.Ct. 1123, 1131 n. 17, 94 L.Ed.2d 307 (1987) (similar definition in Rehabilitation Act, 29 U.S.C. § 794(a)); Southeastern Comm. College v. Davis, 442 U.S. 397, 406, 99 S.Ct. 2361, 2367, 60 L.Ed.2d 980 (1979) (Rehabilitation Act definition). Similarly, the ADA reaches beyond protection of people with disabilities irrelevant to performance of their jobs by defining “discrimination” as including an employer’s “not making reasonable accommodations to the known physical or mental limitations of an otherwise qualified individual with a disability who is an applicant or employee, unless ... [the employer] can demonstrate that the accommodation would impose an undue hardship on the operation of the ... [employer’s] business.” Vande Zande, 44 F.3d at 541-42 (quoting 42 U.S.C. § 12112(b)(5)(A)). To put it another way, although the ADA prohibits discharge of a person “because of’ a disability, an “employer may fire [an] employee because he cannot perform his job adequately, i.e., he is not a ‘qualified individual’ within the meaning of the ADA.” Hedberg, 47 F.3d at 934 (citing 42 U.S.C. § 12111(8)). But before firing such an employee, the employer must consider whether “reasonable accommodation” can be made. Id.; Vande Zande v. Wisconsin Dep’t of Admin., 44 F.3d 538 (7th Cir.1995). The Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals has formulated a two-pronged test of whether a person is “qualified” within the meaning of the ADA: First, we must determine whether the individual could perform the essential functions of the job, i.e., functions that bear more than a marginal relationship to the job at issue. Second, if (but only if) we conclude that the individual is not able to ■ perform the essential functions of the job, we must determine whether any reasonable accommodation by the employer would enable [the individual] to perform those functions. Chandler, 2 F.3d at 1393-94; see also White, 45 F.3d at 361-62 (quoting and applying the Chandler test of “qualified”); Tyndall, 31 F.3d at 213 (citing and applying the Chandler test). There are, of course, limits upon what accommodation is required under the ADA: The ADA does not, for example, necessarily insulate from discharge someone whose underlying disability causes him to be frequently drunk-on the job. The ADA is not a job insurance policy, but rather a congressional scheme for correcting illegitimate inequities the disabled face. See 42 U.S.C. § 12101(a). Hedberg, 47 F.3d at 934. Under the terms of the statute, the accommodation must be “reasonable” and must not impose “undue hardship.” 42 U.S.C. § 12112(b)(5)(A); Vande Zande, 44 F.3d at 542. In Vande Zande, the court considered first what was meant by “reasonable accommodation,” then considered the meaning of “undue hardship”: To “accommodate” a disability is to make some change that will enable the disabled person to work. An unrelated, ineffica-cious change would not be an accommodation of the disability at all. So “reasonable” may be intended to qualify (in the sense of weaken) “accommodation,” in just the same way that if one requires a “reasonable effort” of someone this means less than the maximum possible effort.... It would not follow that the costs and benefits of altering a workplace to enable a disabled person to work would always have to be quantified, or even that an accommodation would have to be deemed unreasonable if the cost exceeded the benefit however slightly. But, at the very least, the cost could not be disproportionate to the benefit. Even if an employer is so large or wealthy ... that it may not be able to plead “undue hardship,” it would not be required to expend enormous sums in order to bring about a trivial improvement in the life of a disabled employee.... [One could argue that] the function of the “undue hardship” safe harbor, like the “failing company” defense in antitrust liability ... is to excuse compliance by a firm that is financially distressed, even though the cost of the accommodation to the firm might be less than the benefit to disabled employees. [However, t]his interpretation of “undue hardship” is not inevitable — in fact probably is incorrect. .It is a defined term in the Americans with Disabilities Act, and the definition is “an action requiring significant difficulty or expense,” 42 U.S.C. § 12111(10)(A). Vande Zande, 44 F.3d at 542-43. The court therefore concluded that costs and difficulties to the employer, in light of the employer’s financial health or survival, and the benefits to the employee were both relevant to the “reasonable accommodation” inquiry. Id. The conclusions of the court in Vande Zande concerning the extent of the required accommodation are reinforced by the legislative history of the ADA itself on this point. The report of the House Committee on Education and Labor states: The Committee wishes to make it clear that the principles enunciated by the Supreme Court in TWA v. Hardison, 432 U.S. 63 [97 S.Ct. 2264, 53 L.Ed.2d 113] (1977), are not applicable to this legislation. In Hardison, the Supreme Court concluded that under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 an employer need not accommodate persons with religious beliefs if the accommodation would require more than a de minimis cost for the employer. By contrast, under the ADA, reasonable accommodations must be provided unless they rise to the level of “requiring significant difficulty or expense” on the part of the employer, in light of the factors noted in the statute — i.e., a significantly higher standard than that articulated in Hardi-son. This higher standard is necessary in light of the crucial role that reasonable accommodation plays in ensuring meaningful employment opportunities for people with disabilities. H.R.Rep. No. 101^485, 101st Cong., 2d Sess., pt. 2, at 68, 1990 U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.News, pp. 267, 350 (1990); see also H.R.Rep. No. 101^485, 101st Cong., 2d Sess., pt. 3, at 40, 1990 U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.News, pp. 267, 462 (1990); S.Rep. No. 101-116, 101st Cong., 1st Sess. 36 (1989). a. Analytical framework for ADA claims To qualify for relief under the ADA, a plaintiff must establish (1) that he or she is a disabled person within the meaning of the ADA; (2) that he or she is qualified, that is, with or without reasonable accommodation (which the plaintiff must describe), he or she is able to perform the essential functions of the job; and (3) that the employer terminated the plaintiff, or subjected the employee to adverse decision, “because of’ the plaintiffs disability. White, 45 F.3d at 361; Mason v. Frank, 32 F.3d 315, 318-19 (8th Cir.1994); Tyndall, 31 F.3d at 212; Chandler, 2 F.3d at 1390; Gilbert v. Frank, 949 F.2d 637, 640-42 (2d Cir.1991); Lucero v. Hart, 915 F.2d 1367, 1371 (9th Cir.1990). The analytical framework employed by courts confronted with claims pursuant to the ADA has generally been the familiar McDonnell Douglas shifting burdens analysis. See, e.g., White, 45 F.3d at 361; Aikens v. Banana Republic, Inc., 877 F.Supp. 1031, 1036-37 (S.D.Tex. 1995); West v. Russell Corp., 868 F.Supp. 313, 316 (M.D.Ala.1994). b. The prima facie case under the ADA Although courts have applied the McDonnell Douglas framework with some' consistency, this court finds that the circuit courts of appeals have been somewhat reluctant to articulate the proper prima facie case for ADA claims with which to begin the analysis. In, Hedberg, the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals considered, without deciding, the elements of a prima facie case under the ADA. Hedberg, 47 F.3d at 933 n. 5. The ■ court confined itself to the question of what role the employer’s knowledge of the plaintiffs disabilities would play in the plaintiff’s prima facie case where those disabilities .are not obvious. Id. The court concluded first that where the employer did not know of the plaintiffs disabilities, the employer could not have discharged the plaintiff “because of’ the disability. Id. at 933. The court in Hedberg identified a number of courts that had come to similar conclusions under the ADA or analogous statutes designed to prevent disability discrimination. Id.; see also Landefeld v. Marion General Hosp., Inc., 994 F.2d 1178 (6th Cir.1993) (where employer knew nothing of handicap, employer could not be liable under the Rehabilitation Act); Mazzarella v. United States Postal Serv., 849 F.Supp. 89, 96-97 (D.Mass.1994) (holding that lack of knowledge of decisionmaker who fired an employee with a mental disorder precluded liability under the Rehabilitation Act); Grinstead v. Pool Co. of Texas, 1994 WL 25515 (E.D.La.1994) (holding that there, can be no liability under the ADA for firing a worker with a 20% disability rating when the plaintiff produced no evidence that the employer knew of the disability); affd without op., 26 F.3d 1118 (5th Cir.1994); McIntyre v. Kroger Co., 863 F.Supp. 355, 358-59 (N.D.Tex.1994) (holding that there could be no liability under Texas human rights law that forbade discharge “because of disability” for employer’s discharge of mentally ill employee, where plaintiff produced no evidence that the employer knew of the disability); Dutson v. Farmers Ins. Exchange, 815 F.Supp. 349, 352 (D.Or.1993) (holding that where there was no evidence that an employer knew of its employee’s being HIV-positive, the employer could not have illegally discriminated against the employee), affd without op., 35 F.3d 570 (9th Cir.1994); O’Keefe v. Niagara Mohawk Power Corp., 714 F.Supp. 622, 627 (N.D.N.Y. 1989) (holding that there could be no liability under New York human rights law, forbidding discharge “because of disability,” where there was no genuine issue of material fact that those who decided to fire the plaintiff knew nothing of his alcoholism). The court in Hedberg also concluded that Where disabilities are not obvious, it may be that part of the plaintiffs prima facie case would be to demonstrate knowledge of the disability on the employer’s part, as is necessary for Title VII religious discrimination. See Beasley [v. Health Care Serv. Corp.], 940 F.2d [1085] 1088 [(7th Cir. 1991) ]; Redmond [v. GAF Corp.], 574 F.2d [897] 901-02 [ (7th Cir.1978) ]. All we decide today, however, is that where there is no genuine issue that an employer did not know of an employee’s disability when it decided to fire him, the employee cannot make out a case of discriminatory discharge. • Hedberg, 47 F.3d at 933 n. 5. The court rejected that notion that an employee fired because of “symptoms” of his disability has been fired “because of’ the disability where those “symptoms” may have any number of sources other than disability, remarking that “[t]he ADA does not require clairvoyance.” Id. at 933. Only if the employer knows of the disability, or if the “symptoms are so obviously manifestations of an underlying disability that it would be reasonable to infer that an employer actually knew of the disability,” do the provisions of the ADA become binding. Id. Similarly, where the disability discrimination plaintiff fails to establish that he or she was treated differently from other persons, the plaintiff has failed to establish one element of a prima facie disability discrimination case, and no further inquiry is needed. Owens v. United States Postal Serv., 37 F.3d 1326, 1328 (8th Cir. 1994). However, finding themselves in the quandary of being left without precise guidance from the circuit courts of appeals articulating the proper prima facie case for an ADA plaintiff, the district courts have hit upon two possible formulations, as demonstrated by a sampling of recent ADA decisions. In one group are those courts that apply a prima facie case that is indistinguishable from the elements of an ADA case as described above: a plaintiff must establish (1) that he or she is á disabled person within the meaning of the ADA; (2) that he or she is qualified, that is, with or without reasonable accommodation (which the plaintiff must describe), he or she is able to perform the essential functions of the job; and (3) that the employer terminated the plaintiff, or subjected the employee to adverse decision, “because of’ the plaintiffs disability. See, e.g., Ricks v. Xerox Corp., 877 F.Supp. 1468 (D.Kan.1995); Howe v. Hull, 873 F.Supp. 72, 78 (N.D.Ohio 1994). In another group are those courts applying a prima facie case more obviously adapted from the one used in other employment discrimination cases: the plaintiff must establish (1) that he or she is disabled within the meaning of the ADA; (2) he or she is a “qualified individual” within the meaning of the ADA; (3) the plaintiff was subject to an adverse employment decision; and (4) the plaintiff was replaced by a non-disabled person or was treated less favorably than non-disabled employees. See, e.g., Zambelli v. Historic Landmarks, Inc., 1995 WL 116669 (ED.Pa.1995); Aikens v. Banana Republic, Inc., 877 F.Supp. 1031, 1036-37 (S.D.Tex. 1995); Rogers v. International Marine Terminals, Inc., 1995 WL 16787, *3 (E.D.La. 1995); Aucutt v. Six Flags Over Mid-America, Inc., 869 F.Supp. 736 (ED.Mo.1994); Stradley v. Lafourche Communications, Inc., 869 F.Supp. 442, 443 (ED.La.1994); West v. Russell Corp., 868 F.Supp. 313, 317 (MD.Ala.1994). Other courts, without deciding the precise formulation of the prima facie case have held that failure to make some specific showing meant that the plaintiff could not establish a 'prima facie case. See, e.g., Jeanine B. v. Thompson, 877 F.Supp. 1268 (E.D.Wis.1995) (failure to allege that plaintiffs were disabled persons was fatal to prima facie case under ADA and Rehabilitation Act); Garcia-Paz v. Swift Textiles, Inc., 873 F.Supp. 547, 554 (D.Kan. 1995) (although defendant asserted plaintiff could not show any of the elements of a typical discrimination claim, the court found plaintiff had failed to establish a prima facie ease because the plaintiff could not show that she was a “qualified individual with a disability”). This court agrees with those decisions holding that the proper prima facie case under the ADA is that most closely resembling the prima facie showing required for other forms of employment discrimination: the plaintiff need not show at the pri-ma facie case phase that he or she was terminated “because of’ a disability. Rather, the plaintiff need only make a showing that gives rise to an inference of discrimination on the basis of disability. Hence, the plaintiff must show that he or she suffered an adverse employment decision, and that plaintiff was replaced by a non-disabled person, one with a lesser disability, or one whose disability is more easily accommodated, or the plaintiff was treated less favorably than non-disabled employees, those with lesser disabilities, or those whose disabilities are more easily accommodated. The court admits that no other authority has included in its formulation of the prima facie case under the ADA the comparison of the plaintiff with persons with lesser or more easily accommodated disabilities. However, the court does not believe that the protections of the ADA come into play only if the disabled plaintiff was replaced by or treated less favorably than a mow-disabled person, just as in an ADEA case, it is not necessary that the plaintiff be replaced with a person from outside the protected class, only that the plaintiff be replaced by a younger person. Rinehart v. City of Independence, Mo., 35 F.3d 1263, 1265-66 (8th Cir. 1994). A plaintiff has been terminated “because of’ his or her disability just as surely where the employer terminates the plaintiff in favor of another who also fits within the ADA’s definition of “disable,” but whose disability is more cheaply or easily accommodated, as when the plaintiff is terminated in favor of an non-disabled person. If the ADA permitted such substitution of persons with less severe or more easily accommodated disabilities for those with more severe or less easily accommodated ones, it would be creating a scenario wherein employers were permitted to discriminate among members of the ostensibly protected class. The ADA’s requirement that accommodation be reasonable already provides sufficient protection to employers from “undue hardship,” but preserves the outer limits in defining the class of disabled persons, rather than allowing em-. ployers to control whom the ADA protects. The court will return to this point when it considers Hutchinson’s allegations that UPS has policies that are per se violations of the ADA. 3. Hutchinson’s Qualifícation For ADA Protection The court must now address what it has described as the typical or threshold question in an ADA case, “Is Hutchinson disabled enough to seek relief under the ADA?” The court concludes that the answer to this question is “no.” Although it is somewhat unclear from Hutchinson’s complaint and resistance to the motion for summary judgment, and even following the court’s request for clarification of the point during oral arguments, exactly what major life activity Hutchinson claims to be substantially limited by her impairments, the court finds that Hutchinson is not so limited. Under the applicable regulations, the court is to consider “(1) the nature and severity of the impairment, (2) the duration or expected duration of the impairment, and (3) the [actual or expected] permanent or long-term impact ... of, or resulting from, the impairment.” 29 C.F.R. § 1630, App. at 403 (1992); .see also Cook v. State of R.I. Dep’t of Mental Health, Retardation, and Hospitals, 10 F.3d 17, 25 n. 10 (1st Cir.1993). ADA regulations, as well as ADA interpretive guidance, make clear that temporary, minor injuries do not “substantially limit” a person’s major life activities. 29 CFR §§ 1630.2(j), 1630 App., at 407. Although Hutchinson’s injuries were not “minor,” the medical record demonstrates that they were temporary, and that any permanent impairment is only slight. Hutchinson acknowledges that she has now recovered sufficiently to meet the 70 lbs. unassisted lifting requirement. Furthermore, Hutchinson’s impairments have not disqualified her from a wide range of jobs. “An impairment that affects only a narrow range of jobs can be regarded either as not reaching a major life activity or as not substantially limiting one.” Chandler, 2 F.3d at 1392 (quoting Forrisi, 794 F.2d at 934). Hutchinson has only been disqualified from the narrow range of jobs involving unassisted lifting of over 70 lbs. She currently performs work similar to that formerly required of her at UPS, which is proof that she has not been limited in this major life activity. Nor has UPS regarded Hutchinson as disabled in violation of the ADA. “An employer’s belief that an employee is unable to perform one task with an adequate safety margin does not establish per se that the employer regards the employee as having a substantial limitation on [the employee’s] ability to work in general.” Id. at 1393. Although UPS may at one time have regarded Hutchinson as unable to perform the package delivery car job because she could not perform the narrow task of lifting packages between 30 and 70 lbs., UPS did not thereby regard her as disabled. Nor does UPS currently regard Hutchinson as disabled at all, because UPS has offered Hutchinson her former position, but Hutchinson has refused to return to work because she believes that she has received inadequate assurances that she will not have to lift packages in excess of 70 lbs. unassisted. Hutchinson is not disabled within the meaning of the ADA, and the court’s analysis of Hutchinson’s claims to protection of the ADA stops there, without addressing the questions of whether Hutchinson’s disability entitles her to reasonable accommodation which UPS has failed to provide. UPS is therefore entitled to summary judgment on Hutchinson’s individual claim for relief under the ADA as the result of refusal to allow her to return to work. B. Per Se Violations Of The ADA However, the court’s analysis of Hutchinson’s claims of violation of .the ADA does not end with a determination that Hutchinson is not disabled within the meaning of the Act, because Hutchinson has also asserted that UPS has two policies that are per se violations of the Act. These policies are the “100% healed” requirement, which requires that an injured employee cannot return to work until he or she is “100% healed,” and the second is the policy providing for differential availability of the “Temporary Alternative Work” or TAW program for persons injured in work-related or non-work-related circumstances. The court believes that a “100% healed” policy, if it exists, would be a per se violation of the ADA. Such a policy would on its face “discriminate against a qualified individual with a disability because of the disability of such individual in regard to ... terms, conditions, and privileges of employment.” 42 U.S.C. § 12112(a). Although the availability of the TAW program ostensibly is based on whether or not the applicant was injured in a work-related or non-work-related context, rather than upon the disability itself, such a policy may also run afoul of the ADA. Such a policy may distinguish between persons who have similar or identical disabilities regarding what degree of accommodation such persons receive, and thus discriminate on the basis of disability in the privileges of employment. 1. What constitutes a per se violation of the ADA? Relatively few courts have considered per se violations of the ADA as the result of a defendant’s policies or procedures, and some of those have involved Title II of the ADA, which pertains to public entities or public services, rather than Title I, which pertains to employment. See, e.g., Stillwell v. Kansas City, Mo., Bd. of Police Comm’rs, 872 F.Supp. 682, 686-88 (W.D.Mo.1995) (under Title II, the public entity provision of the ADA, 42 U.S.C. §§ 12131-12165, a blanket exclusion of one-handed applicants from licensing as police officers was a p