Full opinion text
MEMORANDUM RAYMOND J. BRODERICK, District Judge. This is an action brought pursuant to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (“IDEA”), 20 U.S.C. § 1401 et seq., the Rehabilitation Act, 29 U.S.C. § 701 et seq., and the Americans with Disabilities Act, 42 U.S.C. § 12101 et seq. Christen G. (“Christen”) and her mother, Louise G., assert that Christen has Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and that the Defendants failed to offer a free appropriate public education to Christen as required by law. Plaintiffs seek reimbursement for private school education costs incurred by Louise G. when she placed Christen at Delaware Valley Friends School during the years in which Plaintiffs allege Lower Merion School District failed to provide a free appropriate public education. Defendant Lower Merion School District (“Lower Merion”) and other Lower Merion school officials named as Defendants have asserted that they did not fail to offer Christen a free appropriate public education, and that any reimbursement of costs for Christen’s attendance at Delaware Valley Friends School is barred by the First Amendment of the United States Constitution because DVFS is a sectarian school. This Court has jurisdiction pursuant to 28 U.S.C. §§ 1331 and 1343. Trial was held by the Court on August 7 and 8, 1995. In accordance with 20 U.S.C. § 1415(e)(2) of the IDEA, the Court is also in receipt of the records of earlier administrative proceedings in which Plaintiffs sought review of decisions by the Lower Merion School District regarding Christen’s educational placement. For the reasons stated below, which are Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law pursuant to Fed.R.Civ.P. 52(a), judgment will be entered in favor of Defendants on Plaintiffs’ IDEA claims arising from the 1993-94 school year. For IDEA claims arising from the 1994-95 school year, the Court will enter judgment in favor of Plaintiffs against Lower Merion School District and award tuition reimbursement to Louise G. equal to the cost of Christen’s education at Delaware Valley Friends School for the 1994-95 school year. I. INTRODUCTION Before discussing the detailed facts and procedural history of this case, a brief overview of the legal framework underlying the contentions of the parties as well as the meaning of several statutory terms at issue will be helpful. Under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (“IDEA”), a state receiving federal funds for the education of handicapped children must provide those children with a “free appropriate public education.” 20 U.S.C. § 1412(a). ‘“[F]ree appropriate public' education’ consists of educational instruction designed to meet the unique needs of the handicapped child, supported by such services as are necessary to permit the child ‘to benefit’ from the instruction.” Board of Education v. Rowley, 458 U.S. 176, 188-89, 102 S.Ct. 3034, 3042, 73 L.Ed.2d 690 (1982). The benefit conferred by this special education must be “meaningful” and not trivial or de minimis. Polk v. Central Susquehanna Intermediate Unit 16, 853 F.2d 171, 184 (3d Cir.1988). The “centerpiece” of the IDEA’S education delivery system for disabled children is the Individualized Education Program or (“IEP”). Honig v. Doe, 484 U.S. 305, 311, 108 S.Ct. 592, 598, 98 L.Ed.2d 686 (1988). “‘The IEP consists of a detailed written statement arrived at by a multi-disci-plinary team summarizing the child’s abilities, outlining the goals for the child’s education and specifying the services the child will receive.’ ” ■ Oberti v. Board of Educ., 995 F.2d 1204, 1213 n. 16 (3d Cir.1993) (quoting Polk, supra, at 173). In order to satisfy the requirements of the IDEA, the instruction and services offered by the state “must be provided at public expense, must meet the state’s educational standards, must approximate the grade levels used in the state’s regular education, and must comport with the child’s IEP.” Rowley, supra, at 204-05, 102 S.Ct. at 3049. The IDEA provides extensive procedural protections to the parents of disabled children, including participation of parents in the development of the IEP, the right to review all relevant school records, and “an opportunity to present complaints with respect to any matter relating to the identification, evaluation, or educational placement of the child, or the provision of a free appropriate education to such child.” 20 U.S.C. § 1415(b)(1). When a parent has a complaint, she may request an “impartial due process hearing.” 20 U.S.C. § 1415(b)(2). States have flexibility in choosing to implement a one or two-tier administrative review system, and Pennsylvania has chosen to offer “a two-tier system in which the initial hearing occurs at the local educational agency level followed by an ‘independent’ review of that hearing at the state educational agency level.” Carlisle Area School District v. Scott P., 62 F.3d 520, 527 (3d Cir.1995). A party aggrieved by the final determination of the state agency is entitled to bring an action “in any State court of competent jurisdiction or in a district court of the United States without regard to the amount in controversy.” 20 U.S.C. § 1415(e). In any such action, “the court shall receive the records of the administrative proceedings, shall hear additional evidence at the request of a party, and, basing its decision on the preponderance of the evidence, grant such relief as the court determines is appropriate.” Id. As will be discussed infra, a court must give “due weight” to the state administrative proceedings in making its decision. See Rowley, supra, at 206, 102 S.Ct. at 3051. “In administrative and judicial proceedings, the school district bears the burden of proving the appropriateness of the IEP it has proposed.” Carlisle, supra, at 533. If a court determines that a school has offered an inappropriate education for a child, and an aggrieved parent has unilaterally chosen to place her child in an appropriate placement, appropriate relief may be ordered. Courts have often approved relief in the form of tuition reimbursement to the parent for the costs of educating her child during the period in which the school district failed to offer a free appropriate public education in accordance with its obligations under the IDEA. See Florence County School District Four v. Carter, 510 U.S. 7, - , 114 S.Ct. 361, 366, 126 L.Ed.2d 284 (1993); School Committee of Burlington v. Department of Education, 471 U.S. 359, 370-71, 105 S.Ct. 1996, 2003, 85 L.Ed.2d 385 (1985). However, a parent who chooses to educate her child in a placement other than that offered by the school does so at her own financial risk in the event that the school’s offered placement is determined to be appropriate. See id. In this action, Plaintiffs have also sought relief under the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Section § 504 of the Rehabilitation Act provides that: No otherwise qualified individual with a disability in the United States as defined in section 706(8) of this title shall, solely by reason of her or his disability, be excluded from the participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance ... 29 U.S.C. § 794(a). To establish a violation of this section, a plaintiff must demonstrate that: (1) she is disabled as defined by the Act; (2) she is otherwise qualified to participate in school activities; (3) the school receives federal financial assistance; and (4) she was excluded from participation in, denied the benefits of, or subject to discrimination at, the school. See W.B. v. Matula, 67 F.3d 484, 494 (3d Cir.1995). A plaintiff need not establish that there has been an intent to discriminate by defendants in order to prevail, but defendants must know or be reasonably expected to know of her disability. See id. The Third Circuit has noted that “[t]here appear to be few differences, if any, between IDEA’S affirmative duty and § 504’s negative prohibition. Indeed, the regulations implementing § 504 adopt the IDEA’S language, requiring that schools which receive or benefit from federal financial assistance ‘shall provide a free appropriate public education to each qualified handicapped person who is in the recipient’s jurisdiction.’ ” Id. (citing 34 C.F.R. § 104.33(a)). Monetary damages are also available under the Rehabilitation Act. See id. Finally, Plaintiffs have also sought relief under the Americans with Disabilities Act, 42 U.S.C. § 12101 et seq. However, as Plaintiffs submitted proposed conclusions of law to the Court related only to their IDEA and Rehabilitation Act claims, the Court will deem Plaintiffs to have waived their ADA claim. II. Factual Background A. Kindergarten through 8th Grade Christen G. was born on June 18, 1979. She attended Abington Friends School from kindergarten through grade 4. A: 15 (indicating Administrative Record at 15). Christen was then enrolled in the Lower Merion School District, and began 5th grade at the Cynwyd School in September 1989. A:17. During 5th grade, Christen began to experience some difficulties and her mother, an experienced educator and subsequently a member of the Lower Merion School Board from 1991 to 1995, noticed that Christen seemed anxious and depressed. A-.17-18; 66-68. A psychological evaluation of Christen was performed for Lower Merion School District in March 1990 by Dr. Janice Schul-man, who concluded that Christen was scoring in the “high average range of intelligence, with evidence of both neurological and emotional factors intruding on somewhat higher intellectual potential.” Dr. Schulman also noted “some auditory processing weakness, perceptual deficits, and impulsivity; anxiety and emotional confusion also impair her concentration and divert her reasoning.” Parent Exhibit 1. Following this report, Christen was classified as “exceptional” and the School District developed an Individualized Education Program (IEP) for Christen to commence in the 6th grade. A:22. This first IEP provided that Christen would be in “regular” 6th grade, with “Mixed Category Learning Disabled Resource Room for English arid daily support 5 times per week.” Parent Exhibit 2. Louise G. participated in the development of this first IEP and all subsequent IEPs as Christen’s parent throughout Christen’s education. A:69-70, 74. Christen participated in 6th grade with resource room support and was promoted to 7th grade. Nevertheless, Louise G. felt that Christen was experiencing “decline” in both her academic performance and in her self-esteem. A:27. Christen continued to experience difficulties in 7th grade, including an inability to complete assignments; she failed math in the second quarter. A:31. While in 7th grade, Christen was again evaluated by a psychiatrist for the School District in February 1992. Dr. Sandra Ze-browski noted some signs of attention deficit disorder, and recommended that Christen continue in special education. Dr. ZebrowsM also recommended that Christen work with a tutor on remedial learning sMlls, and that her mother seek a private psychiatric evaluation of Christen for potential counseling as well as use of medication to address evidence of attention deficit. School Exhibit 23. During that school year, Louise G. arranged for some outside tutoring and Christen was also prescribed Ritalin, a drug for treatment of attention deficit disorder. A:97; 221-22. Christen made some progress towards meeting goals set forth in her 7th grade IEP, but she finished the 7th grade school year with three ‘C’s in major subjects and a ‘D’ in math. A:27-28, 31, 73. Revised IEPs for the seventh and eighth grade prescribed special instruction for Christen, including smaller classes to help her maintain attention and extended time for taking tests. Parent Exhibits 4, 5. Louise G. and Christen believe Lower Merion did not implement many IEP components; Lower Merion officials assert that they did implement Christen’s IEP, and that Christen was unable or unwilling to cooperate with review sessions, extended time for exams, individualized assignments, and other special instruction provided to her. See, e.g., A:26, 36-37, 40, 277, 304^07, 582-584, 586, 613, 618-19, 643^4. In December 1992, during her eighth grade year, Christen was evaluated at a medical facility known as Children’s Seashore House. After a physical examination, review of Christen’s history and various psychological tests, the examining physician summarized her diagnosis as Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (“ADHD”) with “learning differences.” The physician recommended increased dosage of ritalin and counseling for behavioral management. Parent Exhibit 18. Christen subsequently began private therapy in February 1993 with Dr. Susan Anderer, a certified school psychologist with a doctorate in clinical psychology. A:207-08. Dr. Anderer saw Christen once a week until the summer of 1993 when Christen took a break to attend summer camp; counseling resumed in the fall of 1993, and has continued to the present. A:233, 240. In the latter part of eighth grade, Christen’s academic and behavior problems at school became severe. Although Christen received an “Outstanding” for her resource room work at the beginning of eighth grade, she was in danger of failing math, science and social studies by the third quarter. A:37-38; 392. The record shows that she eventually did fail history for that year. Parent Exhibit 19. In the second part of the school year, Christen was reported to school authorities for causing disturbances in class and was suspended; school officials also suspected her of various acts of vandalism. Parent Exhibit 19; A:37-38, 637-638. Christen herself testified that she believed her teachers “didn’t care” and “wouldn’t try any effort to teach me” and that she had “just sort of given up and got suspended.” A:279. Christen was restricted from participating in class trips and after school activities, and removed from music class for two weeks on the ground that the teacher was unable to conduct class because Christen’s behavior was so disruptive. Parent Exhibit 19. On at least one occasion outside of school, Christen was picked up by the local police. A:37, 53. In light of Christen’s actions and parental concern, Christen was fully evaluated again by the School District. A Multidisciplinary Evaluation (“MDE”) was performed with input from Christen’s resource room teacher, William Dolton; Margery Anderson, assistant principal at Bala Cynwyd; Dr. Betsy Granite, a school psychologist working at Bala Cynwyd; and other school officials. School Exhibit 22; A:380. Louise G. was also given the opportunity to provide input as a member of this Multidisciplinary Team (“MDT”). A:74. As part of this evaluation, Dr. Granite administered a number of psychological tests to Christen in April 1993. The May 17, 1993 MDE, of which Dr. Granite was the primary author, made the following recommendation to the IEP team: Christy’s evaluation indicates that she needs both a learning and an emotional support program. Some test signs indicate depressive tendencies which need to be explored further. Parent is strongly urged to seek an outside medical consultation in light of Christy’s impulsive style, inattentiveness, and signs of depression. In addition, continuation of outside counseling is recommended. School Exhibit 22. Louise G. felt that this report was “excellent” overall. A:76. The MDE report was subsequently provided to an IEP team, of which Louise G. was also a member, to develop an IEP for Christen’s ninth grade year. A:74, 399. During this time, Louise G. had also taken steps to enroll Christen at Delaware Valley Friends School (DVFS). DVFS is a private school for children in grades 7 through 12 with learning differences, offering small class sizes (4 to 10 children) and a college preparatory curriculum. DVFS is operated “under the care of the Philadelphia Quarterly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends.” School exhibits 10, 11. Louise G. had first attended an open house at DVFS while Christen was in seventh grade, and Dr. An-derer, after treating Christen, recommended that Christen apply to DVFS for ninth grade. A:55; 211. Louise G. testified before this Court that she sent an application and check for $60.00 to DVFS on April 26, 1993, and Christen filled out a student application as part of the DVFS admissions process and visited DVFS sometime in May 1993. A:123. Louise G. also contacted the School District on June 4,1993 to ask that the May 17,1993 MDE report be sent to DVFS. Notably, Louise G. requested that the District make some deletions in the MDE before sending it to DVFS because she ‘Vas afraid that [Christen’s] behavior would keep her out of Delaware Valley Friends.” A:75-76; School Exhibit 25. Meanwhile, based on the May 17, 1993 MDE, a new IEP was developed which recommended that Christen be educated outside the school district at an approved private school beginning in ninth grade in September 1993. This IEP, dated June 11,1993, further specified that the level of intervention which would be implemented for ninth grade at the approved private school would consist of full-time learning support for instruction as well as behavioral and emotional support. This IEP included similar provisions incorporated in earlier IEPs, as well as new provisions which were specifically designed to address Christen’s ADHD. A behavior management program was also required. See School Exhibit 9. Louise G. attended an IEP review meeting and submitted additional comments on July 31,1993, which were later incorporated into a revised IEP dated September 7,1993. A:56, 89; Parent Exhibits 11, 17. However, Louise G. believed that Christen did not need emotional help and that the IEP was flawed in its inclusion of an emotional support component in Christen’s education. A:89-91. Based on the June 11, 1993 IEP, Lower Merion issued a Notice of Recommended Assignment (NORA) dated July 7, 1993. This NORA recommended placement of Christen in a full-time learning support class outside regular school. Lower Merion subsequently identified three potential placements for Christen: The Wordsworth Academy, the Devereux Day School, and the Project School, which is operated by Montgomery County. Wordsworth Academy and the Dev-ereux Day School were each certified by the State of Pennsylvania as an “approved private school” for placement of exceptional students. Louise G. made a phone call to each of these schools in July 1993. Based on these phone conversations, Louise G. concluded that each school provided a “therapeutic” environment oriented towards emotional support and that “[i]n all three situations the population of students were students who were emotionally disturbed, that only 10 percent sounded like they might be like my daughter out of the population there, and that the kids had social and emotional difficulties.” A:52. Louise G. also concluded that college attendance by students in these programs was “low.” See id. Based on these conclusions, Louise G. believed that these schools were not appropriate placements for Christen. See id. Louise G. and Christen did not visit any of the three proposed placements or take any further steps in the admissions processes for these schools. A:93-96; School Exhibits 16-21. In testimony before this Court, Louise G. stated that she believed that her daughter needed an academic program that would prepare her for college, with emphasis on learning differences and not emotional problems. Louise G. communicated to Lawrence Sweigert, director of pupil services for Lower Merion School District, that she did not believe the proposed placements were appropriate. A:627. Louise G. also testified before this Court that Sweigert told her that those were the only schools that Lower Merion could offer. Correspondence between the recommended schools, Lower Merion, and Louise G. indicates that school officials expected to proceed with evaluation of Christen for admission. For example, the principal of Wordsworth Academy wrote Louise G. on August 11, 1993, stating that after review of Christen’s records Wordsworth officials believed their program offered Christen an “excellent chance for success.” School exhibit 18. The Wordsworth principal urged Louise G. to schedule an intake interview as soon as possible. See id. Sweigert testified that Lower Merion did not formally designate one of the three placements for Christen because Louise G. and Christen did not proceed with school interviews, and the schools wanted an opportunity to interview the student and parent before commenting “on their ability to implement a particular educational plan.” A:623. Louise G. ultimately rejected the 1993-94 IEP because of the schools offered by Lower Merion. A:89. When asked at the administrative hearing which part of the IEP she disagreed with in addition to the recommended placements, Louise G. identified only the emotional development component of the IEP as another reason for her rejection, stating that she would have to “read the whole thing” to answer the question. A:91. In July 1993, Louise G. sent an additional $600.00 cheek to Delaware Valley Friends School, and Christen was subsequently enrolled as a full-time student for the 1993-94 school year. B. Delaware Valley Friends School As described supra, Delaware Valley Friends School (DVFS) is a private school for children with learning differences. Located in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, the school has over 100 students among grades 7 through 12. See School exhibits 10,11. DVFS materials describe the school’s mission as follows: The mission of Delaware Valley Friends School is to prepare students who have learning differences for future work and study. The school develops those personal strengths which enable students to succeed in its college preparatory curriculum. In keeping with Quaker beliefs and values, the school fosters a desire to learn, a spirit of creativity, a strong sense of self-worth, and a respect for the worth of others. Id. DVFS maintains that all of its graduates have been accepted into college, and often have a choice of which college they might attend. The DVFS materials also state that DVFS does not discriminate on the basis of sex, race, religion, sexual orientation, or on the basis of national or ethnic origin, in admissions and financial programs, in the administration of its educational program, or in employment policies. See id. The DVFS admissions process requires student and parent questionnaires and interviews, a complete and current psychological evaluation of the student, and the student’s current school records. An admissions committee composed of board members, faculty and staff evaluate the student’s admissability, which includes a decision as to whether the student’s emotional or behavioral difficulties are such that the DVFS program cannot provide an appropriate education for that student. A:122-123. DVFS does not accept children with identified emotional problems. A:260. Once admitted, DVFS offers students a low student-to-teacher ratio of 4 to 10 students in each class and a variety of individualized instruction and assistance. DVFS develops and revises its own IEP. A:160. Teachers are certified in their content areas and continually trained by the school in learning styles and teaching strategies to address the learning differences of students, but teachers are not generally certified as special education teachers. A:120. DVFS provides extensive and varied feedback to students, including separate grades for “effort” as well as “in-house” grades every three weeks. Students are also educated in the nature of their disabilities and learning styles, and are encouraged to take responsibility for themselves. A:121,154. DVFS is not certified by the State of Pennsylvania as an approved private school for public school placement of exceptional children. According to the testimony of Irene McHenry, who was head of DVFS since its founding in 1987 through the 1993-94 school year, DVFS is classified by the state of Pennsylvania as a non-public school with a religious affiliation. A:120. No students are funded by public monies, although DVFS does receive public funding for textbooks and for transportation of students within a 10-mile radius of the school. As a Friends School, 50% of the board members of DVFS must be Quakers. A:133,136. A student’s education at DVFS includes a mandatory weekly “meeting for worship.” The structure of this meeting for worship is in accordance with Quaker religious practices, and is similar to the format used by Quaker religious groups in the Philadelphia area. As described by Ms. McHenry at the administrative hearing: MCHENRY: The entire school community, including all faculty, staff, and students, gather together in one room and sit in silence for half an hour. At the beginning of the year I explain to everyone that the purpose of that sitting is to get in touch with — the Quakers believe that there is that of God in every person. Sitting in silence is to be in touch with that of God or that inner spirit that is within each of us. If someone feels moved by a matter of heart or a matter of conscience to speak out loud to the community in that spirit, that is acceptable during a meeting for worship. Often the meeting is silent. Occasionally, a staff or faculty member or a student will speak to something that is important, issues like death and dying, AIDS, good sportsmanship, friendship, respect for people who are different, sometimes things that are happening in the world at large, such as when the Wall came down, the Persian Gulf War. Sometimes people speak about those things. SCHOOL COUNSEL: Would you agree that the meetings are an integral part of the school culture? MCHENRY: Yes. A:134-135. Ruth Greenberger, who is the current head of DVFS, testified in a deposition as follows: SCHOOL COUNSEL: Now, the meetings that are held is (sic) held once a week? GREENBERGER: Yes. SCHOOL COUNSEL: Who attends? GREENBERGER: All of the students and all of the faculty and staff. SCHOOL COUNSEL: Is it mandatory? GREENBERGER: Yes. Defendants’ Proposed Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law, Exhibit C, at 21. At the administrative hearing, Ms. McHen-ry stated that it was “unfortunate” that, the word “parochial” was being used to describe DVFS. She stated that a Friends School does not have religion classes per se, and that “a mission of a Friends School is not to make someone a Quaker or specifically teach Quakerism.” A:121-122. Ms. McHenry added: MCHENRY: The mission of a Friends School is to model and teach good human values like integrity, honesty, responsibility, respect. In our missions statement we say that one of our missions is to help people develop a sense of respect for themselves and for others, a sense of service, and a sense of good citizenship. So, that’s something that we work on all the time through the advisory system, through the way teachers work with students in classes in terms of respecting differences and, in the case of Delaware Valley Friends School, respecting differ-enees in learning styles and abilities and disabilities. A:122. Ruth Greenberger, who is the current head of DVFS and who is not a Quaker, testified at the administrative hearing as follows: PLAINTIFFS’ COUNSEL: [A]re members of the staff required to be members of or adhere to Quaker beliefs prior to being-hired by the school? GREENBERGER: Not at all. They have to believe that there is something precious about every individual. As a non-Quaker, I don’t even go so far as saying there is that of God in every person. But there is something holy and sacred about every person. Therefore, it’s very important how people treat each other. And I think that in order to work in the school you have to be able to go that far. PLAINTIFFS’ COUNSEL: Are there non-Quakers other than yourself on your staff? GREENBERGER: Mostly non-Quakers. I think about 10 percent of the staff is Quaker. A:366. In testimony before this Court, Greenber-ger agreed that students were taught in accordance with Quaker beliefs and values and that it was not possible for a student to go to DVFS and not be exposed to Quaker beliefs. She noted, however, that there is no compulsion to discuss religious beliefs, that there is no study of religion or the Bible, and that the meeting for worship does not need to be on the topic of a higher being. Testimony at trial and DVFS materials established that Christen’s tuition at DVFS for the 1993-94 school year was $13,200, minus a $2,500 scholarship, for a total of $10,700. Tuition was $14,200 for the 1994-95 school year, plus an additional $400 for computer use, minus a $3,500 scholarship, for a total of $11,100. At trial, Louise G. testified that most of her tuition bill for the 1994-95 school year remains unpaid. C. The 1993-94 School Year DVFS followed its usual student admissions practices with respect to Christen’s application for the 1993-94 school year. A:124. McHenry, who participated in the admission process, stated that Christen appeared to her to present a “familiar profile,” specifically “a bright [attention deficit disorder] student who has been having failure experiences in school,” and that such a profile was common in other students at DVFS -with attention deficit disorder. A:124-125. Ruth Green-berger, now head of DVFS but serving as dean of students at the time of Christen’s admission, acknowledged that DVFS staff had some concerns about the appropriateness of their program for Christen because of her “emotional component” and her “troubles,” but that they believed the school could help her through “tight structure” and counseling. A:262-263. Lisa Barsky, a psychologist at DVFS, explained that DVFS had relied on the testing done by Lower Merion in developing DVFS’s program for Christen and that DVFS had required Christen to continue therapy for the purpose of easing the transition from the Lower Merion School District to DVFS. A:169,192,194-95. DVFS found that Christen has problems with auditory attention, focus, and impulsivity. A: 128. As part of their regular curriculum, Christen was placed in a class of nine students for English, history and science, with a smaller class for math. A:126. She had an additional class of “writing lab,” in which the use of a computer was an essential component. See id. She also had classes in fine arts and in physical education, as well as after school electives. A:127. DVFS provided Christen with the option of using a word processor to take her exams or to have her exams given orally, with the possibility of requesting additional time. A: 129. Testimony at the administrative hearing by Greenberger, McHenry, and Gray Goodman, Christen’s ninth grade advisor, history teacher and soccer coach, established that Christen enjoyed strong success in her initial months at DVFS. A:131, 257, 324-325. Her DVFS teachers found that the use of visual aids, simulations, and physical positioning of Christen within the classroom to minimize distraction were very helpful. A:317-18, 326-27. Christen also testified about hér education at DVFS, describing the positive experiences she had with different teaching strategies employed by her DVFS teachers, her new enjoyment of school, and her increased self-confidence and initiative. A:285-286, 293. Louise G. testified that Christen was a “different person” after she began to attend DVFS, and that she was on the honor roll for both academic and effort grades in the first part of ninth grade and was no longer a behavior problem. A:60. Greenberger, as dean of students, testified that she was impressed by how Christen was able to take advantage of what DVFS offered Christen in terms of support and how she sought help on her own initiative when difficulties arose. A:263. Although all parties have been consistently careful with regard to material relating to Christen’s family life, the record is clear that Christen was also experiencing some difficulty and conflict at home prior to her admission to DVFS. A:81, 234. Dr. Anderer’s diagnosis for purposes of treatment was ADHD, which Dr. Anderer asserted has an affect on all aspects of Christen’s life. A:207, 233. As part of her therapy, Dr. Anderer tried to help Christen with her impulsivity and her feelings about her disability, as well as “typically adolescent” issues such as “difficulty with parents or concerns about her appearance.” A:234. Dr. Anderer’s therapy also tried to improve relationships at home, and on occasion during Christen’s treatment Dr. Anderer met with Christen and her mother together, as well as Christen, her mother, and an unrelated adult also living in the household. A:234. Dr. Anderer testified at the administrative hearing that therapy was only a “piece” of what had been helpful to Christen, and that when Christen resumed counseling in October 1993 after summer camp and after having attended DVFS, Christen was “doing better behaviorally.” A:293. Louise G. also testified at the administrative hearing that she believed that Dr. Anderer’s counseling had helped Christen, and that it had improved their relationship at home as well as Christen’s relationships with her peers and with other people. A:86-87. Shortly after Christen had started at DVFS in the fall of 1993, Lower Merion school officials contacted Louise G. regarding their frustration in completing the placement process for Christen. A:60. In a letter dated September 24, 1993, Lawrence Sweigert, Lower Merion’s director of pupil services, stated that: We’re frustrated in our attempt to' find an appropriate placement for Christy. I understand you were invited to schedule intake evaluations at the Project School, Wordsworth Academy, and the Devereux Day School. However, you opted not to do that. School Exhibit 15. In this letter, Sweigert suggested that the IEP team be reconvened to “look again” at Christen’s educational needs, and a conference was held on November 11, 1993. In attendance were Louise G.; Irene McHenry, the head of DVFS; Dr. Betsy Granite, the school psychologist at Bala Cynwyd and primary author of the May 17, 1993 MDE; Margery Anderson, Bala Cynwyd’s assistant principal; William Dol-ton, the Bala Cynwyd resource room teacher; Lawrence Sweigert; and other Lower Mer-ion'school district employees. Sweigert subsequently prepared a report documenting this conference. See School Exhibit 5. According to Sweigert’s report, Louise. G. asserted at the conference that Christen’s earlier problems had been a result of the lack of an appropriate educational setting in Lower Merion to address Christen’s ADHD, and that Christen did not need a program of emotional support in light of her progress at DVFS and her positive experiences at summer camp. McHenry supported this position, based on Christen’s lack of behavioral problems and success to date at DVFS. A:131; School Exhibit 5. Lower Merion staff asserted that they had found that Christen had significant behavioral problems, and Louise G. and Lower Merion staff continued to dispute the behavioral needs of Christen, the extent to which her previous IEPs had been implemented by the District, and Christen’s willingness to use learning support that the District had provided. Nevertheless, as a result of the conference and Christen’s apparent progress at DVFS, a representative of Lower Merion School District would be sent to DVFS to observe Christen and perform a re-evaluation of her educational needs. A:61; School Exhibit 5. On February 18, 1994, Dr. Betsy Granite visited DVFS' and interviewed Christen. Subsequently, a revised multidisciplinary evaluation dated April 15, 1994 was prepared for the School District. This MDE reviewed Christen’s performance on a number of psychological tests in both February 1993 and in February 1994. Although one test administered to Christen’s DVFS teachers showed that Christen was still significantly elevated for Hyperactivity and had continuing problems relating to impulsivity and attention span, other tests indicated that Christen was no longer experiencing any significant behavioral problem. After noting that Christen had a positive attitude toward learning and achievement and was a capable student, the MDE concluded that Christen still required various forms, of assistance, including outlines, i’eminders and reinforcements to “stay on task,” extra time for testing, and opportunities to interact with teachers on a more personal level. The MDE included the following recommendation to the IEP team: Christy is exceptional and eligible for a Learning Support program (Itinerant Resource Room). Some test signs indicate that symptoms of ADHD are significant. Parent is urged to seek outside medical consultation regarding Christy’s current medication to determine appropriateness of dosage and type of medication. In addition, continuation of outside counseling is strongly recommended. School Exhibit 4. After receiving this report, Louise G. informed the School District by letter that the new MDE was “far closer to my own assessment of my daughter’s strengths and needs than was the previous assessment done in May 1993.” Parent Exhibit 13. At the administrative hearing, Louise G. stated that she was “enormously impressed” with the report but did not believe that Christen should be returned to school in the District. A:61, 99. In a separate letter sent after receiving a copy, of the MDE, McHenry of DVFS agreed with the MDE analysis but asserted that a resource room was not sufficient to meet Christen’s needs. McHenry recommended full-time placement at DVFS. Parent Exhibit 13. Meanwhile, Christen had continued to experience success at DVFS but some problems had become apparent in the latter part of the year. Gray Goodman, her advisor and history teacher, testified at the administrative hearing that' Christen demonstrated strong academic and effort performance in English and writing lab over the year, but that her performance in other classes (including Goodman’s own history class) “sort of leveled out in the wintertime and then actually wound down a bit.” A:326. While Christen missed some three weeks of school in December due to illness and did a “fine” job of catching up, she began to experience difficulties in completing work despite various strategies on the part of Goodman and other teachers. A:347~353. Christen’s academic success went up at the end of the year, but was uneven in the spring term. A:353. Although she was occasionally disruptive in class, interruptions or other actions requiring intervention by the DVFS dean of students were few. A:251. McHenry testified that Christen finished the 1993-94 year “really well,” and both McHenry and Dr. Barsky, the DVFS school psychologist, attributed the “dip” in her performance in February to Christen’s decision to try school without taking her ADHD medication. A:130, 158. Dr. Barsky testified that Christen still had im-pulsivity problems but that her self-esteem had improved dramatically. A:166. Following the April 1994 MDE report, the Lower Merion IEP team met again to revise Christen’s IEP. The resulting 1994 — 95 IEP was similar to the 1993-94 IEP in a number of respects, but it recommended that Christen return to regular classes and eliminated an emotional support component in her placement. In accordance with this new IEP, Lower Merion proposed to educate Christen in the 1994-95 school year at Harri-ton High School, a regular high school within the Lower Merion School District. Harriton offers classes ranging in size from 4 to 25 students, with an average of 15 to 20 students per class, as well as resource room support which would be available to Christen. In accordance with a recommendation by the IEP team, both Louise G. and Christen visited Harriton High School but observed only regular classes. A:107. On June 8,1994, the School District issued a Notice of Recommended Assignment (NORA) for Christen recommending assignment to Harriton. In a letter dated June 11, 1994, Louise G. rejected the IEP and NORA based on a number of factors, including Har-riton’s larger class size, the methods of instructional delivery she had witnessed at Harriton, and her belief that the IEP did not “reflect an awareness of what children with ADHA (sic) need to become successful students.” School Exhibit 2. At the administrative hearing, Louise G. testified that “a lot of what is in the 1994-95 IEP would help Christy,” but she that believed Harriton was inappropriate and the School District would not be able implement the IEP. A:104. After rejecting the IEP and NORA, Louise G. requested an administrative hearing in accordance with the IDEA and Pennsylvania law and informed the School District that she was also seeking reimbursement for tuition costs of Christen’s 1993-94 school year at DVFS. D. The Due Process Hearing The hearing officer, Barbara Meranze, identified the issues before her as follows: 1. Did the Lower Merion School District offer Christy G. an appropriate program and placement for the 1993-94 school year? 2. Is Mrs. G. entitled to reimbursement for tuition payments to DVFS during the 1993-94 school year? 3. What is the appropriate program and placement for Christy for the 1994-95 school year? In the course of the administrative hearing, Meranze heard testimony from Louise G.; Christen G.; Dr. Anderer, Christen’s therapist; Dr. Lisa Barsky, school psychologist at DVFS; Irene McHenry, the head of DVFS; Ruth Greenberger, dean of students at DVFS and subsequent head of DVFS; and Gray Goodman, Christen’s advisor and teacher, on behalf of the Plaintiffs. On behalf of the School District, Meranze heard testimony from Dr. Betsy Granite, school psychologist at Bala Cynwyd; Lawrence Sweigert, the director of pupil services; William Dolton, Christen’s resource room teacher; and Margery Anderson, the assistant principal at Bala Cynwyd. Meranze also heard testimony from staff at Harriton High School, including Patricia Galie, a teacher; Norton Seamon, principal of Harriton; and Joan Lipman, a Harriton guidance counselor. In addition to the extensive testimony regarding Christen’s history and the different school programs summarized above, the hearing officer heard a variety of opinions from these witnesses regarding the nature of Christen’s disabilities and other problems, the appropriate educational placement for her in the 1993-94 and 1994r-95 school years, and particularly her need, if any, for an emotional support component in her education in the 1993-94 school year. In discussing Christen’s needs, Dr. Granite testified that she believed Christen had exhibited “many of the characteristics of more of a conduct disordered youngster than as (sic) of an ADHD youngster.” A:385. Dr. Granite discussed the results of a variety of tests she had administered in April 1993 and stated that she was concerned about depression in Christen, as reflected in the May 11, 1993 MDE, and believed that “by saying [Christen] had ADHD the point was really missed on the diagnosis and what was wrong with Christen.” A:383; 390. In Dr. Granite’s view, Christen “needed a small structured environment where she could have time-out when she was emotionally stressed, needed to be closely monitored, have a structured behavioral system to insist she made choices within defined limits” throughout the day. A:401-02. Dr. Granite also testified that the level of intervention proposed in the 1993-94 IEP, which included an emotional support component, was consistent with her test results and the May 11, 1993 MDE report which she had developed with input from the Multidisciplinary Team. A:396-401. Margery Anderson, assistant principal at Bala Cynwyd during Christen’s eighth grade year and a member of the IEP team, testified that she had concluded that Christen needed an emotional support program in the 1993-94 school year based on her experience of Christen’s significant discipline problems and Christen’s noncompliance with Lower Merion’s educational program as well as Dr. Granite’s psychological testing. A:632-37, 646. William Dolton, who supervised the resource room at Bala Cynwyd and who also participated in the IEP recommendation for 1993-94, testified that the 1993-94 IEP recommendation was based on Christen’s inappropriate behavior, her inability to take advantage of the various learning support structures offered at Bala Cynwyd (which Dolton believed were similar to those subsequently employed by DVFS), and her need for more therapeutic kinds of support and a more structured setting than was available in public school. A:581-82, 585. Dolton, Anderson, and Dr. Granite all testified that placement at an approved private school such as Wordsworth or Devereux which educate students with serious emotional disturbances is made with the hope that the student will eventually return to regular education in Lower Merion, and Dr. Granite noted that many students do return after a short placement. A:490, 584-85, 638-39. When asked to compare the “intellectually challenging nature” of these placements to DVFS, Dr. Granite explained that “[students] aren’t going [to these placements] for the intellectual challenge. Students are referred there because their behaviors can often be so difficult or that are so out of control that they’re there primarily behaviorally for them to gain a better sense of control over themselves, their emotions, their feelings, so that they can then participate within the regular school.” A:490. As to the 1994-95 placement at Harriton, Dr. Granite believed that significant emotional issues present in May 1993 were no longer present and the April 1994 MDE reflected this perspective. A:410. Granite believed that the newness of DVFS may have initially been a very positive change for Christen, and testified that the changes she observed in Christen at DVFS, such as Christen’s willingness to take advantage of learning support in the form of outlines and other assistance similar to that offered by Lower Merion could have been the result of “a multitude of factors,” including counseling and changes at home. A:402-408. School officials from Harriton High also testified about Harriton’s offerings and their belief that they could implement Christen’s 1994-95 IEP provisions, including computer use, extra time for test taking, and class outlines. A505-538; 542-546; 559. On behalf of the Plaintiffs, Dr. Lisa Bar-sky, school psychologist at DVFS, testified that she did not believe that emotional issues were a primary problem for Christen. A:169. Dr. Barsky also believed placement of Christen with students suffering from serious emotional disturbance would result in Christen herself becoming emotionally disturbed due to a lower level of intellectual stimulation as well as Christen’s tendency to adapt her behavior to that of other students. A:172-73. Dr. Barsky acknowledged that she had not observed programs at the Project School, Devereux, or Wordsworth and had only a general understanding of these institutions. A:205. Dr. Anderer, who was familiar with Wordsworth and Devereux, testified that she did not see Christen in the diagnostic category of students at those institutions because she believed Christen’s problems were generated by her ADHD and not a result of severe emotional disturbance. A:211-13. Dr. Anderer, like Dr. Barsky, also believed that Christen would change her behavior to mirror the emotional behavior of other students if she was placed at Wordsworth or Devereux because of her tendencies to adapt to the nature of her peer group, and shared Christen’s own concerns about leaving DVFS. A:214, 223-24, 291. Christen herself testified about her fears of returning to school in Lower Merion and how she wanted to able to attend DVFS. A:291-92, 298. Both Dr. Barsky and Dr. Anderer emphasized that many features of the education Christen received at DVFS — i.e., small classes, above average intellectually motivated students, classroom focus on learning strategies and acceptance of learning differences, and many adults available for emotional support — were key to her success. A:174, 240-41. Dr. Anderer, without having examined the 1994-95 IEP, testified that she did not know how Christen, “regardless of what’s in the IEP,” could receive what DVFS provided to her in the form of a “respectful” environment and ongoing support. A:237. After reviewing the IEP during her testimony, Dr. Anderer stated that Christen needed an education designed to address all aspects of her attention deficit disorder, recognizing both her intelligence and her impulsivity and need for an emotionally supportive environment. A:240-41. In a decision issued on September 19, 1994, the hearing officer concluded that Lower Merion School District had offered Christen an appropriate placement for the 1993-94 school year. Specifically, the officer wrote that Louise G.: spoke over the phone with representatives from several of the schools recommended by the District and on that basis alone, concluded that the schools would not be appropriate for her daughter. She did not return to the District to discuss her concerns or request additional recommendations, but instead decided to send Christy to DVFS. Since Mrs. G. did not dispute the IEP proposed by the District, and since she unilaterally decided to send Christy to DVFS, I hold that Lower Mer-ion offered an appropriate program to Christy for the 1993-94 school year and that Mrs. G. was not entitled to tuition reimbursement for that year. The hearing officer next found that Harriton High School, the placement offered by Lower Merion for the 1994-95 school year, could not successfully implement Christen’s IEP. Specifically, the hearing officer concluded that in light of the District’s own evaluations and Christen’s success at DVFS, Christen required a more restrictive setting with a smaller class size than the average size of fifteen students that Harriton High School could offer. After rejecting Harriton High School, the hearing officer concluded that DVFS did offer an appropriate placement for Christen for the 1994-95 school year. However, the hearing officer determined that DVFS was a “sectarian” school in that the teachings of the Society of Friends are embedded in DVFS’ program and a weekly meeting for worship was held. Although noting that the beliefs of the Friends are “laudable,” they are “nonetheless ‘religious’ beliefs.” The hearing officer found that under Zobrest v. Catalina Foothills School District, 509 U.S. 1, 113 S.Ct. 2462, 125 L.Ed.2d 1 (1993) and Opinion No. 610 issued by Pennsylvania’s Special Education Appeals Panel, which was also based on Zobrest, she could not order public payment of Christen’s program at DVFS or tuition reimbursement to Louise G. The hearing officer then concluded by ordering Lower Merion to provide Christen with a program of special education consistent with her current IEP. E. The Special Appeals Panel Plaintiffs took exception to part of the decision of the hearing officer to a Special Appeals Panel, which identified the issues presented on appeal as whether: A. the Hearing Officer erred in finding that the Lower Merion School District offered an appropriate public education program for Christy G. during the 1993-94 school year; and B. the Hearing Officer erred finding that an order for reimbursement could not be issued since the Delaware Valley Friends School is a “religious” school. After review of the record, the Appeals Panel concluded in an opinion dated November 23, 1994 that the administrative hearing testimony indicated that other than “the proposed location of the intervention and the identification of Christen as [having serious emotional disturbance], Mrs. G. did not recall any problems she had with the IEP as written.” The Appeals Panel concluded that Louise G. had failed to “produce sufficient evidence to support the premise ... that the School district’s program was indeed inappropriate.” The Appeals Panel also concluded that in 1993 Louise G. “unilaterally placed Christy in DVFS without further consulting the District, thereby denying the School District an opportunity to respond to her concerns.” Having reached this result, the Appeals Panel concluded that it need not address any First Amendment issues relating to reimbursement of DVFS tuition for the 1993-94 school year. Significantly, the Appeals Panel also noted: Neither the parent nor the District has excepted to the Hearing officer’s findings and order as to the 1994-95 school year. We therefore assume that the parties are in the process of implementing [an educational program for Christy consistent with the Hearing Officer’s order]. We trust that they will do so as quickly as possible, so that Christy’s educational needs will be attended to. F. The 1994-95 School Year The administrative record in this action does not include events in the 1994-95 school year after the November 23, 1994 Special Appeals Panel ruling and the hearing officer’s decisions on September 19,1994 finding Lower Merion’s offer of placement at Harri-ton High School inappropriate and ordering Lower Merion to offer Christen an appropriate placement. Plaintiffs filed their complaint in this action on December 27, 1994, alleging in part that Lower Merion had failed to provide Christen with a free appropriate education to date. After several months of discovery, trial was held on August 7 and 8, 1995 and the parties submitted proposed findings of fact and conclusions of law. Testifying on behalf of the Plaintiffs were Christen G.; Louise G.; Ruth Greenberger, now head of DVFS; Dr. Susan Anderer, Christen’s therapist; Dr. Lisa Barsky, school psychologist at DVFS; and Jon Cohen, a clinical therapist. Testifying on behalf of Defendants were Elissa Fisher, director of Hill Top Academy, a private school which the District was now recommending for Christen; Lawrence Sweigert, director of pupil services for Lower Merion; and Dr. Barbara Sohmer, a consulting psychiatrist. The following additional findings of fact are based on credible testimony by these witnesses before this Court. After the decision by the hearing officer on September 19, 1994, that Harriton High School was not appropriate, the Court finds that Lawrence Sweigert again began the process of determining an appropriate placement for Christen. He initially identified five potential placements, including Hill Top Academy, a private school. He communicated the names of these schools to Louise G. on or about October 11,1994. Louise G. made another round of investigatory phone calls, including a call to Hill Top on October 17, 1994. Louise G. determined that Hill Top was the only school suggested by Sweigert that she felt might be appropriate for Christen, who was still attending DVFS. Louise G. communicated her opinions to Sweigert regarding the offered placements. Louise G. also scheduled an interview at Hill Top for December 5, 1994. Hill Top Academy offers education to exceptional students between 11 and 20 years old, including students with Attention Deficit Disorder. The school has a student population of approximately 85 students, with forty full-time staff and a full clinical staff, and its educational program includes a mandatory group therapy component. Class size is usually between 6 to 8 students, and a small percentage of graduating students go on to higher education. Yearly tuition is $17,500. Hill Top does psychological testing as part of its admissions process, and does not accept students whose exceptional qualities stemmed from emotional difficulties. Hill Top could implement Christen’s 1994-95 IEP in the beginning of the second semester or earlier. Following the December 5, 1994 visit and Christen’s interview, Hill Top Academy scheduled psychological testing of Christen for January 23 and 27, 1995. After the testing was conducted, Hill Top Academy communicated a “verbal acceptance” of Christen to Sweigert sometime in February, and he communicated this understanding to Louise G. Fisher testified that she understood from Sweigert that Lower Merion would pay for Christen’s education at Hill Top and Hill Top held a place for Christen. Louise G. subsequently received a letter in February from Hill Top informing her of Christen’s acceptance, but Hill Top did not forward the results of Christen’s psychological testing— information which directly related to the nature of the educational program which Hill Top would implement for Christen — to Louise G. until March 3,1995. Finally, on April 6, 1995, Lower Merion issued a Notice of Recommended Assignment (NORA) for Christen to attend Hill Top Academy. The NORA is Lower Merion’s official offer of placement to a parent as well as the official notice to a school that Lower Merion will pay for Christen’s education. After issuance of the NORA, Louise G. chose to keep Christen at DVFS because of her concern that changing schools in the last part of the school year would be too disruptive for Christen. Plaintiffs have acknowledged in proposed findings of fact and conclusions of law submitted to the Court that Hill Top Academy could implement the 1994-95 IEP. However, Plaintiffs have also asserted that Hill Top is still inappropriate because Christen would suffer educational regression if she were removed from DVFS. G. Additional Evidence In proceedings before this Court, the parties also presented additional expert testimony which was not originally available to the hearing officer. Dr. Barbara Sohmer, a consulting psychiatrist and expert witness for Defendants, testified before this Court on behalf of the Defendants that Lower Merion had correctly identified Christen as suffering from serious emotional disturbance and that the June 1993 IEP with its inclusion of an emotional support component was appropriate. Dr. Sohmer based her findings on Christen’s records, including Dr. Granite’s reports and Christen’s psychological testing. Jon Cohen, a clinical therapist, testified on behalf of Plaintiffs as an expert in children with learning disabilities and differences. Cohen evaluated Christen in person on July 21, 1994, met with Louise G., and also reviewed various documents in Christen’s record. Cohen administered a variety of tests to Christen, and based on these tests and his review of Christen’s records, Cohen concluded that Christen has Attention Deficit disorder, and ruled out depression and anxiety conduct disorder. III. DISCUSSION A. Judicial Review Under the IDEA As set forth by the United States Supreme Court in Board of Educ. v. Rowley, 458 U.S. 176, 102 S.Ct. 3034, 73 L.Ed.2d 690 (1982), Insofar as a State is required to provide a handicapped child with a “free appropriate education, we hold that it satisfies this requirement by providing personalized instruction with sufficient support services to permit the child to benefit educationally from that instruction. Such instruction and services must be provided at public expense, must meet the State’s educational standards, must approximate the grade level used in the State’s regular education, and must comport with the child’s IEP. Rowley, at 204-05, 102 S.Ct. at 3049. The Court has further explained that: [A] court’s inquiry in suits brought under § 1415(e)(2) is twofold. First, has the State complied with the procedures set forth in the Act? And second, is the individualized educational program developed through the Act’s procedures reasonably calculated to enable the child to receive educational benefits? If these requirements are met, the State has complied with the obligations imposed by Congress and the courts can require no more. Rowley, supra, at 206-07, 102 S.Ct. at 3051; accord Fuhrmann v. East Hanover Bd. of Educ, 993 F.2d 1031, 1035 (3d Cir.1993). The specific provision of the IDEA permitting judicial review, 20 U.S.C. § 1415(e)(2), provides in re