Full opinion text
MEMORANDUM AND ORDER LAKE, District Judge. This consolidated action involves efforts by the successful party in an arbitration to enforce the award in the face of challenges by the unsuccessful party to the court’s jurisdiction and the validity of the arbitration award. I. Background In 1987 two United States citizens, Dr. Shardar Khan and Dr. Mohammed Halipoto, both emigrants from Pakistan, decided to build the first hydrogen peroxide plant in Pakistan. They contacted a number of companies who might actually build the plant. One of the companies was China National Machinery Import and Export Corporation (“CNMC”). In September of 1987, when it became apparent that an agreement might be reached, Drs. Khan and Halipoto formed Trans Chemical Limited (“TCL”), a Pakistani corporation, and the subsidiary of United International (“UI”), an American corporation owned by the doctors. CNMC engaged N.E.M., Inc., as its agent in the United States to negotiate with TCL. On December 22,1987, after weeks of negotiation, TCL and CNMC signed a contract in which TCL agreed to purchase and CNMC agreed to sell a complete hydrogen peroxide plant and related technical services. The 1987 contract was amended in December of 1988. Both the original and amended contracts provided for binding arbitration of disputes between the parties in Houston, Texas, in accordance with the procedures of the American Arbitration Association (“AAA”). Disputes between the parties soon arose. TCL claimed that CNMC had failed or refused to provide the goods and services required under the contracts and that CNMC had made material misrepresentations in connection with the sale, construction, and operation of the hydrogen peroxide plant. CNMC claimed breach of contract, fraud in the inducement, and trade libel. Pursuant to the arbitration clause in the contracts the parties submitted their disputes to arbitration conducted by the AAA in Houston. A panel of three arbitrators heard evidence from June 21, to July 10, 1995. On August 15, 1995, the Panel awarded TCL $9,447,-563.62. A. Civil Action No. H-95-4114 On the day of the award TCL filed an original Petition to Confirm Arbitration Award in this court, alleging subject matter jurisdiction under the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (“FSIA”), 28 U.S.C. §§ 1330, 1605. TCL later amended its petition to also seek enforcement of the award under the Federal Arbitration Act (“FAA”), 9 U.S.C. § 9; the Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards (“New York Convention” or “Convention”), and its implementing legislation, 9 U.S.C. § 207; and the Texas General Arbitration Act (“TGAA”), Tex.Rev.Civ. Stat. Ann. art. 236. CNMC filed a Motion to Dismiss TCL’s Amended Petition to Confirm Arbitration Award and a Motion to Vacate Arbitration Award, Subject to the Motion to Dismiss. At a January 26, 1996, hearing the court ruled that additional discovery was appropriate regarding TCL’s failure to produce a feasibility study about hydrogen peroxide production in Pakistan until the morning of the arbitration. The court also ordered further briefing and discovery addressing the court’s subject matter jurisdiction. The parties filed supplemental briefs on these issues and also filed various objections to each other’s filings, which the court denied. TCL also filed a Motion for Sanctions. Pending before the court in Civil Action No. H-95-4114 are TCL’s Amended Petition to Confirm Arbitration Award, Motion for Order Confirming Arbitration Award and for Entry of Judgment, and Motion for Sanctions and CNMC’s Motion to Dismiss TCL’s Amended Petition to Confirm Arbitration Award, Motion to Vacate Arbitration Award, and Motion to Continue Discovery. B. Civil Action No. H-95-5553 On October 20, 1988, Dr. Halipoto and his wife, Zareen Halipoto, filed a Voluntary Petition for Bankruptcy under Chapter 11 in the Bankruptcy Court for the Southern District of Texas. On June 1, 1995, as the date for arbitration approached, CNMC filed an adversary proceeding in the Halipoto bankruptcy case. CNMC sought a declaration that (1) the arbitration involved property of the Halipoto bankruptcy estate, (2) TCL/UI, Dr. Halipoto, and/or Dr. Khan exercised unauthorized control over such property of the bankruptcy estate, and (3) the arbitration clause in the 1988 contract was obtained by fraud or fraud in the inducement because of the pending bankruptcy and was therefore void or voidable. On June 9,1995, CNMC filed an Emergency Motion for Temporary Restraining Order with the bankruptcy court alleging that the pending arbitration set for June 21, 1995, was stayed by the bankruptcy petition and requesting a TRO to prevent the arbitration from proceeding as scheduled. At a hearing held the same day Bankruptcy Judge Karen Brown denied the request for a TRO. On June 14, 1995, the Bankruptcy Trustee filed an Answer to CNMC’s Complaint and an Emergency Motion for TRO seeking the same relief sought earlier by CNMC. On June 15, 1995, Judge Brown again denied the motion. On September 21, 1995, the Trustee and TCL filed a Joint Motion to Withdraw Reference in the adversary proceeding, which was granted on December 8, 1995. The case as assigned Civil Action No. H-95-5553 and was consolidated with Civil Action No. H-95-4114. Pending before the court in the adversary action are TCL’s Motion for Sanctions Against CNMC and its Counsel, CNMC’s Motion to Dismiss the Trustee’s Claim for Confirmation of the Arbitration Award, CNMC’s Motion to Reconsider and Vacate Order Entered September 22, 1995, the Motion to Dismiss of the Khans filed on September 15, 1995, the Motion to Dismiss of United International filed on September 18, 1995, CNMC’s Motion to Dismiss TCL’s First Amended Cross-Claim, CNMC’s Motion to Vacate Arbitration Award, CNMC’s Motion to Extend Scheduling Deadlines, and CNMC’s Objections and Motion to Strike TCL’s Evidence. C. Civil Action No. H-96-0166 On November 13, 1995, while Civil Action No. H-95-4114 was pending, CNMC filed an Original Petition to Vacate Arbitration Award in the 190th District Court of Harris County, Texas, seeking vacatur under the TGAA, the FAA, and the New York Convention. TCL removed the case to federal court pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 1441(b), alleging federal subject matter jurisdiction over CNMC’s claims under the FAA and the New York Convention, and CNMC filed a Motion to Remand. The case was consolidated with Civil Action No. H-95-4114. Pending before the court in the removed action are CNMC’s Original Petition to Vacate Arbitration Award and CNMC’s Motion to Remand. II. Subject Matter Jurisdiction Because the court cannot address the merits of this case unless it has subject matter jurisdiction, the court must first address CNMC’s jurisdictional challenges in Civil Action No. H-95-4114. See Moran v. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 27 F.3d 169, 172 (5th Cir.1994). TCL alleges that the court has jurisdiction to confirm the arbitration award: (1) under the FSIA because CNMC is an “agency or instrumentality of a foreign state” and is subject to the Act’s exceptions to sovereign immunity; (2) under the New York Convention; and (3) under federal bankruptcy law. CNMC responds that the court should dismiss this action for lack of jurisdiction because (1) it is not an agency or instrumentality of a foreign state within the meaning of the FSIA; (2) the New York Convention does not provide for enforcement of an arbitral award rendered in the United States under American arbitration rules; and (3) CNMC dismissed the bankruptcy action before service by an adverse party of a responsive pleading, or alternatively, the adversary action should be dismissed since the arbitration claims predominate over the ownership claims. A. Standard of Review Federal courts are courts of limited jurisdiction and possess power only over cases authorized by the Constitution and laws of the United States. Coury v. Prot, 85 F.3d 244, 248 (5th Cir.1996). The burden of establishing jurisdiction rests with the party alleging it. Kokkonen v. Guardian Life Ins. Co. of Am., 511 U.S. 375, 376-78, 114 S.Ct. 1673, 1675, 128 L.Ed.2d 391 (1994). In ruling on a motion to dismiss for lack of subject matter jurisdiction the court may evaluate (1) the complaint alone, (2) the complaint supplemented by undisputed facts evidenced in the record, or (3) the complaint supplemented by undisputed facts plus the court’s resolution of disputed facts. Williamson v. Tucker, 645 F.2d 404, 413 (5th Cir.), cert. denied, 454 U.S. 897, 102 S.Ct. 396, 70 L.Ed.2d 212 (1981); Barrerca-Montenegro v. United States, 74 F.3d 657, 659 (5th Cir.1996). In this case the court will use the third approach. In doing so the “court is given the authority to resolve factual disputes, along with the discretion to devise a method for making a determination with regard to the jurisdictional issue.” Moran, 27 F.3d at 172. When the court bases its decision on its resolution of disputed facts it must give the plaintiff an opportunity for discovery and a hearing that is appropriate to the nature of the motion to dismiss. McAllister v. FDIC, 87 F.3d 762, 766 (5th Cir.1996); Delgado v. Shell Oil Co., 890 F.Supp. 1315, 1322 (S.D.Tex.1995). The court’s authority to consider evidence beyond the complaint allows it to devise a procedure that may include permitting affidavits, allowing further discovery, hearing oral testimony, and conducting an evidentiary hearing, all limited to deciding the jurisdictional issue. Moran, 27 F.3d at 172. See also Cowry, 85 F.3d at 248. To evaluate CNMC’s status as an agency or instrumentality of the People’s Republic of China the court has fashioned a comprehensive discovery plan permitting affidavits, reports, deposition testimony, and extensive briefing on Chinese law and CNMC’s status under that law. Although the court may consider oral as well as written evidence, an evidentiary hearing is not required. In light of the extensive discovery and briefing on the jurisdictional issues, an evidentiary hearing is unnecessary in this case. In determining Chinese law the court is not bound by the evidence presented by the parties or by the Federal Rules of Evidence. Pursuant to Fed.R.Civ.P. 44.1 “[t]he court, in determining foreign law, may consider any relevant material or source, including testimony, whether or not submitted by a party or admissible under the Federal Rules of Evidence. The court’s determination shall be treated as a ruling on a question of law.” Rule [44.1] permits the court to consider any material that is relevant to a foreign-law issue, whether submitted by counsel or unearthed by the court’s own research, and without regard to its admissibility under the rules of evidence. ❖ * * * * Since the new Rule dissipates former inhibitions, the court may consider any material the parties wish to present. Statutes, administrative material, and judicial decisions can be established most easily by introducing an official or authenticated copy of the applicable provisions or court reports supported by expert testimony as to their meaning ... In addition to primary materials and expert testimony, a litigant may present any other information concerning foreign law he believes will further his cause, including secondary sources such as texts, learned journals, and a wide variety of unauthenticated documents relating to foreign law. Arthur R. Miller, “Federal Rule 44.1 and the ‘Fact’ Approach to Determining Foreign Law: Death Knell for a Die-Hard Doctrine,” 65 Mich. L.R. 613, 656-57 (1967) (footnotes omitted). See also Atwood Turnkey Drilling v. Petroleo Brasileiro, S.A., 875 F.2d 1174, 1176 (5th Cir.1989), cert. denied, 493 U.S. 1075, 110 S.Ct. 1124, 107 L.Ed.2d 1030 (1990); Republic of Turkey v. OKS Partners, 146 F.R.D. 24, 27 (D.Mass.1993). Under Rule 44.1 expert testimony accompanied by extracts from foreign legal material is the basic method by which foreign law is determined. See Republic of Turkey, 146 F.R.D. at 27 (citing cases); 9 C. Wright & A. Miller, Fed. Prac. & Proc. § 2444, at p. 646. An expert witness on foreign law is not required to meet any special qualifications and need not be admitted to practice in the country whose law is at issue. See 9 C. Wright & A. Miller, supra, at p. 646. Differences of opinion among experts on the content, applicability, or interpretation of foreign law do not create a genuine issue as to any material fact under Rule 56. Banco de Credito Indus., S.A. v. Tesoreria General, 990 F.2d 827, 838 (5th Cir.1993), cert. denied, 510 U.S. 1071, 114 S.Ct. 877, 127 L.Ed.2d 73 (1994); John R. Brown, “44.1 Ways to Prove Foreign Law,” 9 Mar. Law. 179, 194 (1984). Although expert testimony is the most common way to determine foreign law, it is no longer “an invariable necessity in-establishing foreign law, and indeed, federal judges may reject even the uncontradieted conclusions of an expert witness and reach their own decisions on the basis of independent examination of foreign legal authorities.” Curtis v. Beatrice Foods Co., 481 F.Supp. 1275, 1285 (S.D.N.Y.), aff'd mem., 633 F.2d 203 (2d Cir.1980) (citing Pollack, “Proof of Foreign Law,” 26 Am. J. of Comparative L. 470, 474 (1978) (listing authorities)). The Advisory Committee Notes to Rule 44.1 state that the Rule provides that in determining [foreign] law the court is not limited by material presented by the parties; it may engage in its own research and consider any relevant material thus found. The court may have at its disposal better foreign law materials than counsel have presented, or may wish to reexamine and amplify material that has been presented by counsel in partisan fashion or in insufficient detail. On the other hand, the court is free to insist on a complete presentation by counsel. Rule 44.1, Advisory Committee Notes. See also 9 C. Wright & A. Miller, supra, at p. 646. In making its determination of foreign law the court may rely on foreign case law decisions, treatises, and learned articles, even if they are not generally admissible under the Federal Rules of Evidence. Republic of Turkey, 146 F.R.D. at 27 (citing cases). B. Jurisdiction Under the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act The FSIA is an enigmatic legislative creation, described by the Fifth Circuit as “ ‘remarkably obtuse’ ” and a “ ‘statutory labyrinth that, owing to the numerous interpretive questions engendered by its bizarre provisions, has during its brief lifetime been a financial boon for the private bar but a constant bane of the federal judiciary.’” Callejo v. Bancomer, S.A., 764 F.2d 1101, 1107 (5th Cir.1985) (quoting Gibbons v. Udaras na Gaeltachta, 549 F.Supp. 1094, 1105, 1106 (S.D.N.Y.1982)). This case underscores the accuracy of the Fifth Circuit’s lament. The FSIA provides that “[sjubjeet to existing international agreements to which the United States [was] a party at the time of the enactment of this Act a foreign state shall be immune from the jurisdiction of the courts of the United States and of the States except as provided in sections 1605 to 1607 of this chapter.” 28 U.S.C. § 1604. Under 28 U.S.C. § 1330(a) “[t]he district courts shall have original jurisdiction without regard to amount in controversy of any nonjury civil action against a foreign state as defined in section 1603(a) of this title as to any claim for relief in personam with respect to which the foreign state is not entitled to immunity under sections 1605-1607 of this title or under any applicable international agreement.” 28 U.S.C. § 1330(a). “Sections 1604 and 1330(a) work in tandem: § 1604 bars federal and state courts from exercising jurisdiction when a foreign state is entitled to immunity, and § 1330(a) confers jurisdiction on district courts to hear suits brought by United States citizens and by aliens when a foreign state is not entitled to immunity.” Argentine Republic v. Amerada Hess Shipping Corp., 488 U.S. 428, 434, 109 S.Ct. 683, 688, 102 L.Ed.2d 818 (1989) (emphasis in'original). TCL alleges that CNMC is an “agency or instrumentality of a foreign state” within the meaning of the FSIA. 28 U.S.C. § 1603 provides a detailed definition of an “agency or instrumentality of a foreign state:” (a) A “foreign state,” except as used in section 1608 of this title, includes a political subdivision of a foreign state or an agency or instrumentality of a foreign state as defined in subsection (b). (b) An “agency or instrumentality of a foreign state” means any entity— (1) which is a separate legal person, corporate or otherwise, and (2) which is an organ of a foreign state or political subdivision thereof, or a majority of whose shares or other ownership interest is owned by a foreign state or political subdivision thereof, and (3) which is neither a citizen of a State of the United States ... nor created under the laws of any third country. TCL bears the burden of showing jurisdiction under the FSIA. The parties do not dispute that CNMC satisfies the first and last elements of § 1603(b). CNMC is a corporation organized under the laws of the People’s Republic of China (“China”) and is not a citizen of a State of the United States or created under the laws of a third country. Their dispute focuses on the second element. CNMC argues that after its 1992 corporate reorganization it is no longer state-owned by the Chinese government as required by § 1603(b)(2). CNMC also argues that the court should require TCL to prove, pursuant to Edlow Int’l v. Nuklearna Elektrarna Krsko (NEK), 441 F.Supp. 827 (D.D.C.1977), that CNMC discharges a governmental function or that the Chinese government exercises direct control over CNMC’s operations in a manner indicating that it owns a controlling interest in CNMC. 1. Is CNMC owned by China? The parties argue that the court must first decide the proper date on which CNMC’s status as an agency or instrumentality of the Chinese government should be determined. Although the parties agree that the determination of whether CNMC is subject to the court’s jurisdiction under the FSIA should be based upon CNMC’s status at the time the act or acts complained of occurred, they disagree as to that time. TCL argues that the acts complained of occurred in 1987 and 1988 when the contracts were entered and when CNMC was indisputably an agency or instrumentality of the Chinese government. CNMC responds that the act complained of occurred on August 15, 1995, when the arbitrators entered the award in favor of TCL, and a cause of action to confirm the award accrued. Alternatively, CNMC argues that the acts complained of occurred no earlier than August of 1993, the earliest date on which TCL argued during arbitration that its causes of action for breach of contract and fraud accrued, and one year after CNMC reorganized in 1992. The court need not resolve this conflict, however, because the court concludes that CNMC was an agency or instrumentality of the Chinese government in 1987 and remained one through 1995. a. CNMC’s arguments and evidence CNMC admits that under Chinese law it is “owned by the whole people” of China and that before 1992 this meant that it was owned by the Chinese state. CNMC argues, however, that in 1992 in accordance with the 1988 Law of the People’s Republic of China on Industrial Enterprises Owned by the Whole People (the “Industrial Enterprises Law”), it was restructured into an enterprise whose ownership rights vest in CNMC and the “whole people of China” in a system of “social ownership” similar to that discussed in Edlow. CNMC offers the testimony of Professor Rui Mu and Zhang Baolong in support of its interpretation of the relevant Chinese laws and regulations that control the relationship between CNMC and the Chinese government. i. The testimony of Professor Rui Mu Professor Rui states that from 1949 to 1979 concepts of property ownership in China were very simple. All property could be classified as government owned and controlled or privately owned and controlled. Beginning with the economic reforms of 1979, however, these distinctions became blurred. The economic reforms created a “new property ownership system based on management rights. In other words, property management rights in China are now the equivalent of property ownership rights in the United States.” Article 71 of the Chinese Civil Law enacted in 1986 provides that “property ownership refers to rights of an owner, according to the law, to possess, use, reap benefit from and dispose of his own property.” There are four basic rights associated with property ownership in China: (1) possession, (2) use, (3) benefit, and (4) disposition. Under Article 2 of the 1988 Industrial Enterprises Law, enterprises such as CNMC are granted three of the four property ownership rights created by Article 71 of the Civil Law. (“An enterprise shall enjoy the right to possess, use, and legally dispose of property which the state has authorized it to operate and manage.”) The remaining right, the right to benefit from the property, is “clearly dealt with” in Article 3 of the 1988 Industrial Enterprises Law, which provides that “the primary task of an enterprise shall be to develop commodity production, create wealth, increase savings, and satisfy the ever-growing material and cultural needs of society, in accordance with state plans and market demands.” The right to benefit from property is “vested in the Chinese society, or, in other words, all of the people of China.” Rui states that CNMC is entitled to the benefits of its business activities subject to its obligation to pay taxes and to meet certain minimum government requirements such as for funding workers’ benefits and for future development of the business through minimum levels of profit reinvestment. In essence, the economic reforms in China have established a new system of property management rights, thereby effectively creating three broad types of property: 1. government property, which relates to property which is owned by the whole people but is managed and controlled by the government; 2. social property, which is owned by the whole people but is managed and controlled by private enterprise; and 3. private property, which is owned, managed, and controlled privately. Because of “the historical context” government property and social property are often referred to as “state-owned” property. Rui concludes that industrial enterprises like CNMC are not state owned or controlled but, instead, are “socially owned” and privately controlled: Thus,.at least from the Chinese perspective, “state-ownership” is tied to the fact that the property is ultimately owned by all of the people of China, and has no relationship whatsoever to who actually manages and controls (i.e., possesses, uses, and disposes of) that property for the benefit of its ultimate owners, the whole people of China. Therefore, the most accurate description of [CNMC], which is an organization operating consistent with the Industrial Enterprises Law that has absolute management rights over the property under its control, is that it is a socially owned organization, whose assets are neither government owned nor controlled. According to Rui, this social ownership is analogous to the concept of social ownership discussed in Edlow, where property was being held in trust for the benefit of society but was otherwise owned and operated by a commercial entity. In the final part of his report Professor Rui discusses numerous elements of the reformed Chinese laws that give industrial enterprises greater operational and managerial freedom to set prices, sell or purchase materials and goods related to any legitimate business activity, import and export goods and services, invest funds and manage their own bank accounts, consolidate and merge, contract with employees and with other legal persons (domestic and foreign), make loans and act as a guarantor, and declare bankruptcy. ii. The testimony of Zhang Baolong CNMC argues that it does not meet either of the two tests outlined in Edlow and offers Zhang Baolong as its primary witness on CNMC’s status under Edlow. Zhang, who is currently an in-house attorney for CNMC, states that CNMC is not an organ of the Chinese government because it does not perform any strictly governmental function. Zhang also states that the Chinese government does not exercise management control over CNMC. Zhang explains that (1) CNMC is legally distinct from any national, state, or local government and receives no subsidies from any government entity; (2) beneficial ownership of the enterprise vests in all the people of China; (3) CNMC’s is a profit-making business entity whose profits are reinvested in the company; (4) CNMC’s only payments to governmental entities are generally applicable corporate taxes; (5) CNMC’s only connection to the government is the requirement that it report various matters to the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation; and (6) CNMC hopes soon to join other industrial enterprises that have made public securities offerings in recent years. b. TCL’s arguments and evidence TCL argues that CNMC is an agency or instrumentality of the Chinese government because it is wholly owned by the state. TCL offers the testimony and accompanying exhibits of Professor Donald C. Clarke and Minkang Gu in support of its position. i. The testimony of Professor Donald C. Clarke Professor Clarke states that CNMC is owned by the Chinese state. CNMC was founded in 1950 with funds invested by the state, and Clarke found no evidence that any non-state entity has made any equity investment in CNMC since its inception. In China investment confers ownership rights. “Consequently, the most realistic way to view [CNMC] is as a wholly-owned subsidiary of the Chinese state, the state being represented by the State Council delegating its power to the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation (“MOFTEC”).” Clarke states that CNMC’s claim that it is not owned by the state is not sustainable. CNMC concedes that its assets were owned by the government before the current economic reforms. According to Clarke, the argument that “ownership by the whole people” is somehow different from “state ownership” after 1988 has no basis in fact or in Chinese law or legal theory and lies in the realm of abstract political theory. Article 7 of the Chinese Constitution equates “ownership by the whole people” with “state ownership” when it speaks of “the state-owned economy, i.e., the economy under the socialist system of ownership by the whole people....” Article 5 of the 1994 PRC Regulations Governing the Supervision and Management of State-Owned Enterprises’ Property provides: “Enterprise property is owned by the whole people, that is, owned by the state.” Finally, Article 41 of the 1992 PRC Regulations on the Transformation of the Management System of Enterprises states: “The assets of the enterprise are under ownership by the whole people, i.e., ownership by the state. The State Council exercises the right of ownership over enterprise assets on behalf of the state.” The state is, therefore, declared to be the owner of industrial enterprises like CNMC; and the State Council, an identifiable government body, is declared to be the body that exercises the right of ownership on behalf of the state. The Chinese state has broad ownership rights. Under Article 41 of the 1992 Regulations state-owned industrial enterprise assets include assets invested in the enterprise by the state in various forms and the return on those assets. Enterprise profits thus belong to the government, not to the enterprise itself. That the government allows some profits to remain in the enterprise in no way negates its claim to receive them at will. Article 42 of the 1992 Regulations makes it clear that governmental departments in charge of an enterprise have the right to decide how enterprise profits shall be allocated between the government and the enterprise. Clarke states that Professor Rui’s theory of “social ownership” of industrial enterprises is not supported by Chinese law. Article 3 of the Industrial Enterprises Law, where Professor Rui discovers his social ownership concept, is a weak basis on which to ground a theory of meaningful ownership by “society,” given the explicit legal declarations to the contrary. Furthermore, Clarke concludes that Professor Rui’s theory has no support in any legislative texts, Communist Party pronouncements, or even speculative academic articles. Legal theories about property are of immense importance in Marxist theory, and the absence of Professor Rui’s “social ownership” concept in Chinese legal thought is telling. Clarke believes that his conclusion that “owned by the whole people” really means “state ownership” is also supported by examining whether the concrete rights held by state bodies over industrial enterprises and their management and assets resemble indicia of ownership. According to Clarke, a common index of ownership is “who gets paid if a state-owned enterprise is sold, merged, or liquidated.” Under Article 42(5) of the 1992 Regulations if CNMC were sold, merged, or liquidated, the government department in charge would take the assets, not CNMC’s employees or “society as a whole.” Furthermore, while the state devolves management power to industrial enterprise managers under the 1988 Industrial Enterprises Law and related regulations, it insists that important decisions be cleared with the governmental body in charge. Thus, Article 3(2) of the 1992 Regulations specifies that the purpose of the reforms of enterprise management systems is the protection of the state’s ownership of the enterprise’s assets. Article 15 of the Regulations delegates authority to enterprises to sell ordinary fixed assets, while retaining authority to control sales of major fixed assets. Income from these assets must be reinvested in the enterprise. Article 33 of the Regulations provides that if the enterprise experiences heavy losses in its business operations, it may apply to its government department for permission to cease production. Clarke also states that Chinese governmental bodies continue to exercise a great deal of control over other aspects of industrial enterprises. The presence of a Communist Party cell in each enterprise, mandated by Article 5 of the 1992 Regulations, allows for Party control over the enterprise. MOF-TEC influences the selection of the enterprise manager through Communist Party channels and through its direct legal authority under Articles 42(6) and 44 of the Enterprises Law and Article 13 of the 1994 Regulations to appoint and remove the manager. Article 14 of the Procedures for the Registration and Management of State Asset Property Rights of Enterprises provides that if enterprise managers commit certain offenses, they are subject to “disciplinary” sanctions imposed by the government department in charge of the enterprise. “[T]he fact that enterprise managers can be ‘disciplined’ by a government department necessarily implies that they are administratively part of that department and subordinate to its leadership.” Clarke concedes the correctness of statements in Professor Rui’s report and Mr. Zhang’s affidavit that CNMC has “separate legal status” and various associated characteristics. Clarke states, however, that an industrial enterprise’s separate legal personality in no way prevents it from being owned by the state any more than it prevents it from being owned by any person. Thus, while it may be true, for example, that “[n]o laws or regulations permit a Chinese governmental entity to declare bankruptcy,” the point is that there is a law that permits state-owned entities to declare bankruptcy — the 1986 Enterprise Bankruptcy Law — so th[e] fact that [CNMC] can in theory declare bankruptcy does not prove that it is not a state-owned entity. Similarly, the fact that the Chinese government is not obliged to make good on its debts, as pointed out by Professor Rui in his report, again shows nothing more than that [CNMC] is a limited liability company. I know of no reason why the Chinese state cannot own a limited liability company. Clarke concludes that CNMC’s “status is not really complicated; it is analogous to a limited liability company with a sole shareholder, the state, which allows the managers a certain degree of independence — indeed, probably more independence than it has granted its managers since the founding of the People’s Republic of China — but nevertheless maintains, as it must, the right, inter alia, to change managers or discipline them for waste, as well as to decide on the allocation of the income stream and to benefit from the appreciation of the value of the enterprise.” The Chinese State is thus the owner both in fact and in law. ii. The testimony of Minkang Gu Gu states that there are three types of business ownership in China: (1) ownership by the whole people, (2) collective ownership, and (3) private ownership. The first two are considered to be the socialist public economy. Article 73 of the Civil Law states that “state property belongs to the whole people,” which means that the property is retained by the state. Under Article 2 of the Industrial Enterprises Law the property of an industrial enterprise belongs to the whole people. The state, based on the principle of separating ownership rights and operation rights, only grants an enterprise the power to operate and manage the property. The property remains owned by the state. The relationship between CNMC and the state is, therefore, “somewhat like the relationship between agent and principal.” The state treats state-owned property as “the material base of socialist public ownership and as the material base of the main source of state revenue,” and uses the property to “promote socialist construction and reformation and to improve the People’s material and cultur[al] life.” Gu concludes that Professor Rui’s concept of “social property” is foreign to Chinese law. CNMC’s goal of making a public securities offering in the future does not reflect a move towards privatization. Chinese leaders in charge of restructuring the economic system have made it clear that the development of the securities industry does not include the privatization of state-owned industrial enterprises. “In fact, China’s government through its various ministries, maintains a controlling share in new ventures, and thereby is able to continue its control over the economy and business operations in China,” and “regardless of how many shares [CNMC] may be allowed to sell to the public in the future, the State will remain the largest shareholder because it owns [CNMC’s] property.” Gu concludes that the state will not turn over its property ownership to CNMC “as long as the Chinese government wants to maintain a ‘socialist public ownership economy’ as stated in its Constitution.” The 1992 reorganization of CNMC’s business structure in a manner consistent with the Industrial Enterprises Law did not affect CNMC’s status as an agency or instrumentality of China because CNMC’s property is conferred by the state solely for operation and management, not ownership, purposes. c. The court’s analysis CNMC admits that even after its reorganization in a manner consistent with the 1988 Industrial Enterprises Law, it is still “owned by the whole people.” CNMC argues, however, that its 1992 reorganization transformed this “ownership by the whole people” from “state ownership” to “social ownership,” by which CNMC and all the people of China are the real owners of CNMC’s assets. The court is not persuaded by this argument. Based upon its analysis of the evolution of state-owned industrial enterprises in China the court concludes that after 1992 CNMC remained a state-owned industrial enterprise at all times relevant to this ease. Most state-owned industrial enterprises were established in 1949 or soon thereafter. CNMC was established in 1950. Since then property rights over state-owned industrial enterprises (including ownership of and control over enterprise assets) have belonged to different levels of government. Under the old planned economic system state-owned industrial enterprises were merely appendages of the government, with ownership and management rights to the enterprises belonging to the government. Beginning in December of 1978, however, the Chinese government initiated a major program of reforms of state-owned industrial enterprises designed to separate government ownership and administration from enterprise management by granting expanded decision-making powers to enterprise managers. The industrial enterprise system created by these reforms was designed to improve the efficiency of leading sectors of the Chinese economy while maintaining state ownership of industrial enterprise assets. The reforms of state-owned industrial enterprises, though less far-reaching than in other sectors of the economy, have been significant. The past two decades of reform have generated a measure of “price decontrol, hmitation of state planning to a largely ‘indicative’ role, growing enterprise autonomy, and a series of contractual arrangements between the authorities and enterprises which embody significant efficiency incentives.” At the same time, however, there has been little reform of industrial enterprises with respect to enterprise ownership; industrial enterprises remain “overwhelmingly state-owned.” The Chinese Constitution and statutory and regulatory law confirm the continued state ownership of industrial enterprises such as CNMC. The Constitution provides that “[t]he basis of the socialist economic system of the People’s Republic of China is socialist public ownership of the means of production, namely, ownership by the whole people and collective ownership by the working people,” Const., Art. 6, and that “[socialist public property is sacred and inviolable.” Const., Art. 12. The Constitution defines three types of ownership: (1) ownership by the whole people, or state ownership; (2) collective ownership; and (3) private ownership. The first two types of ownership are considered to be the “socialist public economy,” while the third is considered to be the private economy, which is “a complement to the socialist public economy.” Const., Art. II. The General Principles of Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China (the “Civil Law”) promulgated in 1986 established a systematic and comprehensive legal system. The Civil Law “regulates property relations and personal relations between subjects of equal status — between citizens, between legal persons, and between citizens and legal persons,” and creates four categories of civil rights: (1) “ownership and property rights related to ownership,” (2) “obligations,” (3) “intellectual property rights,” and (4) “personal rights.” In line with the three basic forms of ownership provided for in the Constitution, the system of ownership is divided into three categories: “ownership by the whole people,” “ownership by collective organizations of the working masses,” and “ownership by [private] citizens,” individually or jointly. Civil Law, Arts. 73-75, 78. Article 71 of the Civil Law defines “ownership rights” as the rights “to possess, use, reap benefit from and dispose of’ property. The Civil Law also embodies the reform principle of separating state ownership of industrial enterprise assets from enterprise operation and management rights. A state-owned industrial enterprise has the right to “operate according to law state property that has been given to it to operate and manage.” Civil Law, Art. 82 (emphasis added). On April 13, 1988, the Chinese People’s Congress passed the Industrial Enterprises Law. The law was intended to clarify the vague legal status of state-owned industrial enterprises and to provide legal protections for the operation and management rights created by the Constitution and Civil Law. The Industrial Enterprises Law seeks to encourage management autonomy, while at the same time maintaining state ownership of enterprise assets. It does so by separating ownership rights from operation and management rights. The property of an enterprise shall belong to the whole people and shall be operated and managed by the enterprise with the authorization of the State, in accordance with the principle of separating ownership rights and management rights. An enterprise shall enjoy the right to possess, use and legally dispose of property which the State has authorized it to operate and manage. 2. Industrial Enterprises Law, Art. Article 2 of the 1994 Regulations Governing Supervision and Management of State-Owned Enterprises’ Property states that the goal of allowing industrial enterprises greater management autonomy is to increase the value of state-owned enterprise assets operated and managed by the enterprises: By changing government functions, straightening out the relationship between ownership and management of enterprises, transforming the operating mechanisms of enterprises, ensuring state ownership of enterprises’ property and giving enterprises the right to manage their own affairs, the state shall strive to turn enterprises into legal entities responsible for their own decisions on their operation and expansion; for their own profits and losses and for their self-development and self-restraint; and into major competitive bodies in the market, so as to preserve and increase the value of state assets. 1994 Regs., Art. 2 (emphasis added). The Industrial Enterprises Law’s implementing regulations make clear that industrial enterprises “owned by the whole people,” such as CNMC, are “state-owned.” The 1992 Regulations provide that “[ajssets of enterprises belong to the people, that is, to the state.” 1992 Regs., Art. 41. The 1994 Regulations similarly provide that “[enterprises’ property is owned by all the people, that is, owned by the state.” 1994 Regs., Art. 5. Although Professor Rui states that his category of “social property” is still often referred to as “state-owned” property as a result of the “historical context,” the implementing regulations make clear that the term “state-owned” is not merely an historical remnant or an otherwise meaningless slogan. Article 41 of the 1992 Regulations and Article 5 of the 1994, Regulations both provide that the State Council exercises the right of ownership of enterprises’ assets on behalf of the state. 1992 Regs., Art. 41 (“The State Council shall exercise the proprietary rights over these assets on behalf of the state.”); 1994 Regs., Art. 5 (“The State Council exercises the right of ownership of enterprises’ property on behalf of the state.”). It is clear from this statutory and regulatory scheme that the state owns industrial enterprises such as CNMC, and that the State Council, an identifiable government entity, exercises the right of ownership on behalf of the state. The scope of industrial enterprise assets owned by the state is broad. The “assets” of an industrial enterprise include “the various types of assets the state has invested in enterprises, assets which have been gained through such investments, and other assets considered owned by the people or put under the management and administration of enterprises by law or according to the administrative statutes regarding the control of state-owned assets.” 1992 Regs., Art. 41. Enterprise assets owned by the state thus include assets invested in the enterprise by the state in various forms and the return on those assets (i.e., the enterprise’s profits). CNMC was founded with funds invested by the state. TCL alleges, and CNMC does not dispute, that no non-state entity has made any equity investment in CNMC since its inception. That the Chinese government allows an enterprise to retain some of its return on state-owned assets does not negate the government’s right to receive them. Article 42 of the 1992 Regulations gives the state the right to decide how enterprise profits will be allocated between the state and the enterprise and how the enterprise and its assets will ultimately be managed: To guarantee the proprietary rights of enterprise assets, the government and relevant departments shall separately perform the following duties: (1) examine indicators showing stability and increment in the values of enterprise assets and conduct examinations over and supervise the auditing of debts, profits, and losses incurred on the assets of enterprises; (2) decide on how to divide profits reaped using the assets and on the proportions or amount to be shared between the state and enterprises according to relevant State Council stipulations; (3) make decisions regarding and approve production-related construction projects for enterprises according to relevant stipulations by the State Council — not including investment projects carried out based on the decision of the enterprises themselves, as stipulated in Article 13 of these regulations; (4) decide on or approve the method of management for enterprise assets and the establishment, merging (not including acquisition), division, shutdown, and auctioning of enterprises, as well as the approval of applications made by enterprises to conduct acquisitions and to declare bankruptcy; (5) examine and approve, according to relevant stipulations by the State Council, reports concerning damages on and the using up and forfeiting of enterprise assets as well as the mortgages and compensated transfer of key equipment, whole sets of equipment, and important buildings; and handle the liquidation, receiving, and handing over of assets of enterprises which have been annulled or disbanded; (6) decide on or approve, according to terms and procedures provided for in the law, appointment and removal (employment and dismissal), awarding, and punishment of directors of enterprises; (7) draio up laws and regulations to manage enterprise assets and conduct supervision and examination on the enforcement of such laws and regulations; (8) protect the exercising, by enterprises, of their business rights, according to law; guarantee enterprises nonintervention in their production and operating activities; and help enterprises overcome practical issues. 1992 Regs., Art. 42 (emphasis added). The 1994 Regulations also delegate to the state entities “in charge of the management of state-owned assets” the duty of “supervising the preservation and appreciation” of the value of state-owned property managed by industrial enterprises. See, e.g., 1994 Regs., Arts. 10-17. State Council “administrative departments” are charged with drawing up laws and regulations for the management of enterprise property, establishing a reporting system for enterprise property, exercising supervision over the preservation and appreciation of the value of state-owned assets, and solving disputes over property rights of state-owned assets. 1994 Regs., Art. 10. Other “relevant government departments” under the State Council supervise the preservation and appreciation of the value of enterprise property, decide, or make suggestions for, the appointment and dismissal of plant managers, and propose and dispatch boards of supervisors to enterprises. 1994 Regs., Art. 13. The government board of supervisors is charged with on-site supervision of the enterprise’s preservation and appreciation of the value of state-owned property. 1994 Regs., Art. 17. The regulations require industrial enterprises to set up internal procedures to ensure the preservation and appreciation of the value of state-owned property and net assets. 1994 Reg., Arts. 32-34. Under this separation of ownership rights and operation and management rights, state-owned assets are entrusted to industrial enterprises “to operate and manage,” not to own. See, e.g., Industrial Enterprises Law, Arts. 2 & 14; 1992 Regs., Art. 3 (transforming enterprises’ management mechanism must occur while still “ensuring the state’s ownership of enterprises’ property and maintaining and increasing the value of enterprises’ property”); 1992 Regs., Art. 6 (state property entrusted to enterprises “for management and business purposes”); 1994 Regs., Art. 1 (“These regulations are formulated for the purpose of strengthening supervision and management of the property of state-owned enterprises.”); 1994 Regs., Art. 8 (“Enterprises shall independently manage, according to law, the property entrusted for their operation and management by the state.”); 1994 Regs., Art. '9 (principles to be followed by government entities and state-owned enterprises include: “separating ownership of enterprise property from the right to manage it; separating government administration and enterprise management; and preserving capital and safeguarding the rights and interests of owners”). The state retains ownership of enterprise assets, and there is no suggestion in the Industrial Enterprises Law or its implementing regulations that the state is giving up its ownership rights in the enterprise property. Unlike ownership rights, enterprise operating and management rights do not include the right to benefit. In most nations the rights of possession, use, and disposition imply the right to the benefits or profits resulting from such use and disposition. See Wang at 105-06. This is not the case in China. [T]he fact that the right of benefit is specifically excluded from the operating rights of Chinese state enterprises has significant implications. By granting state enterprises the rights of possession, use and disposition but not the right of benefit, the state appears to have conveyed to state enterprises the right to endure and control costs on their own (labor, risk-taking, planning and transaction costs) but not the right to enjoy their own benefits. Wang at 106. To ensure that the benefits from state-owned industrial enterprise assets belong to the state, Chinese law provides that operation and management rights are conditional; they are always subject to state oversight. The state, as the owner and contributor of state-owned assets, can exercise ownership control over assets managed by the industrial enterprise either by promulgating new regulations or simply by issuing directives. Many provisions in the Industrial Enterprises Law empower the state to curtail or override the management rights of state-owned enterprises, e.g., “in accordance with the law” (articles 2, 3 and 6), “within the scope prescribed by law” (article 13), “under the guidance of State plans” (article 22), “unless State Council regulations prescribe otherwise” (article 24), and “in accordance with State Council regulations” (articles 26-29). d. CNMC’s documents The documentary evidence provided by CNMC during discovery shows that CNMC held itself out to potential clients and creditors as a state-owned industrial enterprise as late as November of 1995. For example, CNMC’s listing in the Special Issue on China Chamber of Commerce For Import and Export of Machinery and Electronics states that CNMC “is a large state-owned trading company under the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation.” A 1995 CNMC brochure lists CNMC as “a large state-owned foreign trade company dealing mainly in the import and export of machinery and electrical products” and again later as “a large state-owned trade company under the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation.” CNMC also claimed to be a state-owned industrial enterprise during the arbitration process in this case. In her deposition taken on April 4, 1995, Madam Wang Weili, a CNMC representative and the principal contract negotiator with TCL on behalf of CNMC, testified that CNMC remains “one of the biggest state-owned trading companies” in China. Three months after the arbitration award was entered CNMC again warranted that it was a state-owned industrial enterprise in order to receive a short-term loan from a major Hong Kong bank. On November 30, 1995, The Sanwa Bank Limited of Hong Kong sent CNMC a “Short Term Loan Facility” to make available to CNMC an “uncommitted short term multi-currency revolving loan facility” upon and subject to certain terms set out in the loan agreement. CNMC’s general manager accepted the terms and conditions on behalf of CNMC on December 4, 1995. In accepting the terms and conditions CNMC “represented and warranted,” among other things, that it was “a state-owned enterprise duly incorporated and validly existing under the laws of the People’s Republic of China.” e. Conclusion Based on the court’s analysis of Chinese law and CNMC’s documents the court concludes that Chinese industrial enterprises “owned by the whole people,” including CNMC, are “state-owned,” with proprietary rights exercised by the State Council on behalf of the state. Because CNMC is state-owned the court also concludes that CNMC is an agency or instrumentality of the People’s Republic of China within the meaning of 28 U.S.C. § 1603(b)(2) (an “entity a majority of whose shares or other ownership interest is owned by a foreign state or political subdivision thereof’ is an agency or instrumentality of a foreign state) (emphasis added). Professor Rui’s opinion that the 1988 Industrial Enterprises Law somehow converted “ownership by the whole people” from “state ownership” into a form of “social ownership” is not supported by Chinese law. The Constitution, the Civil Law, and the Industrial Enterprises Law and its implementing regulations do not refer to a separate category of “social property” or “social ownership,” and do not distinguish between “government property” and “social property.” f. Edlow CNMC argues that adherence to the strict majority ownership test of 28 U.S.C. § 1603(b)(2) would render virtually every enterprise in China an agency or instrumentality of the Chinese government under the FSIA. To avoid this result CNMC argues that the court should apply the Edlow analysis to determine whether CNMC is an organ of the Chinese government or whether the Chinese government actually exercised control over its operations. In this case, however, the court is not faced with the dilemmas faced by the court in Edlow. Private enterprises clearly exist in China, and the Chinese government is encouraging their growth. A Chinese private enterprise would not be an agency or instrumentality of the Chinese state under the FSIA. Moreover, the evidence of state ownership of CNMC in this ease goes well beyond the naked presumption based on socialist political ideology offered by the plaintiff in Edlow. Because Chinese law makes it clear that CNMC remained a state-owned industrial enterprise even after its 1992 reorganization, the court concludes that an analysis under Edlow is unnecessary, even if such an analysis were relevant. CNMC is an agency or instrumentality of the People’s Republic of China because it is owned by the Chinese state. 2. Does the court have jurisdiction over CNMC under an exception to immunity? The court’s conclusion that CNMC is an agency or instrumentality of China does not end the court’s inquiry under the FSIA. As a foreign state CNMC is entitled to sovereign immunity from suit in the United States unless the relationship or transaction at issue falls within one of the FSIA’s exceptions to immunity enumerated in 28 U.S.C. § 1605(a) Section 1605(a) provides in relevant part: (a) A foreign state shall not be immune from the jurisdiction of courts of the United States or of the States in any case— ‡ ‡ ^ ‡ (6) in which the action is brought, either to enforce an agreement made by the foreign state with or for the benefit of a private party to submit to arbitration all or any differences which have arisen or which may arise between the parties with respect to a defined legal relationship, whether contractual or not, concerning a subject matter capable of settlement by arbitration under the laws of the United States, or to confirm an award made pursuant to such an agreement to arbitrate, if (A) the arbitration takes place or is intended to take place in the United States, (B) the agreement or award is or may be governed by a treaty or other international agreement in force for the United States calling for the recognition and enforcement international agreement in force for the United States calling for the recognition and enforcement of arbitral awards, (C) the underlying claim, save for the agreement to arbitrate, could have been brought in a United States court under this section or section 1607, or (D) paragraph (1) of this subsection is otherwise applicable. If one of these exceptions to sovereign immunity applies the court has subject matter jurisdiction. See Delgado, 890 F.Supp. at 1319. TCL alleges that the court has jurisdiction under § 1605(a)(6)(A) over its claim to confirm the arbitral award pursuant to the FAA. CNMC does not challenge this allegation, and the court agrees that it has jurisdiction over the FAA claim under this subsection. Section 1605 (a)(6) also supplies jurisdiction over TCL’s claim under the New York Convention. Section 1605(a)(6)(B) allows the court to exercise jurisdiction over CNMC if the arbitration award “is or may be governed by a treaty or other international agreement in force for the United States calling for the recognition and enforcement of arbitral awards.” The Convention falls squarely within the terms of this exception. Cargill Int’l S.A. v. M/T Pavel Dybenko, 991 F.2d 1012, 1018 (2d Cir.1993) (concluding that “the Convention is exactly the sort of treaty Congress intended to include in the arbitration exception” of the FSIA); Matter of Arbitration Between Chromalloy Aeroservices v. Arab Republic of Egypt, 939 F.Supp. 907, 909 (D.D.C.1996). TCL’s claim under the Convention is thus excepted from the immunity provided to CNMC under § 1604. C. Jurisdiction Under the New York Convention CNMC argues that TCL’s claim under the Convention must nonetheless be dismissed for lack of subject matter jurisdiction because the Convention does not apply to arbitration awards rendered in the United States. Resolution of CNMC’s argument requires the court to decide whether the Convention can apply to arbitration awards rendered in the United States and, if so, whether the Convention applies to TCL’s award against CNMC. To appreciate the parties’ arguments it is necessary to understand the purpose of the “nondomestic” exclusion to Article 1(1). 1. Can the Convention apply to arbitration awards rendered in the United States? The Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards of June 10, 1958, 21 U.S.T. 2517 (1970), reprinted in 9 U.S.C. § 201, was adopted by the United States in 1970. See Bergesen v. Joseph Muller Corp., 710 F.2d 928, 929 (2d Cir.1983). Article 1(1) of the Convention states: This Convention shall apply to the recognition and enforcement of arbitral awards made in the territory of a State other than the State where the recognition and enforcement of such awards are sought, and arising out of differences between persons, whether physical or legal. It shall also apply to arbitral awards not considered as domestic awards in the State where then-recognition and enforcement are sought. CNMC argues for a narrow reading of the Convention. It argues that the Convention as adopted by the United States was not intended to cover awards rendered in the United States and that because the arbitration award in this case was rendered in Houston, Texas, the Convention does not apply. TCL responds that its arbitration award is “not considered as domestic” within the meaning of Article 1(1) of the Convention and that the court has jurisdiction under 9 U.S.C. §§ 202-208, the United States’ implementing legislation. Article 1(3) of the Convention authorizes a State when acceding to the Convention “on the basis of reciprocity [to] declare that it will apply the Convention to the recognition and enforcement of awards made only in the territory of another Contracting State.