Full opinion text
Opinion PER CURIAM. Opinion concurring in part and concurring in the result filed by Circuit Judge WALD. PER CURIAM: Appellants, members of the Church of Scientology (“Scientology”), were indicted for completed conspiracies and substantive offenses involving their plan to identify, locate and obtain by various illegal means certain documents in the possession of the United States which related to Scientology, and their efforts thereafter to obstruct justice by thwarting the government’s investigation of such criminal activities, by harboring and concealing a fugitive from arrest, and by causing the making of false declarations under oath before a grand jury. Appellants’ motion before the. district court to suppress documentary evidence seized in searches of Scientology offices in California was denied after an extensive hearing. Thereafter, on October 8, 1979, Judge Richey, over the government’s objection, granted appellants’ motion to require the government to comply with a Disposition Agreement to which appellants contended the government had agreed. Under this Agreement, each appellant was to be found guilty by the court on one specified count on the basis of the “Stipulation of Evidence.” Upon consideration of this uncontested evidence and in accordance with the Disposition Agreement, the court found appellants guilty as follows: Hubbard, Heldt, Snider, Willardson, Weigand and Wolfe, of conspiracy to obstruct justice and other offenses (Count 23); Hermann, of conspiracy to burglarize government offices and steal documents (Count 1); and Thomas, of misdemeanor theft of government property (Count 17). On December 4, 1979, after the presentence reports were received, appellants moved for Judge Richey’s recusal. Judge Richey declined to continue the sentencing of appellants pending his ruling on the motion, and appellants were sentenced on December 6 and 7. The recusal motion was subsequently denied in a memorandum and order filed on December 14, 1979 (J.A. at 387-93). These appeals followed. The district court had previously ruled that defendants have agreed not to challenge the sufficiency of the evidence before the trial court or on appeal. That is, the defendants will not challenge the accuracy of the facts stipulated by the government, and the defendants will not assert that the facts alleged do not amount to a violation of the crime charged because of other considerations. Memorandum Opinion filed October 8, 1979, at 11 (J.A. at 358). This permitted appellants to raise the constitutionality of the search on appeal, which they have done. The facts giving rise to this case involve appellants’ covert operations to steal government documents pertaining to Scientology and a conspiracy to obstruct justice in connection with those operations. This program was carried out by the defendants and others through what were termed the “Guardian Offices” of Scientology. To conceal evidence of their activities, defendants initiated the “Red Box” program by a general order dated 25 March 1977. As indicated by the “Red Box” memorandum (n.7), that program was primarily designed to secrete and destroy documentary proof that Mary Sue Hubbard and her husband L. Ron Hubbard engaged in any “illegal” or “incriminating activities.” The existence of the Red Box program also illustrates the difficulty the government faced in obtaining documentary and other proof of the knowledge and intent of the defendants in carrying out their various criminal programs against various agencies of the government. The principal contentions raised by appellants are: (1) that the government breached its plea agreement with Wolfe when it prosecuted him for conspiracy; (2) that the search of the offices of Scientology in California violated the fourth amendment; (3) that the trial judge should have recused himself on appellants’ motion; (4) that the trial court erred in denying appellants’ motion to disqualify all attorneys in the office of the United States Attorney from prosecuting the case; (5) that the government violated its agreement not to allocute at Hubbard’s sentencings; and (6) that Hubbard’s first and sixth amendment rights were violated by the refusal of the government and the court to grant “use” immunity to co-defendant Kember so that she could offer allegedly “exculpatory” testimony on Hubbard’s behalf. For the reasons set forth in detail in Parts I-VI infra, we reject each of these contentions and affirm the district court judgment. Because resolution of the issue involving Wolfe requires recitation of many of the facts that underlie this case, we address it first. Other facts will be set out as they become relevant to the other issues, which will be addressed in Parts II-VI. I. WOLFE’S CLAIM THAT HIS PROSECUTION WAS BARRED The appellant Wolfe contends that his prosecution for conspiracy, 18 U.S.C. § 371 (1976) is barred by his agreement to plead and his plea of guilty to misuse of a government seal, 18 U.S.C. § 1017 (1976). We disagree. Resolution of the issue raised by Wolfe requires a statement of the facts and circumstances leading up to and surrounding his agreement to plead guilty, together with a summary of the events that followed. The narrative begins on the night of May 21, 1976 when the night librarian for the District of Columbia Bar Association library in the United States Courthouse saw two men come to the library and thereafter use the photocopy machine in the United States Attorney’s Office. The same two men returned on the night of May 28. The librarian’s suspicions being aroused, he alerted the United States Attorney’s office which in turn informed the Federal Bureau of Investigation. A check of the sign-in logs of the courthouse and the library by FBI agents revealed that on May 21 the men had used the names of “J. Wolfe” and “J. Foster”, and on May 28 the names of “Hoake” and “J. Foster”. The FBI agents told the librarian to call the FBI if the men appeared again. On June 11, 1976 the men did return to the library and the FBI was called. Two FBI agents confronted the men in the library and asked them for identification. Each produced what appeared to be an official Internal Revenue Service identification card bearing his photograph. One man showed the agents a card in the name of Thomas Blake and the other man exhibited a card in the name of John M. Foster. On checking with the IRS the agents determined that there was an IRS employee named Thomas Blake. Accordingly “Blake’s” card was returned to him after the number on the card was noted. When “Foster” said he was no longer an IRS employee his identification card was confiscated. Both men were then permitted to leave the courthouse. Three days later the FBI discovered that the man who had produced the Blake identification card was not the Thomas Blake employed at IRS. Moreover, the number which had appeared on the Blake card was assigned to another IRS employee. On June 30, 1976 one of the FBI agents encountered “Blake” by chance in the hallway of the IRS National Office Building. The agent again asked him for identification. When he produced an IRS identification card in his true name, Gerald Bennett Wolfe, he was placed under arrest. The “Thomas Blake” identification card was not recovered. By complaint filed the same day Wolfe was charged with having used and possessed on June 11, 1976 a falsely made, forged and altered official pass and permit in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 499 (1976). He waived the forty-five day limit for the filing of an indictment or information. Continuing investigation by the FBI disclosed the following information: 1. The “Foster” identification card had probably been made on the equipment located in the identification room of the IRS which was supposedly subject to tight security; 2. For several weeks before the end of June 1976 “Foster” had used the card approximately three times a week to enter the IRS building; 3. According to the sign-in log “Thomas Blake” had entered the IRS building on a Saturday in late April or early May 1976. No description of this man was obtained; 4. The man who used the “Foster” card was Michael J. Meisner. Meisner had never been an employee of the IRS but since 1973 had been a member and employee of Scientology in Washington, D.C. He disappeared from Washington shortly after the courthouse encounter. A warrant for his arrest was issued August 5, 1976, but he was not apprehended. As we shall see, he remained a fugitive until June 19, 1977, when he voluntarily surrendered. In addition to the information developed by the FBI the United States Attorney’s Office at this time became aware of documents which had been produced by Scientology in connection with two civil actions in California. These documents suggested a Scientology plan to obtain information regarding pending lawsuits by infiltrating various IRS offices as well as the United States Attorney’s Office in Los Angeles. Several such lawsuits filed by Scientology were pending in the District of Columbia and were being defended by the United States Attorney’s Office. Counsel for Scientology in the California actions characterized the infiltration plan as a “misguided fantasy of someone”. On July 16, 1976 Wolfe and his attorney met with an assistant United States Attorney in the District of Columbia and Wolfe attempted to explain his nocturnal visits to the Bar Association library. He said that in a Georgetown bar he had' chanced to meet a stranger who said his name was John Foster and that when Foster professed to be a law student, Wolfe asked him to teach Wolfe how to do legal research. Wolfe and Foster had gone to the Bar Association library for this purpose, and used the United States Attorney’s xerox equipment only to copy material found in law books. As for the false identification cards Wolfe said he and Foster had got drunk one night and as part of a “drunken lark” had wandered into the IRS identification room and made false identification cards for themselves. He knew nothing more about Foster, did not know where he lived or where he was, his only association with Foster having been meetings in bars and the legal research project. As might have been expected the Assistant United States Attorney did not believe this story and he told Wolfe so. After the meeting in the United States Attorney’s Office there were plea negotiations between that office and Wolfe and his attorney. The government offered to permit Wolfe to plead guilty to a misdemeanor if he in turn would cooperate with the United States Attorney and the grand jury by giving truthful testimony about what he and Foster were doing in the courthouse and the United States Attorney’s Office, and by revealing the identity of the person or persons who had told him to make the entry. The United States Attorney was of course interested in apprehending the second man who had been with Wolfe. Until approximately April 1977 it appeared that Wolfe intended to accept the offer of a misdemeanor plea. However, at that time Wolfe suddenly informed the government, through his attorney, that he would not accept the plea offer and that he was retaining new counsel. He did retain new counsel and agreed to enter a plea of guilty to misuse of a government seal, 18 U.S.C. § 1017 (1976), a felony. Wolfe entered his plea of guilty before District Judge Flannery on May 13, 1977. The terms of the plea agreement were disclosed on the record by the Assistant United States Attorney, Mr. Stark, and confirmed by Wolfe’s newly retained attorney as follows: MR. STARK: Your Honor, this case is before Your Honor for a disposition pursuant to the information filed yesterday afternoon with the court charging a felony one count of fraudulent use of a government seal. The defendant in this case, Gerald Bennett Wolf [sic], has agreed to enter a plea of guilty to this charge; in exchange therefor, the government has agreed not to charge Mr. Wolf [sic] with any other possible violations arising out of three separate entries into this courthouse with another man in May and June of last year using a false and fraudulently obtained Internal Revenue I.D. card. In addition, the government will not oppose Mr. Wolf’s [sic] remaining on personal recognizance pending sentence, and the government expressly reserves its right to allocute at the time of sentence. I believe Mr. Schmidt, that is an accurate statement of the plea agreement. MR. SCHMIDT: I agree that that is an accurate statement of our agreement. . . . (J.A. 73, 74) Following these statements the court addressed Wolfe as follows: THE COURT: Now, it has been indicated that in return for your plea to this Information, the government will not charge you with any other possible offenses arising out of the three incidents occurring in May or June of 1976 growing out of the use of this fraudulent identification. The government will not oppose your remaining on bond pending the sentence. The government, however, reserves the right to speak against you or to allocute at the time of your sentence. Now, are those the only promises that have been made to you in this case? THE DEFENDANT: Yes, sir. THE COURT: Has anyone threatened you to cause you to plead guilty in this case? THE DEFENDANT: No, sir. (J.A. 83) Wolfe was sentenced on June 10, 1977. At the sentencing the Assistant United States Attorney summarized what was known to the government about Wolfe’s activities and said that in the opinion of the government Wolfe had not told the truth to the United States Attorney and the probation office. He added: [T]he Government is concerned about this case primarily because of what it does not know, rather than what it does know. We are puzzled why this young man who has never been in conflict with the law before has chosen to plead to a five-year five thousand dollar felony and expose himself in that respect to the adverse collateral consequences that flow from a felony conviction rather than plead to a misdemeanor which we did offer him (J.A. 92) On behalf of Wolfe his attorney told the court: What we have here is a situation in which he and another individual, very poorly advised, went into Mr. Wolfe’s place of employment sufficiently filled by alcohol, and decided to play around with the identification machines. * * * * * sj: The Government has no knowledge that any classified information was revealed during these times that he was in using the Xerox machine, as he so states, or that he had gone anywhere beyond the Xerox machines. They have no evidence that their files had been rifled in any manner. (J.A. 89, 100) He asked the court to sentence Wolfe solely on the basis of “what information is provable and here before this court.” (J.A. 100) The court placed Wolfe on probation for two years with the condition that he contribute 100 hours of community service work, without compensation, during the period of his probation. Immediately after he was sentenced Wolfe was subpoenaed to appear before the grand jury on the same day. Before the grand jury Wolfe was questioned at length about his entries into the courthouse and the story he had given to explain what he was doing. He repeated the Foster-legal research explanation. We shall discuss this grand jury appearance later in this opinion. On June 20, 1977, ten days after Wolfe was sentenced, Michael Meisner, who was in California, called Assistant United States Attorney Stark by telephone, saying he wished voluntarily to return to the District of Columbia and cooperate with the government. He arrived in Washington that evening. In a series of interviews over the next two weeks he recounted in detail the criminal actions he and other members of Scientology had committed. His statement described a criminal conspiracy by Scientologists to obstruct justice, suborn perjury, steal government property, and harbor a fugitive. What follows is a brief summary of Meisner’s statement. Meisner had been an active member of Scientology since 1970. Beginning in January 1974 he was the Assistant Guardian for Information in the District of Columbia. The Guardian’s Office is charged with the protection of Scientology. The Guardians handle intelligence matters including covert operations to acquire government documents critical of Scientology, internal security within Scientology, and covert operations to discredit and remove from positions of power all persons whom Scientology considers to be its enemies. Mary Sue Hubbard and Henning Heldt are the ranking officers of the Guardians in the United States, with offices in Hollywood, California. In early 1974 Guardian Order 1361 (GO 1361) was issued by Guardian World-Wide Jane Kember whose office was in England.. This order called for an all-out attack on the Internal Revenue Service which was to include the filing of law suits, a public relations assault, and infiltration of IRS by agents of Scientology. Pursuant to that order, in the summer of 1974, it was decided to plant an agent of Scientology within the National Office of the IRS in Washington, D.C. Cindy Raymond, a member of the staff of. the Deputy Guardian for Information, together with Meisner and Mitchell Herman, who was then responsible for covert operations activities, were assigned the task of recruiting such an individual. Gerald Bennett Wolfe was recruited. Wolfe came to Washington and by November 1974 had obtained a position as clerk-typist at the IRS. To demonstrate to Wolfe that IRS files could be obtained Meisner and Herman entered the IRS building, went to an office in the Exempt Organization Branch and took a file relating to Scientology out of a filing cabinet. The file was taken out of the IRS building, xeroxed and returned the next morning. On November 1, 1974 Mitchell Herman and a Scientology technician from Los Angeles surreptitiously entered the IRS building and placed a listening device in a conference room which they knew was about to be used for a high-level IRS meeting on Scientology. They tape-recorded the meeting and later Meisner saw a transcript of the tape. From December 1974 to March 1975 Herman directed several burglaries of the office of an attorney in the Refund Litigation Division of the Chief Counsel of IRS. In March 1975 Meisner took over from Herman the supervision of all covert Scientology agents within government offices. He supervised Wolfe’s activities at IRS and on numerous occasions accompanied Wolfe into the IRS building after working hours for the purpose of breaking into offices and copying documents relating to Scientology. The documents would be xeroxed and the copies sent to the Los Angeles Guardian’s Office. In his statement Meisner specified a number of such burglaries. In July 1975, acting on instructions from Meisner, Wolfe entered the Tax Division of the Department of Justice in the Star Building in the District of Columbia. Wolfe entered the Tax Division’s Offices some four times and removed documents which were copied and sent to Los Angeles. In December 1975 a program was developed to obtain INTERPOL documents concerning Scientology, contained in files held by government agencies. To this end Meisner recruited Sharon Thomas, a Scientologist, and directed her to apply for a secretarial position within the Justice Department. She did so, and obtained a position as the personal secretary of the Department of Justice attorney who was handling the Scientology Freedom of Information suit against INTERPOL. Thomas took documents from the attorney’s files as well as INTERPOL files and delivered them to Meisner. It developed however that most of the sought-after INTERPOL documents were not at the Department of Justice but probably were in the Office of Assistant United States Attorney Dodell in the United States Courthouse. Accordingly Meisner and Wolfe directed their attention to Do-dell’s office. Some time in March 1975 Meisner and Wolfe entered the IRS building after hours, using Wolfe’s IRS credentials. Once inside they broke into the room in which the equipment used to make identification cards was located and made themselves false identification cards using fictitious names. These credentials were later used to enter the United States Courthouse. During the first'week of May 1976 Meisner and Wolfe entered the courthouse during working hours and went to the Bar Association library on the third floor. They waited until work hours ended and then began to wander around to locate Dodell’s office. They found the office in a small hallway leading from the back of the library. They attempted to open Dodell’s door with a tool they had used in the past but were unsuccessful. Two or three days later Wolfe returned to the courthouse during his lunch hour and went to the Dodell office. Both Dodell and his secretary were out but Wolfe noticed a set of keys on the secretary’s desk. He took the keys, .called Meisner, and they went to a locksmith and had four of the keys duplicated. They then returned to the courthouse and dropped the secretary’s keys in the corridor outside Do-dell’s office, so the secretary would assume they had fallen out of her purse. On the night of May 21,1976 Meisner and Wolfe returned to the Bar Association library, signing in as J. Wolfe and J. M. Foster. Proceeding to Dodell’s office through the back of the library they used one of their duplicate keys to open the door. They reviewed three drawers full of files maintained in the course of FOIA litigation instituted by Scientology. They located the INTERPOL file as well as a general file on Scientology violations and some Scientology files containing documents obtained from the District of Columbia Police Department. Placing some ten or twelve files in their briefcases they took them to the photocopy machines in the United States Attorney’s Office where for two hours they xeroxed the documents. These activities produced a 5-inch stack of papers. The men then returned the files to Dodell’s office and left the courthouse. After reviewing the documents Meisner sent them along to the Scientology office in California. On the night of May 28,1976 Meisner and Wolfe returned to the courthouse, signing themselves in as Hoake and J. M. Foster. They went to Dodell’s office, filled their briefcases with Scientology files and xeroxed them on the United States Attorney’s machines. Working together on two machines they produced a stack of documents slightly larger than the one of May 21. After reviewing the documents obtained on May 28 Meisner determined that one more visit to Dodell’s office would be necessary to copy the remaining Scientology documents. He was also instructed by Mitchell Herman that he was to obtain any personal information about Dodell which he could find, the purpose being to remove Dodell from a government position because he was a threat to Scientology. To carry out this operation Meisner and Wolfe returned to the courthouse on the night of June 11, 1976. They signed in as Thomas Blake and John M. Foster, using the false credentials they had made during their IRS break in. While they were waiting in the library, before proceeding to Dodell’s office, they were confronted by two FBI agents who questioned them and confiscated the Blake credentials. Frightened by the appearance of the FBI Meisner and Wolfe on leaving the courthouse took a circuitous route on foot in order to evade any pursuer, and then took a taxi to a tavern in Georgetown. There Meisner telephoned to Mitchell Herman at the Guardian’s Office in Los Angeles and informed him in cryptic language that a major development had occurred. Herman told him to call back to a telephone located outside the Scientology offices. Meisner did so and then told Herman what had occurred. Later that night Herman instructed him to come to Los Angeles the next morning. Without going home Meisner then checked into a motel where he spent the night before leaving for Los Angeles on an 8:30 A.M. flight. On his arrival in Los Angeles Meisner gave his superiors a full written report of the courthouse incident and met with them to determine how to deal with the situation. Two proposals were considered. One was to send Wolfe to the District of Columbia with a prepared cover-up story as to why he was in the courthouse, in order to see what the authorities would do. Meisner would be sent to Washington after Wolfe’s case was finished, and would also be instructed on what to say. Neither would admit any association with Scientology. The second plan was to send both Meisner and Wolfe to Washington at the same time and let them take whatever punishment was meted out, again always denying any association with Scientology. It was decided to summon Wolfe to Los Angeles immediately and Meisner was told to stay at a motel in Hollywood. The next day, June 13, after further discussion, it was decided to send Wolfe back to Washington with a cover-up story, and later to send Meisner. Once the proceedings against Wolfe were completed Meisner would be sent to the District of Columbia with a parallel cover-up story. It was decided that Meisner would change his physical appearance and go into hiding. On Monday, June 14, Meisner shaved his mustache and a Scientology employee visited him at the motel and cut and dyed his hair. He was also given money to buy contact lenses to replace his eyeglasses. He purchased the lenses. On the afternoon of June 14 Wolfe, accompanied by two Scientology officers, arrived at Meisner’s motel room and the cover stories were developed. Wolfe was drilled on the specifics of the story to make sure he could stick by it. The story was the one he afterwards told the United States Attorney and the grand jury about his meeting with Foster and his legal research project. Meisner was to tell a story that corroborated Wolfe’s. In furtherance of the scheme agreed upon in Los Angeles Wolfe was returned to the District of Columbia where he was arrested June 30, 1976. Meisner remained in California. On June 14, 1976 Meisner was named National Secretary of Scientology, with an office in the Guardian’s Office in Los Angeles. When it was learned that, a warrant had been issued for his arrest in the District of Columbia he was removed from any official position with Scientology, but he continued to function in an unofficial capacity. He remained in hiding. This situation continued until some time in April 1977 when Meisner indicated he was tired of waiting for the case to be resolved and wished to be sent back to the District of Columbia as soon as possible. When he threatened to take the situation in his own hands he was placed under 24-hour guard, and on one occasion was removed from one building to another, handcuffed and gagged. On another occasion he was apprehended by Scientologists in Las Vegas and returned in their custody to Los Angeles where he was again placed under house arrest. Finally, on June 20, 1977 he telephoned to the United States Attorney’s Office in the District of Columbia that he wished to surrender. On July 8, 1977 the offices of Scientology in California were searched by FBI agents, pursuant to a warrant issued on the basis of Meisner’s statements to the government. Numerous documents were seized. This search and seizure are discussed elsewhere in this opinion. The seized documents confirmed the statements to the government previously made by Meisner. On August 15, 1978 Wolfe and the other defendants were indicted by a grand jury in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia. The indictment was in twenty-eight counts. Wolfe stipulated that the District Court might find him guilty on Count Twenty-three upon the basis of a “Stipulation of Evidence”, and the court did find him guilty on that count. The Stipulation also confirmed Meisner’s statements. So far as Wolfe is concerned, therefore, we are concerned only with Count Twenty-three. Count Twenty-three alleges a conspiracy to obstruct justice in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1503 (1976), to obstruct a criminal investígation in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1510 (1976), to harbor and conceal a fugitive in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1071 (1976); and to make false declarations in violation of Title 18 U.S.C. § 1623 (1976). The conspiracy is alleged to have begun on or about June 11, 1976 the day Wolfe and Meisner were confronted by FBI agents in the Bar Association library. As preliminary and explanatory matter Count Twenty-three alleges (paragraph 1) that between May 21 and June 11, 1976 Wolfe and Meisner on three occasions, using forged IRS credentials, entered the courthouse for the purpose of burglarizing and stealing documents from the office of an Assistant United States Attorney; and that on June 11, during the third of these entries, they were confronted and questioned by FBI agents (paragraph 2). It is further alleged that beginning on June 11 the United States Attorney, the FBI and the grand jury were investigating the entries into the office of the United States Attorney by Wolfe and Meisner (paragraph 3), that on June 30, 1976 Wolfe was arrested and on August 5, 1976 a warrant was issued for Meisner’s arrest (paragraphs 4, 5). Continuing, the count alleges that on May 13, 1977 in Criminal Case 77-283, Wolfe pled guilty to the wrongful use of a government seal in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1017 (1976), and that on June 10, 1977 he was sentenced and that same day testified before the grand jury (paragraphs 6, 7). The object and means of the conspiracy are alleged as follows: 9. It was an object of said conspiracy to corruptly influence, obstruct and impede, and corruptly endeavor to influence, obstruct and impede, the due administration of justice in connection with the investigation referred to in paragraph three (3) above, and in connection with the case of United States v. Gerald Bennett Wolfe, Criminal Case No. 77-283, referred to in paragraphs six and seven (6 and 7) above, for the purpose of concealing and causing to be concealed the identities of the persons who were responsible for, participated in, and had knowledge of (a) the activities which were the subject of the above-mentioned investigation and judicial proceedings, and (b) other illegal and improper activities. 10. It was further an object of said conspiracy, for the purposes stated in paragraph nine (9) above, willfully to endeavor by means of misrepresentation, intimidation, and force and threats thereof to obstruct, delay, and prevent the communication of information relating to a violation of a criminal statute of the United States by a person to a criminal investigator. 11. It was further an object of said conspiracy, for the purposes stated in paragraph nine (9) above, that the defendants and unindicted co-conspirators, having received notice and acquired knowledge of the fact that an arrest warrant for Michael J. Meisner had been issued under provisions of a law of the United States, would and did harbor and conceal him, so as to prevent his discovery and arrest. 12. It was further an object of said conspiracy, for the purposes stated in paragraph nine (9) above, the defendants and unindicted co-conspirators, knowingly made and caused to be made false material declarations under oath in proceedings before a Grand Jury of the United States. 13. Among the means by which the defendants and the unindicted co-conspirators would and did carry out the aforesaid objects of the conspiracy were the following: (a) The defendants and the unindicted co-conspirators would and did plan, solicit, assist and facilitate the giving of false, deceptive, evasive and misleading statements and testimony; (b) The defendants and the unindicted co-conspirators would and did give false, misleading, evasive and deceptive statements and testimony; (c) The defendants and the unindicted co-conspirators, in order to limit the investigation by exposing only GERALD BENNETT WOLFE and Michael J. Meisner to criminal prosecution and in order to prevent the uncovering of the true facts regarding the scope of their illegal activities, would and did plan, solicit, order, assist, encourage and facilitate the entry of a plea of guilty by Wolfe; (d) The defendants and the unindicted co-conspirators, in an effort to harbor and conceal unindicted co-conspirator Michael J. Meisner, would and did plan, direct, order, and assist in his initial concealment, and later in his forcible removal to secure hiding places where he was kept under guard. Indictment, pp. 23, 24, 25 (J.A. 368-70). Count Twenty-three alleges that forty-five overt acts were committed by the defendants in furtherance of the conspiracy. Only No. Forty-two charges an overt act by Wolfe (42) On or about June 10, 1977, within the District of Columbia, GERALD BENNETT WOLFE, testified falsely before a Grand Jury of the United States District Court investigating the illegal entries into the United States Courthouse. WOLFE then reported to the Guardian’s Office — DC where he was fully debriefed regarding his testimony before the grand jury. A copy of that debriefing was sent to the defendants and unindicted co-conspirators in Los Angeles and elsewhere. Indictment, pp. 32, 33 (J.A. 377-78). When Count Twenty-three is read in the light of Meisner’s 1977 statement to the government it is apparent that the conspiracy alleged is the one described in that statement. Wolfe says his prosecution for this conspiracy is barred by the government’s agreement, in exchange for his plea of guilty to fraudulent use of a government seal, “not to charge [him] with any other possible violations arising out of three separate entries into this courthouse with another man in May and June of last year [1976] using a false and fraudulently obtained Internal Revenue I.D. card.” (J.A. 73) We think however that a reasonable analysis of the plea bargain requires the conclusion that it has no such effect. When the plea agreement was made and Wolfe entered his plea the government knew only that using a false I.D. card he had entered the United States Attorney’s Office and used the United States Attorney’s xerox machine. The government was ignorant of Wolfe’s purpose and knew nothing about the scope of his criminal activities. As Wolfe’s attorney told the court at the sentencing, the case was only one in which Wolfe and another man under the influence of alcohol “decided to play around with the identification machines” (J.A. 89) and there was no evidence that the prosecutor’s files “had been rifled in any manner.” (J.A. 100) We assume that counsel spoke in good faith, but Wolfe knew that his statement misrepresented the facts. The prosecutor agreed with counsel’s statement, and said that the government was “concerned about this case primarily because of what it [did] not know”. (J.A. 92) The government did not know that on the day after he entered his plea Wolfe would tell a false story to the grand jury. Nor did the government know anything about the broad conspiracy in which Wolfe played a part, to obstruct justice and harbor and conceal the fugitive Meisner as alleged in Count Twenty-three. Yet Wolfe contends that the conspiracy is an offense within the contemplation of the plea agreement as an offense “arising out of” his courthouse entries. His contention offends common sense. It is too plain for argument that the conspiracy was not an offense contemplated by the plea agreement because the existence of the conspiracy, and all its details, although known to Wolfe, were deliberately concealed by Wolfe when his plea was accepted. If Wolfe’s theory is sound then he could not be prosecuted for his perjury before the grand jury; indeed he could not have been prosecuted for murder had the conspirators done away with Meisner in order to silence him. An interpretation of the agreement that would lead to such results is unreasonable. Wolfe relies heavily on United States v. Phillips Petroleum Co., 435 F.Supp. 622 (N.D. Okl. 1977), but this case does not help him. Phillips pled guilty to making an illegal campaign contribution, a misdemeanor, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 610 (1970). Thereafter in Count I of an indictment the company was charged with conspiracy to defraud the government in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 371 (1976). There was no formal plea agreement but after taking extensive testimony the District Court found as a fact that it was understood that in return for the plea of guilty of the misdemeanor in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 610 (1970) there would be no further prosecution for any violation of 18 U.S.C., although there might be additional charges under the Tax Code, 26 U.S.C. It is true that in a pleading Phillips alleged that “the Special Prosecutor agreed that there would be no further prosecutions for any Title 18 violations arising from the contributions. [Emphasis added] Id. at 624. However, the ground of the court’s decision was not that the violation alleged in Count I arose out of the contributions; rather the court held that any charge of a Title 18 violation was barred. Furthermore, contrary to Wolfe’s statement that his “situation is directly analogous to Phillips Petroleum” (Br. p. 39) the court emphasized that the conduct alleged in Count I was disclosed to the Special Prosecutor before the plea was entered. The court held, id. at 636, 637, “because the conduct alleged in Count I was disclosed to the Special Prosecutor before the plea was entered, the prosecution for the conduct alleged in Count I of this indictment and charged under Title 18 of the United States Code, is barred by the terms of the plea agreement.” Wolfe says the District Court should have conducted an evidentiary hearing to determine the terms of the plea agreement and whether it barred Wolfe’s prosecution. In support of this contention he cites cases in which the terms of a plea agreement were not reduced to a formal statement, but depended upon conversations and understandings between defense and prosecution. See United States v. Phillips Petroleum Co., supra; United States v. Minnesota Mining & Manufacturing Co., 551 F.2d 1106 (8th Cir. 1977); United States v. Carter, 454 F.2d 426 (4th Cir. 1972), cert. denied, 417 U.S. 933, 94 S.Ct. 2646, 41 L.Ed.2d 237 (1974). Such cases have no application here where the plea agreement was formally stated in open court and confirmed by the defendant’s attorney and the court. The only question is whether the plain terms of the agreement barred Wolfe’s prosecution, and we hold they did not. Although Wolfe argues that he was entitled to testify as to his “subjective belief” concerning the scope of the agreement, this argument must be rejected. The scope of the bargain did not depend upon Wolfe’s belief. United States v. Thomas, 593 F.2d 615 (5th Cir. 1979), cert. denied, 449 U.S. 841, 101 S.Ct. 120, 66 L.Ed.2d 48 (1980). The court said in that case, id. at 623, [I]n determining the scope of a plea bargain, we cannot use a subjective standard . . . The test, as applied to this particular issue, is whether “the evidence viewed objectively would lead one in the position of the defendants to reasonably conclude that the [nolo] pleas would be fully dis-positive of all federal criminal matters.” United States v. Minnesota Mining & Manufacturing Co., 551 F.2d 1106 (8th Cir. 1977). Although we do not doubt that appellants would have liked for the plea agreement to dispose of all criminal matters then under investigation, we cannot conclude that such an expectation was reasonable viewing the evidence objectively. WOLFE’S GRAND JURY APPEARANCE As we have said Wolfe was subpoenaed to appear before the grand jury immediately after he was sentenced. He did appear, accompanied by his attorney, who waited outside while Wolfe testified. During the questioning of Wolfe four recesses were taken, including one for the specific purpose of allowing Wolfe to consult with his attorney. With one unconsequential exception all the questions put to Wolfe during his grand jury appearance related to the details of the three courthouse entries, the reasons for those entries and the entry into IRS to obtain the false credentials, Wolfe’s association with and knowledge of “Foster”, and an exploration of the evasive and contradictory answers Wolfe gave in response to the questions. It became apparent that Wolfe’s testimony and explanations were untruthful. Wolfe complains that his testimony before the grand jury was “compelled” and was thereafter used against him. He says he was not given a Miranda warning but was told that he had no right to claim the protection of the fifth amendment. In addition he contends that during his appearance he was harassed by the prosecutor who ridiculed his testimony and made improper comments about it. We are not impressed by the complaints. It is established law that because a witness has been found guilty of the actions in question he is no longer entitled to claim the privilege of the fifth amendment with respect to those matters and he may be compelled to testify about them. United States v. Skolek, 474 F.2d 582 (10th Cir. 1973); United States v. Hoffman, 385 F.2d 501 (7th Cir. 1967), cert. denied, 390 U.S. 1031, 88 S.Ct. 1424, 20 L.Ed.2d 288 (1968); United States v. Gernie, 252 F.2d 664 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, 356 U.S. 968, 78 S.Ct. 1006, 2 L.Ed.2d 1073 (1958); United States v. Romero, 249 F.2d 371 (2d Cir. 1957). Thus, by virtue of his plea of guilty and the plea agreement Wolfe had no fifth amendment privilege with respect to his entries into the courthouse, and the prosecutor was entirely correct in telling him so. Since the prosecutor’s questioning related to those matters it would have been inappropriate to preface the questioning by a Miranda warning. In any event Wolfe’s counsel accompanied him to the grand jury room, was present outside throughout the hearing, and was consulted by Wolfe at least once during the questioning. In these circumstances Wolfe’s complaint that he failed to receive a Miranda warning has a hollow ring. The fallacy of Wolfe’s contention that his grand jury testimony was “compelled” becomes apparent when we recall that his testimony was in substance the same “cover-up” story he had given to the prosecutor a year before. As part of the conspiracy he had agreed to tell that story, and he told it as his voluntary contribution to the conspiracy. Any “compulsion” was applied, not by the government, but by Wolfe’s agreement to perjure himself in furtherance of the conspiracy. Wolfe contends that the indictment should be dismissed because of the prosecutor’s misconduct before the grand jury, and because the prosecutor misinformed Wolfe’s attorney as to the scope of the grand jury questioning. With respect to these complaints it is enough to say that we have reviewed the record, including the transcript of Wolfe’s grand jury testimony, and we can find no fault with the prosecutor’s conduct. It is true that the questioning of Wolfe was sharp and persistent, but a prosecutor is under no obligation to soothe a witness who is obviously evasive and untruthful. II. THE SEARCH-SEIZURE ISSUES The search and seizure operation with which we are concerned in this appeal involved over 200 FBI agents and government personnel who spent over 20 hours examining the files and papers maintained in two California offices of Scientology. Pursuant to a warrant which specified 162 separate descriptions of seizable documents relating to several offenses, the agents entered a number of rooms in two large buildings, and searched numerous file drawers, desk drawers and tops, boxes and closets. Appellants contend that the searches and seizures violated the fourth amendment. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. U.S. Const, amend. IV. However, the magnitude of the search is not enough by itself to establish a constitutional violation. Instead, “[o]ur fundamental inquiry in considering Fourth Amendment issues is whether or not [the] search or seizure is reasonable under all the circumstances.” United States v. Chadwick, 433 U.S. 1, 9, 97 S.Ct. 2476, 2482, 53 L.Ed.2d 538 (1977). In this case, “all the circumstances” include not only the scope of the warrant and the behavior of the searching agents, but also the conditions under which they had to conduct the search, and the particular nature of the evidence being sought in relation to the underlying offenses. This court has recognized that although the crimes of conspiracy and obstruction of justice may present law enforcement officers with difficult evidence-gathering problems, such difficulties do not prevent the use of comprehensive search warrants designed to obtain all relevant documentary evidence. [C]onspiratorial crimes are conducted with more secrecy than many other crimes, and search warrants that seek evidence of conspiracy, and otherwise meet the required standards, may extend to all relevant evidence of that crime. Otherwise, alleged conspirators would occupy a special protection from prosecution that is not available to other accused persons. The same may be said of search warrants seeking relevant evidence of obstruction of justice. Neither of these offenses possess any special immunity which would protect them from being ferreted out by proper search warrants seeking relevant evidence. While these offenses may have certain subjective elements, . . . the evidence that proves such subjective elements may be objective, tangible and constitute clear proof. In re Search Warrant Dated July 4, 1977, 572 F.2d 321, 328 n.4 (D.C.Cir.1977), rehearing en banc denied, 572 F.2d 328 (D.C.Cir.), cert. denied, 435 U.S. 925, 98 S.Ct. 1491, 55 L.Ed.2d 519 (1978). See also Andresen v. Maryland, 427 U.S. 463, 481 n.10, 96 S.Ct. 2737, 2749 n.10, 49 L.Ed.2d 627 (1976). After careful consideration of defendants’ claims against the warrant and its inherently difficult execution, we conclude that the warrant was valid and that its execution satisfied the ultimate constitutional requirement of reasonableness. See sections B and C, infra. A. Factual Summary Although the facts relevant to each legal issue are discussed in context, a brief overview of the search and seizure operation is appropriate here. On July 8, 1977, three search warrants were simultaneously executed for premises owned and operated by the Church of Scientology: one for Washington, D.C., the other two for the Fifield Manor and the Cedars-Sinai Complex in Hollywood, California. Since the evidence introduced at defendants’ trial was obtained from the Hollywood searches, not from the Washington search, this opinion is concerned only with the validity of the former. The search warrants were based upon a 33-page sworn affidavit which set forth the results of the government’s investigation into charges that various officials of Scientology, including defendants, had conspired to steal — and had stolen- — documents belonging to the federal government, and further had conspired to obstruct justice by covering up these crimes during a grand jury investigation of a burglary of the office of an Assistant United States Attorney in the United States Courthouse in Washington, D.C. On July 7, 1977, the day before the searches took place, various supervisory and legal personnel from the FBI’s Los Angeles office, and others from the U.S. Attorney’s office in Washington, conducted a briefing for the agents who had been selected to participate in the searches of Fifield Manor and the Cedars-Sinai Complex. At six a.m. on July 8, teams of agents entered both Fifield Manor and Cedars-Sinai to execute the search. The Fifield Manor search — the smaller of the two — covered a four-room area around defendant Henning Heldt’s office on the sixth floor, his personal office, a large secretary’s office, the office of his assistant (defendant Snider), and an adjoining but separated “penthouse” room. Within this area the agents searched approximately eight four-drawer file cabinets, one two-drawer file cabinet, five desks, three closets, and various piles of documents and papers. They also searched, but seized nothing from, an adjoining telex room. All told, the agents seized approximately 430 documents from Fifield Manor. The Cedars-Sinai search was far more extensive. Although over 50 agents were initially assigned to this search operation, by mid-morning the supervising agents decided that the number of agents on hand was insufficient. Accordingly, approximately 50 additional agents — who had not been briefed the day before — -were added to the search teams. Agents remained on the site searching well into the night, in over thirty rooms, and examined hundreds of filing cabinets, boxes, desks, wall cabinets, and assorted loose documents. In all, between 23,000 and 47,000 separate documents were seized from Cedars. Immediately following the execution of the warrants, the Church filed two separate actions in Los Angeles and in the District of Columbia seeking return of the seized property pursuant to Fed.R.Crim.P. 41(e). Neither action effected a return of all the documents. On August 15, 1978, defendants were indicted by a federal grand jury in the District of Columbia. Defendants urged the district court below to suppress all evidence seized in the California operations. After holding hearings in both Los Angeles and in Washington, and viewing personally the searched premises in Hollywood, the district court held the California searches and seizures to be reasonable and refused to suppress any of the fruits thereof. B. Fourth Amendment Interests Implicated in This Case The fourth amendment serves to protect two distinct interests. See generally- Coolidge v. New Hampshire, 403 U.S. 443, 467, 91 S.Ct. 2022, 2038, 29 L.Ed.2d 564 (1971) (plurality opinion of Stewart, J.). First, the warrant requirement seeks to guarantee that any searches intruding upon an individual’s privacy must be justified by probable cause, as determined by a “neutral and detached magistrate.” Second, where probable cause is found and a warrant issues, the particularity requirement seeks to assure that those searches deemed necessary should be as limited as possible. Here, the specific evil is the “general warrant” abhorred by the colonists, and the problem is not that of intrusion per se, but of a general, exploratory rummaging in a person’s belongings. Id. As the Supreme Court stated decades ago, [t]he requirement that warrants shall particularly describe the things to be seized makes general searches under them impossible and prevents the seizure of one thing under a warrant describing another. As to what is to be taken, nothing is left to the discretion of the officer executing the warrant. Marron v. United States, 275 U.S. 192, 196, 48 S.Ct. 74, 76, 72 L.Ed. 1016 (1927). Of course, even when the search warrant meets both the probable cause and particularity requirements, the search itself must be conducted in a reasonable manner, appropriately limited to the scope and intensity called for by the warrant. See Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 17-18, 88 S.Ct. 1868, 1877-1878, 20 L.Ed.2d 889 (1968) (“This Court has held in the past that a search which is reasonable at its inception may violate the Fourth Amendment by virtue of its intolerable intensity and scope.”); id. at 28-29, 88 S.Ct. at 1883-1884; United States v. Rettig, 589 F.2d 418, 423 (9th Cir. 1978); United States v. Clark, 531 F.2d 928, 931 (8th Cir. 1976). When investigators fail to limit themselves to the particulars in the warrant, both the particularity requirement and the probable cause requirement are drained of all significance as restraining mechanisms, and the warrant limitation becomes a practical nullity. Obedience to the particularity requirement both in drafting and executing a search warrant is therefore essential to protect against the centuries-old fear of general searches and seizures. Defendants’ first claim is that the warrants for Fifield Manor and Cedars-Sinai were overbroad. We have already dealt with that argument in our opinion in In re Search Warrant Dated July 4, 1977, supra, which concerned the facial validity of the warrant to search Scientology’s offices in Washington, a warrant identical in all material respects to the ones challenged here. Each of the warrants contained 162 descriptions of property subject to seizure. Items 1-99 listed documents alleged to have been stolen and copied from the office of an Assistant United States Attorney in Washington, D.C. Items 100-148 listed documents alleged to have been stolen and copied from an attorney at the Justice Department, also in Washington. Finally, Items 149-62 listed either internal documents of Scientology, or other allegedly stolen documents. With respect to Items 149-62, Scientology in In re Search Warrant contended that an agent would construe the warrant, for all practical purposes, as authorizing discretionary rummaging prohibited by the fourth amendment. See generally In re Search Warrant, supra, 572 F.2d at 324, 327 (per curiam), 330 (statement of Robinson, McGowan, JJ., on suggestion for rehearing en banc). We held, on authority of Andresen v. Maryland, 427 U.S. 463, 96 S.Ct. 2737, 49 L.Ed.2d 627 (1976), that the warrant — when read in conjunction with the affidavit — was sufficiently specific and particularized, did “not leave to the executing officers impermissible discretion,” and was in all other respects valid. In re Search Warrant, supra, 572 F.2d at 328. That determination controls this case. There remain, however, the issues related to the execution of the warrants. Nonmally, criminal defendants seeking suppression on appeal allege that the particular evidence used against them at trial was unlawfully seized, and for that reason should not have been admitted. Weeks v. United States, 232 U.S. 383, 34 S.Ct. 341, 58 L.Ed. 652 (1914). Defendants here, however, make no such argument. They have made no attempt before this court to single out as unlawfully seized any of the 201 particular documents used against them at their trial. Defendants argue instead that because the search as a whole was a general search, all documents therein seized must be suppressed. Defendants apparently have chosen to place all their hopes on an argument for total suppression, asserting that “[ujnless the exclusionary rule is held to require the suppression of all the fruits of a general search, there will be no restraint upon the conduct of such searches, and the core of the Fourth Amendment will have been eviscerated.” App.Br. I at 117 (emphasis in original). We recognize that in some cases a flagrant disregard for the limitations in a warrant might transform an otherwise valid search into a general one, thereby requiring the entire fruits of the search to be suppressed. See generally United States v. Rettig, 589 F.2d 418, 423 (9th Cir. 1978); United States v. Fernandez, 430 F.Supp. 794, 801 (N.D.Cal.1976); United States v. Nine 200-Barrel Tanks of Beer, 6 F.2d 401, 402 (D.R.I.1925). Cf. United States v. Tracy, 350 F.2d 658 (3d Cir.), cert. denied, 382 U.S. 943, 86 S.Ct. 390, 15 L.Ed.2d 353 (1965) (all evidence suppressed for disregard of limits on use of force). If in this case law enforcement officers had conducted a document search as if no limiting warrant existed, rummaging at will among defendants’ offices and files, then the mere existence of a valid — but practically irrelevant— warrant for certain specified documents would not be determinative of whether the search was so unreasonable as to require suppression of everything seized. Defendants do show several instances where documents were seized outside the warrant, but they do not demonstrate such flagrant disregard for the terms of the warrant which might make the drastic remedy of total suppression necessary. Absent that sort of flagrant disregard, the appropriate rule seems to be that where officers seize some items outside the scope of a valid warrant, this by itself will not affect the admissibility of other contemporaneously seized items which do fall within the warrant. See United States v. Forsythe, 560 F.2d 1127, 1134 (3d Cir. 1977) (“Assuming arguendo that the seizure of the items not listed in the warrant was illegal, this does not justify suppression of highly probative evidence consisting of those documents and records which were legally seized pursuant to a valid warrant.”); United States v. Daniels, 549 F.2d 665, 668 (9th Cir. 1977); United States v. Artieri, 491 F.2d 440, 445-46 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, 419 U.S. 878, 95 S.Ct. 142, 42 L.Ed.2d 118 (1974); United States v. Mendoza, 473 F.2d 692, 696-97 (5th Cir. 1972); United States v. Holmes, 452 F.2d 249, 259 (7th Cir. 1971), cert. denied, 405 U.S. 1016, 92 S.Ct. 1291, 31 L.Ed.2d 479 (1972). See generally United States v. Scott, 516 F.2d 751, 760 n.19 (D.C.Cir.1975), cert. denied, 425 U.S. 917, 96 S.Ct. 1519, 47 L.Ed.2d 768 (1976) (dictum noting agreement with the rule.) In the following section, we outline the standards for judging the reasonableness of a document search, and explain why the government’s actions — taken as a whole— do not amount to a flagrant disregard of those standards. C. The General Search Issue “[T]he Fourth Amendment confines an officer executing a search warrant strictly within the bounds set by the warrant^.]” Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents, 403 U.S. 388, 394 n.7, 91 S.Ct. 1999, 2004 n.7, 29 L.Ed.2d 619 (1971). In the context of document searches, the need to prevent “general, exploratory rummaging in a person’s belongings” is particularly acute. Unlike searches for other tangibles, document searches — like eavesdropping and bugging “searches” — tend to involve broad disclosures of the intimacies of private lives, thoughts and transactions. The acute constitutional hazards of this sort of investigative activity have been recognized by the Supreme Court. In Andresen v. Maryland, 427 U.S. 463, 96 S.Ct. 2737, 49 L.Ed.2d 627 (1976), which involved a search and seizure of a criminal defendant’s office files, the Supreme Court stated: We recognize that there are grave dangers inherent in executing a warrant authorizing a search and seizure of a person’s papers that are not necessarily present in executing a warrant to search for physical objects whose relevance is more easily ascertainable. In searches for papers, it is certain that some innocuous documents will be examined, at least cursorily, in order to determine whether they are, in fact, among those papers authorized to be seized. Similar dangers, of course, are present in executing a warrant for the “seizure” of telephone conversations. In both kinds of searches, responsible officials, including judicial officials, must take care to assure that they are conducted in a manner that minimizes unwarranted intrusions upon privacy. Id. at 482 n.11, 96 S.Ct. at 2749 n.11 (emphasis supplied). This court implicitly recognized the importance of the Andresen minimization requirement in our earlier decision concerning the Washington warrant. The court held the warrant valid, but did so expressly and repeatedly on the ground that a study of the accompanying affidavit would make the search warrant sufficiently particular and specific so as to avoid the danger of a general search. In re Search Warrant Dated July 4, 1977, supra, 572 F.2d at 324, 325, 326, 327. Since the permissible intensity of any search is determined by the description of the .things to be seized, the court’s explicit references to the particulars in the affidavit indicated our intention that the execution of this document search be confined to those particulars, so that it would not become simply a grant of “ ‘authority to ■the agents to search for and seize any ev