Full opinion text
OPINION ANNOUNCING THE JUDGMENT OF THE COURT TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE I. THE FACTUAL BACKGROUND AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY 1049 A. The Factual Background 1049 B. The Trial Proceedings 1049 II. WAS THE CITY ENTITLED TO J.N.O.V. WITH RESPECT TO PLAINTIFF’S FEDERAL CLAIMS? 1055 A. Did the City Waive its Inconsistency Objection to the § 1983 Verdicts? 1055 PAGE B. The Alleged Inconsistency of the Verdicts; the Requisites for Establishing a Municipality’s Direct Liability for a Policy or Custom and a Failure to Train; and (More On) Waiver 1058 1. The Alleged Inconsistency of the Verdicts 1058 2. The Predicates to a Municipality’s Direct Liability for a Policy, Custom, or Failure to Train 1059 3. More on Waiver 1065 C. The Sufficiency of the Evidence 1066 1. Standards for Determining Whether the City Breached a Constitutional Duty to Intoxicated and Potentially Suicidal Detainees 1067 2. The Sufficiency of the Evidence With Respect to Plaintiff’s Municipal Custom or Policy Allegation 1070 3. The Sufficiency of the Evidence With Respect to Plaintiff’s Failure to Train Theory 1074 III. WAS THE CITY ENTITLED TO J.N.O.V. WITH RESPECT TO PLAINTIFF’S PENDENT STATE CLAIMS? 1076 A. Did the City Waive its Argument that Plaintiff Failed to Allege and Establish any Pendent State Claims? 1076 B. The Alleged Errors in the Jury Instructions 1077 1. The Alleged Error of Permitting the Jury to Consider the Condition of the Lockup Facilities 1078 2. The Alleged Error of Instructing the Jury that Police Directives Establish a Statutory or Common Law Duty 1079 3. The Instruction that Intoxication Can Lower a Prisoner’s Duty to Exercise Due Care 1079 4. The Alleged Error of Failing to Instruct the Jury on the Preconditions to a Duty Arising from a Special Relationship 1080 C. Is the City Immune from Liability With Respect to Plaintiff’s State Claims? 1084 IV. IS THE PLAINTIFF ENTITLED TO DELAY DAMAGES UNDER RULE 238? 1088 V. CONCLUSION 1088 BECKER, Circuit Judge. This is an appeal from a judgment of the district court entered on a large jury ver-diet in favor of the mother and administra-trix of the estate of an emotionally disturbed young man who hung himself in a Philadelphia station house lockup after having been arrested for intoxication. This appeal requires exploration of the recesses of the federal civil rights law insofar as it bears on the liability of municipalities and municipal police officers under these circumstances. More particularly, this appeal requires examination of the predicates to a municipality’s liability for a policy, a custom, or a failure to train employees in light of a trio of Supreme Court decisions expanding on the prerequisites to municipal liability established in Monell v. Department of Social Services, 436 U.S. 658, 98 S.Ct. 2018, 56 L.Ed.2d 611 (1978). This appeal also necessitates prediction of how the Pennsylvania Supreme Court would decide issues concerning the prerequisite to a duty to protect an intoxicated and suicidal prisoner and the effect of the state’s Tort Claims Act on the validity of municipal ordinances, such as Philadelphia’s, waiving immunity from liability for police negligence. Finally, because in a number of instances counsel for the defendant City of Philadelphia arguably failed to preserve points raised on appeal, I devote a good deal of attention to an explanation of the principles of waiver and their application to this case. For the reasons that follow in this opinion and in Judge Sloviter’s separate opinion, the district court’s order denying the City’s post-trial motions, its judgment on the verdict, and its award of delay damages to the plaintiff will be affirmed. I. THE FACTUAL BACKGROUND AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY A. The Factual Background, In the early hours of the morning of October 19, 1985, Philadelphia (“City”) police officers took Daniel Simmons, who was 24 years of age and had no prior convictions, into custody for public intoxication. Pursuant to a departmental directive, the City police ordinarily do not file charges against intoxicated persons, but merely hold them in protective custody until they are sober or can be released to a responsible party. When the police detained Simmons, who was heavily intoxicated, he grew agitated, became quite concerned about his arrest, and began to cry. The arresting officers attempted to calm him and transported him to the City’s Sixth Police District, where they placed him in the custody of the facility’s turnkey, Officer Albert Panati. The arresting officers informed Panati that Simmons was crying and upset at the time that he was taken into custody. Following his arrival at the district detention facility, Simmons became confused, emotional, and deeply concerned about his arrest and its consequences. The district court determined that, “[i]n spite of his condition, the minor nature of his offense, and his inability to call his family,” no one at the detention facility placed a call on Simmons’s behalf. Simmons v. City of Philadelphia, 728 F.Supp. 352, 353 (E.D.Pa.1990). Indeed, Panati testified that it was his practice not to place telephone calls on behalf of intoxicated detainees and to permit such a detainee to place a phone call only if the detainee made a request and was, in the officer’s judgment, sufficiently sober. Panati removed Simmons’s belt and sundry of his personal belongings as required by a City police directive before placing him alone in a cell. Panati, however, did not comply with a second directive, presumably intended to forestall suicide attempts, which provides that “[wjhenever possible, a minimum of two persons are to be placed in a cell/detention room.” Notwithstanding this directive, Panati customarily attempted to house intoxicated detainees separately, in order to prevent altercations. Because the cell block was empty at the time that he incarcerated Simmons, Panati could not have housed Simmons with another prisoner, even had he decided that Simmons should not be left alone in a cell. The district court determined, however, that “there were other jails in the City which were not totally empty” to which Simmons could have been taken. Id. Panati returned to Simmons’s cell approximately fifteen minutes after he first had placed him there. At this point, because Simmons had untied his shoe laces and they were flopping around, Panati removed them — a step that a City police directive instructs should be taken immediately upon incarceration. The district court determined that “[ajside from removing the shoe laces, no other steps were taken to protect Simmons.” Id. Panati’s desk was separated by a wall from the cell block in which Simmons was held, and a turnkey had to enter the block physically in order to see what was happening within a given cell. Panati’s log book showed that, during the time that Simmons was incarcerated, the officer inspected the cell block at precise fifteen minute intervals, in accordance with police directives. Panati admitted, however, that he recorded in this log that he had inspected the cells in the facility at exactly every quarter of an hour, regardless of when he actually did so. For at least one hour of the time during which Simmons was custody, he remained quite upset and periodically rattled the bars of his cell. According to Panati, Simmons had “glassy eyes,” was “in a stupor,” and did not respond when Panati told him to sit down and relax. Panati described Simmons’s reactions to his continued incarceration as varying between confusion and hysteria. Slightly more than one and one-half hours after he first had locked Simmons into his cell, Panati discovered Simmons hanging from the bars of the cell from a noose that he had made from his trousers. Panati cut Simmons down and called for a medical rescue team. Panati himself made no attempt to revive Simmons. A rescue team arrived approximately seventeen minutes after Panati had discovered Simmons’s body. An autopsy revealed that, at death, Simmons’s blood alcohol level was .24, or more than twice the legal blood-alcohol limit for operating a motor vehicle. Following her son’s suicide, Simmons’s mother and administratrix, Delores Simmons, instituted this civil rights action, 42 U.S.C. § 1983, against Officer Panati, the City, and City Police Commissioner Gregor Sambore. Plaintiff alleged that these defendants had violated various of Simmons’s constitutional rights, including his rights to life, liberty, and due process of law under the fifth and fourteenth amendments and his penumbral privacy rights. In addition, plaintiff asserted cognate pendent tort claims against each of the defendants. Pri- or to trial, however, plaintiff moved and was granted permission to withdraw her action against Police Commissioner Sam-bore. B. The Trial Proceedings Whereas plaintiff presented numerous theories of the City’s section 1983 liability in her complaint, she attempted to establish the City’s liability at trial based on two conjoint theories. First, plaintiff sought to establish, by means of expert testimony concerning the state of City detention facilities and the City’s rules for processing detainees, that the City violated Simmons’s constitutional right to due process through a policy or custom of inattention amounting to deliberate indifference to the serious medical needs of intoxicated and potentially suicidal detainees. As a concomitant of this overarching theory, plaintiff sought, second, to establish that the City violated Simmons’s due process rights through a deliberately indifferent failure to train its officers to detect and to meet those serious needs. At trial, plaintiff called as a witness Sergeant John Heran of the City Police Department’s Research and Planning Unit, which serves the City’s Police Commissioner and is responsible for drafting departmental policies and procedures. Sergeant Heran testified that between the years of 1980 and 1985, 20 individuals, 15 of whom had been detained for public intoxication, committed suicide in City lockups. According to Heran, in 1985 — the year in which Simmons died — four detainees (including Simmons) committed suicide in City lockups; all were intoxicated and all killed themselves in the early hours of the morning. Heran’s testimony revealed that all 20 of the individuals who committed suicide in City lockups between 1980 and 1985 did so by hanging themselves with articles of clothing. In the five years prior to Simmons’s suicide, no suicides had occurred in the 6th District lockup. Heran testified that the 20 suicides in City lockups between 1980 and 1985 occurred from among a total of 428,000 arrests, 97,141 of which were for public intoxication. He stated, however, that the Research and Planning Unit had compiled no statistical information on the number of attempted suicides that had occurred in City lockups in that five-year period. Neither, according to Heran, had the Research and Planning Unit compiled any psychological data on individuals who had attempted or committed suicide in City lockups. Her-an further testified that none of the departmental directives drafted by the Research and Planning Unit and promulgated by the Police Commissioner either dealt with training in suicide prevention or set forth warning signs of suicide in the behavior of intoxicated or otherwise disturbed detainees. Officer Panati’s trial testimony tended to corroborate the absence of any specific focus on suicide prevention in the City’s continuing education of its police officers. Pa-nati stated that, although he believed that he might have received some training in suicide prevention at the City Police Academy nearly twenty years prior to Simmons’s suicide, he could not recall having received any additional or specialized training in suicide prevention during his time as a member of the City Police Department. In addition to eliciting the testimony of Officer Panati and of Sergeant Heran, plaintiff called two expert witnesses at trial. The district court qualified the first of these witnesses, Joseph Rowan, as an expert in data concerning jail suicides and in police training techniques aimed at preventing them. Rowan testified that a survey of jail suicides completed in 1981 showed that intoxicated persons comprised two-thirds of all suicides in police lockups and jails; that 75% of the suicides occurred when individuals were isolated in jail cells, as opposed to housed with one or more other inmates; that most jail suicides occurred between the hours of 12:00 a.m. and 6:00 a.m.; and that most of the individuals who committed suicide in lockups were young. Rowan further testified that this 1981 survey, which was widely used in training jailers in the identification and monitoring of suicidal detainees, had been made available to all police lockups in the country. He stated that the City’s statistics on the suicides occurring in its jails between 1980 and 1985 — in particular, the statistic that 15 of the 20 individuals who committed suicide (or 75%) were intoxicated — comported with the results of both the 1981 survey and a subsequent survey on jail suicides. Rowan also surveyed the jail safety standards issued prior to Simmons’s suicide by organizations such as the Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies (CALEA) and the American Medical Association. Rowan testified that these standards directed that intoxicated detainees, because they are at a high risk of sudden death from suicide and other causes, should be under constant observation while in lockups and, if possible, transferred to treatment facilities. According to Rowan, the standards additionally directed that jail personnel should be trained in the signs of suicidal tendencies, such as intoxication, agitation, and mood swings from a state of high anxiety to one of silent introspection, signifying that the detainee may have decided to commit suicide. Rowan testified that the various detention facility standards in effect at the time of Simmons’s suicide further directed that officers staffing lockups should be prepared to respond within four minutes to health and safety threats to inmates. Because of this recommended four-minute response time, Rowan observed, these standards frequently provided that various types of audio or visual monitoring systems should be installed in jail facilities to supplement direct supervision by staff members. Rowan voiced the opinion that, in light of these standards and the practices of other police departments, the City Police Department’s system of checking on inmates — particularly intoxicated and otherwise potentially suicidal ones — by means of fifteen-minute checks was “grossly substandard.” Based on the 1981 survey and the various standards existing at the time, Rowan opined that Simmons’s suicide was both predictable and the product of negligence and deliberate indifference on the part of Panati and the City. Rowan faulted Panati for failing to realize that Simmons was likely to harm himself, failing to monitor Simmons more closely, failing to respond to Simmons’s hanging within four minutes, and failing to administer C.P.R. to him. With respect to the City, Rowan chiefly faulted the lack of training in suicide prevention and detection received by officers. Based on Panati’s testimony, Rowan asserted that the officer had “[ajbsolutely not” received the training in detecting and preventing potential suicides that the City should have provided for all turnkeys. Rowan suggested that, because Simmons fit the psychological profile of a suicidal detainee that had been derived for training purposes from the 1981 survey, the City, through training turnkeys such as Panati in suicide prevention, could have averted Simmons’s suicide. In cross-examining Rowan, counsel for the City emphasized the extremely small number of suicides among intoxicated detainees — .00015%—that had occurred in City jails between 1980 and 1985. Despite this extremely small statistical probability that any particular intoxicated detainee would commit suicide, it was Rowan’s opinion that each suicide during those years increased the City’s obligation to train officers to prevent still another suicide. It was also Rowan’s view that each suicide increased the City’s obligation to develop specific procedures for implementing its global directives on ensuring prisoner safety and to make changes in the physical features of jail facilities, such as “suicide-proofing” cells and installing audio or visual monitoring devices, that would deter future suicides. Plaintiff called, as her second expert, Dr. Edward Guy, a forensic psychiatrist and the Program Director of Mental Health Services in the Philadelphia Prison System since the mid-1960s. Dr. Guy testified that, in the years prior to Simmons’s suicide, officials in the City Police Department and prison system knew, from a study carried out within the prison system and from a series of suicides in police precinct lockups, that a correlation existed between intoxication and suicides occurring among detainees. Guy stated that, as a result, he was asked in 1981 to participate in a City Police Academy training program for a group of turnkeys. Although it is unclear whether he directly imparted this information to policymak-ing officials within the City Police Department, Guy testified that he discussed with the turnkeys a profile that he had developed of the type of detainee most likely to be at a high risk of suicide. Guy’s research revealed that the majority of suicidal detainees had completed high school, had better occupational records than the average inmate, and tended to be — although were not necessarily — white. According to Guy, detainees likely to commit suicide would “be showing some kind of emotional disturbance that would be observable,” such as crying, agitation, shouting, and rattling cell bars. Guy stated that he informed the turnkeys that such detainees should be constantly monitored by means of one-on-one interaction or television monitors and, if necessary, physically restrained with handcuffs to prevent them from harming themselves. Guy’s testimony further indicated that in 1981, the year in which he participated in the training course for turnkeys, he communicated to officials within the City Police Department his belief that the design of the typical precinct lockup prevented proper observation of detainees. Guy stated that he had encouraged that design changes to enable turnkeys to observe detainees more closely be made in City lockups. According to Guy, he specifically had advised that the staff members at lockups be stationed within cell areas. Guy concluded that Simmons, although black, otherwise displayed “all of those signs that would have put him in the highest risk group of incarcerated persons to commit suicide.” It was Guy’s opinion that Simmons, at the time of his suicide, was suffering from an emotional disturbance and seriously impaired judgment. According to Guy, Simmons therefore either should have been under constant observation or should have been transferred expeditiously to a lockup in which he could have been placed in a cell with other inmates. It was Guy’s opinion that Panati was negligent and deliberately indifferent in failing to take either measure. Guy also attributed negligence and deliberate indifference to the City for failing, in the face of many years of suicides in precinct lockups, to take steps to diminish the clear risk of future suicides. Guy was of the opinion that the City, among other steps, should have redesigned its lockup areas to permit closer monitoring of detainees and should have instituted procedures to ensure that intoxicated detainees received medical attention. Simmons’s stepbrother, Reginald Rose-mond, testified that the police detective who notified the family of Simmons’s suicide told him that his brother had been acting peculiarly while in detention. According to Rosemond, the detective stated that the police had taken Simmons’s shoe laces from him for this reason. Rosemond also testified that the officer had told him that people who are intoxicated are at high risk to commit suicide while in jail. At the close of plaintiff’s evidence, the City moved for a directed verdict on the grounds set forth in its trial brief. In this brief, the City had argued that: (1) plaintiff could not establish a claim premised on violations of Simmons’s due process or other constitutional rights because she could adduce no evidence of deliberate indifference on the part of Panati or the City; and (2) plaintiff’s pendent state claims should be dismissed because no special relationship, as defined by state law, existed between Simmons and the defendants. In a brief colloquy with counsel, the district court denied the City’s motion on grounds that sufficient evidence existed to submit to the jury the issues of Panati’s and the City’s deliberate indifference and negligence. The City then called as witnesses Officer Panati and a second officer who was on duty at the precinct lockup at the time of Simmons’s suicide. Panati testified that he had seen no signs of suicidal tendencies in Simmons’s behavior, which had not seemed to him abnormal for an intoxicated detainee. The second officer testified to the speed with which the rescue team arrived following the discovery that Simmons had hung himself. The case then was submitted to the jury on special interrogatories. The jury specified that it did not find Panati liable to plaintiff under section 1983 for depriving Simmons, under the color of state law, of his constitutional rights. The jury found, however, that Panati had committed torts against Simmons under Pennsylvania law. The jury responded “Yes” to the further questions whether the City was liable under section 1983 for violating Simmons’s constitutional rights and had committed torts against Simmons under Pennsylvania law. The jury also found that the actions of both Panati and the City were legal causes of harm to Simmons. The jury awarded plaintiff $10,000 in wrongful death damages and $990,000 in survival damages. Having responded “No” to the question whether Panati had recklessly or maliciously injured Simmons, the jury awarded plaintiff no punitive damages against the officer. Advancing numerous arguments, the City moved for judgment notwithstanding the verdict and, in the alternative, for a new trial. The district court determined that the City, by failing to raise them in support of its Rule 50(a) motion for a directed verdict, had waived most of these arguments, including: (1) that in order for a verdict against the City under section 1983 to stand, the jury must first have returned a verdict against Panati; (2) that only if the jury had found that Panati violated Simmons’s constitutional rights under the color of state law could it validly have found that the City’s actions were a legal cause of Simmons’s death; (3) that plaintiff generally had failed to allege and establish any causes of action for negligence under Pennsylvania law; and (4) that although the City had by ordinance waived its immunity from liability for police misconduct, a statute enacted by the state legislature, as construed by the Pennsylvania Supreme Court in In re Upset Sale of Properties (Skibo), 522 Pa. 230, 560 A.2d 1388 (1989), effectively had invalidated that ordinance and reinstated the City’s immunity from suit for negligence. The district court further concluded that, even if properly preserved, all of these arguments lacked merit. 728 F.Supp. at 354-55. The district court determined that the City had, in its motion for a directed verdict, preserved two arguments for granting its motion for j.n.o.v.: (1) that plaintiff had failed to adduce evidence sufficient to meet the deliberate indifference standard for municipal liability established in City of Canton v, Harris, 489 U.S. 378, 109 S.Ct. 1197, 103 L.Ed.2d 412 (1989); and (2) that because no “special relationship” existed between Simmons and the police, Panati and the City had no state-law duty to Simmons and therefore could not be held liable to plaintiff for negligence. 728 F.Supp. at 354. After analyzing the Supreme Court’s holding in City of Canton, in tandem with the statistical evidence and the testimony of plaintiff’s experts, the district court concluded that the jury reasonably could have found that the City, at least by failing to train its police officers properly, had shown deliberate indifference to the serious medical needs of intoxicated and potentially suicidal detainees, thereby violating Simmons’s due process rights. Id. at 355-57. The district court also rejected the City’s state-law argument, reasoning that in De-Shaney v. Winnebago County, 489 U.S. 189, 109 S.Ct. 998, 103 L.Ed.2d 249 (1989), the Supreme Court had established that custody creates a special relationship and a concomitant duty to detainees. 728 F.Supp. at 359. The district court distinguished Melendez v. City of Philadelphia, 320 Pa.Super. 59, 466 A.2d 1060 (1981), a case setting out state-law prerequisites for a special relationship giving rise to a duty of protection that differ from the special relationship prerequisites announced in De-Shaney. 728 F.Supp. at 359-60. Following the district court’s denial of the City’s motion for j.n.o.v. or a new trial, plaintiff moved for damages under Pennsylvania Rule of Civil Procedure 238. The district court awarded plaintiff these damages, rejecting the City’s arguments that plaintiff was not entitled to them. The City timely appealed, raising a plethora of arguments for reversing the district court’s decisions denying its motion for j.n.o.v. or a new trial and granting plaintiff’s request for delay damages. We have jurisdiction, pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 1291, over the City’s appeal from the district court’s final judgment. II. WAS THE CITY ENTITLED TO J.N.O.V. WITH RESPECT TO PLAINTIFF’S FEDERAL CLAIMS? A. Did the City Waive its Inconsistency Objection to the § 1983 Verdicts? The City contends on appeal that we must reverse the district court’s denial of its motion for j.n.o.v. because the jury’s section 1983 verdicts with respect to Panati and the City are fatally inconsistent. The City argues that the district court erred in failing to find inconsistency in the jury’s verdicts (1) that Panati merely was negligent in his treatment of Simmons, but (2) that the City violated Simmons’s constitutional rights. The crux of the City’s contention is that the district court’s section 1983 judgment against it cannot stand in light of the jury’s finding that Panati inflicted no constitutional harm upon Simmons. The City grounds this argument in Williams v. Borough of West Chester, 891 F.2d 458, 467 (3d Cir.1989), in which we concluded that a municipality cannot be held liable under section 1983 for violating an individual’s civil rights as a result of a municipal policy or practice unless one of the municipality’s employees “is primarily liable under section 1983 itself.” According to plaintiff, however, the City was required to object to any inconsistency in the jury’s responses to the district court’s special interrogatories at the time that the responses were read, so that the judge could have cured any defect in the verdict slip prior to dismissing the jury. Although plaintiff does not frame her procedural argument in these terms, she in substance contends that an objection prior to the dismissal of the jury is required either by Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 49, governing special verdicts and interrogatories, or by our jurisprudence construing this rule. Rule 49 provides the district courts with two basic alternatives to the general jury verdict. Rule 49(a), governing special verdicts, provides that a court may have a jury return its verdict in the form of written responses to separate questions concerning the factual issues in dispute. Rule 49(b) provides that a court may employ the somewhat different procedure of requesting that a jury both return a general verdict and respond to written interrogatories concerning the factual determinations upon which that verdict rests. Whereas Rule 49(a) is mute on the subject of inconsistency in the jury’s special verdicts, Rule 49(b) provides that “[wjhen the answers [to interrogatories] are inconsistent with each other and one or more is likewise ineonsist-ent with the general verdict, judgment shall- not be entered, but the court shall return the jury for further consideration of its answers and verdict or shall order a new trial.” The prerequisites for preserving the right to raise on appeal an objection to the inconsistency of verdicts rendered under Rules 49(a) and 49(b) are the subject of considerable disagreement among the courts of appeals. Most, although not all, courts of appeals have interpreted the provision in Rule 49(b) for resubmitting an inconsistent verdict and interrogatories to the jury to require that any objection to the jury’s findings on the grounds of inconsistency be made — or else waived — before the jury is discharged. 5A J. Moore & J. Lucas, Moore’s Federal Practice 149.04, at 49-62 to 49-64 (2d ed. 1991) (compiling cases). There is far less agreement among the circuits, however, on whether a party must, under Rule 49(a), object prior to the jury’s dismissal to a perceived inconsistency in the jury’s responses to special verdict interrogatories. See Bates v. Jean, 745 F.2d 1146, 1150 (7th Cir.1984) (generally noting conflict among circuits); Note, Resolving Inconsistencies in Federal Special Verdicts, 53 Fordham L.Rev. 1089, 1100-01 (1985) (surveying the conflicting circuit law on the requirements for preserving an objection to inconsistent verdicts rendered under Rule 49(a)). In this circuit, it probably is necessary, as it is in the majority of the circuits, to raise prior to the jury’s dismissal an objection based on the inconsistency of the answers to interrogatories supporting a general verdict rendered under Rule 49(b). See Walker v. Sinclair Refining Co., 320 F.2d 302, 305 (3d Cir.1963) (holding that reversal of district court’s judgment was unwarranted, notwithstanding possible contradiction in interrogatory answers, because contradiction was not raised before the district court or on appeal); cf Scott v. Plante, 641 F.2d 117, 124-25 (3d Cir.1981) (where defendants did not object to form of interrogatories either before or after verdict and did not argue on appeal that they were prejudiced thereby, jury’s responses to interrogatories must be read with a view toward their reconciliation), vacated on other grounds, 458 U.S. 1101, 102 S.Ct. 3474, 73 L.Ed.2d 1362 (1982). It is clear, however, that, in order to preserve the objection on appeal, it is not necessary in this circuit for a party, prior to the district court’s dismissal of the jury, to lodge an inconsistency objection to special verdicts rendered under Rule 49(a). See Malley-Duff & Associates v. Crown Life Insurance Co., 734 F.2d 133, 144-45 (3d Cir.) (distinguishing verdicts rendered under Rule 49(a) from verdicts rendered under Rule 49(b) and holding that, in the case of a verdict rendered under Rule 49(a), appellate review is not precluded by absence of objection before discharge of jury), cert. denied, 469 U.S. 1072, 105 S.Ct. 564, 83 L.Ed.2d 505 (1984). In order to ascertain whether plaintiff is correct in asserting that the City has waived its inconsistency objection, it therefore is necessary to determine whether the jury’s verdict was rendered under Rule 49(a) or 49(b). Unfortunately, simply juxtaposing the verdict sheet submitted to the jury in this case, see supra at 1053 n. 6, with the language of Rule 49 sheds little light on whether the district court’s questions frame special verdicts under Rule 49(a) or interrogatories accompanying a general verdict under Rule 49(b). Rule 49(a) describes the special verdict that it permits as “a special written finding upon each issue of fact.” In contrast, the written findings that the district court requested from the jury — for example, “Indicate whether or not you find that under the law of Pennsylvania the defendant City of Philadelphia committed torts against the decedent”— seem to require conclusions combining facts with law, thereby constituting a species of general verdict. The district court’s questions to the jury, however, do not seem strictly to comprise, under Rule 49(b), “written interrogatories upon ... issues of fact” together with a request for a general verdict, at least as that term commonly is defined as “[a] verdict whereby the jury finds either for the plaintiff or for the defendant in general terms.” Black’s Law Dictionary 1560 (6th ed. 1990). The conundrum posed by juxtaposing the district court’s verdict sheet with Rule 49, however, is more apparent than real. We have held, implicitly if not explicitly, that special verdicts under Rule 49(a) may, like the findings rendered by the jury in this case, constitute findings of fact that actually blend factual with legal conclusions. See, e.g., Malley-Duff 734 F.2d at 144 n. 3, 145 (jury’s responses to interrogatories asking, for example, whether one party “tortiously interfered” with the contractual rights of another or “conspired with the specific intent to inflict injury upon the plaintiff” constituted special verdicts governed by Rule 49(a)); Scott, 641 F.2d at 124 (jury’s responses to interrogatories concerning, for example, proximate causation and whether plaintiff had been deprived of due process constituted “special verdict interrogatories”); see also Brodin, Accuracy, Efficiency, and Accountability in the Litigation Process — The Case for the Fact Verdict, 59 U.Cin.L.Rev. 15, 85-87 (discussing Simone v. Golden Nugget Hotel & Casino, 844 F.2d 1031 (3d Cir.1988), as example of case employing special verdicts to divide dispute into “ultimate” facts, each of which actually requires a legal, as well as a factual, determination). Under our prior decisions it is clear that, in determining whether a verdict has been rendered under Rule 49(b), as opposed to Rule 49(a), a court need not limit its inquiry to the specific form of the interrogatories framed within the four corners of the verdict sheet. In my opinion, our prior decisions make clear that we must look, rather, to the totality of the district court’s instructions, determining whether the court instructed the jury, either verbally or in writing, to make a general finding for the plaintiff or the defendant, in addition to findings of actual or ultimate facts. See, e.g., McLaughlin v. Fellows Gear Shaper Co., 786 F.2d 592, 595 n. 2 (3d Cir.1986) (in determining that jury rendered verdict under Rule 49(b), court looked to district court’s expressed intent that the jury conform its verdict to the framework of Rule 49(b)); Stanton by Brooks v. Astra Pharmaceutical Products, 718 F.2d 553, 574-75 (3d Cir.1983) (in concluding that jury rendered verdict under Rule 49(b), as opposed to 49(a), district court’s instructions, which cohered with the mandate of Rule 49(b), were determinative). In this case, the interrogatories submitted to the jury are strikingly similar to interrogatories that this court has decided comprised special verdict interrogatories under Rule 49(a). Compare supra at 1053 n. 6, with Malley-Duff, 734 F.2d at 144 n. 3; Scott, 641 F.2d at 124. More importantly, however, I can discern no expressed intent on the part of the district court — in its jury instructions or otherwise — that the jury should conform the verdict in this case to Rule 49(b). I conclude, therefore, that the jury rendered special verdicts governed by Rule 49(a) and that the City need not have objected, prior to the dismissal of the jury, to any inconsistency in these verdicts in order to have preserved, on appeal, its contention that it was entitled to j.n.o.v. on this ground. B. The Alleged Inconsistency of the Verdicts; the Requisites for Establishing a Municipality’s Direct Liability for a Policy or Custom and Failure to Train; and (More On) Waiver 1. The Alleged Inconsistency of the Verdicts In contending, based on Williams, 891 F.2d at 467, that the jury’s section 1983 verdicts must be viewed as inconsistent, the City in essence argues that an employee’s primary liability for a constitutional tort is a prerequisite to municipal liability for a constitutional violation arising either from a policy or custom or from a failure to train. The district court concluded that this argument, even if properly preserved, was groundless. In arriving at this conclusion, the district court emphasized the Supreme Court’s holding in Monell, 436 U.S. at 694, 98 S.Ct. at 2037-38, that local governing bodies, although not subject to re-spondeat superior liability, may be sued directly under section 1983 for constitutional injuries arising from the implementation of municipal policies or customs. In the district court’s view, the jury separately ascertained Panati’s and the City’s section 1983 liability and concluded that, although Panati negligently served as a causal conduit of Simmons’s injury, the City, through its own policy, custom, or training procedures, directly — and with deliberate indifference — violated Simmons's constitutional rights. 728 F.Supp. at 357. The district court thus concluded that plaintiff sufficiently established the City’s section 1983 liability without showing that Panati — or any other municipal actor — was also primarily liable under section 1983. See id. Plaintiff's reasoning on appeal with respect to the merits of the City’s consistency contention diverges somewhat from that of the district court. Plaintiff urges that predicating a municipality’s section 1983 liability on a municipal employee’s primary liability under the statute would contravene public policy. Plaintiff argues, in terro-rem, that “[i]f the Court were to adopt the City’s rationale, any municipality could insulate itself from liability by merely failing to train its employees.” Plaintiff’s contention, at bottom, appears to be that no form of municipal liability under section 1983 may be conditioned on the primary liability of any individual acting on the municipality’s behalf. The City’s, the district court’s, and plaintiff’s varying views of the jury’s section 1983 verdicts are symptomatic of their deeper divergences concerning the elements that must be established in order to subject a municipality to liability under section 1983 for an unconstitutional policy or custom and a failure to train its employees. In order to determine whether the verdicts are consistent, it is, in my opinion, necessary to survey the jurisprudence concerning the predicates to a municipality’s direct liability under section 1983. 2. The Predicates to a Municipality’s Direct Liability for a Policy, Custom, or Failure to Train As I have noted, plaintiff argued at trial that the City violated Simmons’s constitutional rights by means of its policy or custom with respect to intoxicated and potentially suicidal detainees. In order to prove her theory, plaintiff sought to establish, as I conclude infra she must have, that this policy or custom evinced deliberate indifference to these detainees’ serious medical needs. The elements of the City’s section 1983 liability under this theory are rooted in the Supreme Court’s decisions in both Monell and City of Canton. In Monell, as the district court emphasized, the Supreme Court held that although local governments cannot be held liable under section 1983 on a theory of respondeat superior, they may be directly subject to section 1983 liability as a result of an official policy or custom. 436 U.S. at 694, 98 S.Ct. at 2037-38. The Monell Court defined a municipal policy as a “statement, ordinance, regulation, or decision officially adopted and promulgated by [a local governing] body’s officers.” Id. at 690, 98 S.Ct. at 2036. The Court characterized a municipal custom, which lacks the formal approval of a policy, as “ ‘such practices of state officials ... [as are] so permanent and well settled as to constitute a “custom or usage” with the force of law.’ ” Id. at 691, 98 S.Ct. at 2036 (quoting Adickes v. S.H. Kress & Co., 398 U.S. 144, 167-68, 90 S.Ct. 1598, 1613, 26 L.Ed.2d 142 (1970)). Further explicating the elements of direct municipal liability under section 1983, the Monell Court concluded that “it is when execution of a government’s policy or custom, whether made by its lawmakers or by those whose edicts or acts may fairly be said to represent official policy, inflicts the injury that the government as an entity is responsible.” Id. at 694, 98 S.Ct. at 2037-38. Monell therefore requires that plaintiff, in order to establish her claim that the City violated Simmons’s due process rights by means of a municipal policy of deliberate indifference to the serious medical needs of suicidal detainees, must have shown that this indifference resulted either from a decision officially adopted and promulgated or from a permanent and well-settled practice. Monell’s holding also suggests that plaintiff, as an element of establishing the City’s policy or custom of deliberate indifference, must have presented evidence of such indifference on the part of lawmakers or other officials with the authority to make municipal policy. In City of Canton v. Harris, 489 U.S. 378, 109 S.Ct. 1197, 103 L.Ed.2d 412 (1989), the Supreme Court, in a decision relevant to both plaintiff’s municipal policy or custom and failure to train theories of the City’s liability, held that a municipality’s failure to train its police officers can give rise to a constitutional violation only when that failure “amounts to deliberate indifference to the rights of persons with whom the police come into contact.” Id. 109 S.Ct. at 1204. The City of Canton Court, however, only partly articulated the elements necessary to establish the deliberate indifference standard that it enunciated. Rather, as the City emphasizes, the City of Canton Court defined the standard in the negative, holding that a municipality’s deliberately indifferent failure to train is not established by (1) presenting evidence of the shortcomings of an individual; (2) proving that an otherwise sound training program occasionally was negligently administered; or (3) showing, without more, that better training would have enabled an officer to avoid the injury-causing conduct. Id. at 1206. Placing some flesh on the bones of the standard, City of Canton emphasized the nexus between deliberate indifference and the municipal policy or custom on which the Monell Court conditioned the direct liability of a local governmental entity under section 1983. City of Canton did so by quoting from the plurality decision in Pembaur v. City of Cincinnati, 475 U.S. 469, 106 S.Ct. 1292, 89 L.Ed.2d 452 (1986)— the first in the Supreme Court’s trio of decisions that expand on Monell’s requirements for establishing direct municipal liability in the context of a single municipal decision to take unconstitutional action. 109 S.Ct. at 1205. The City of Canton Court reasoned that only when a municipality’s failure to train is tainted by a deliberate indifference to constitutional rights can that failure rise to the level of a municipal policy or custom — that is, “ ‘a deliberate choice to follow a course of action ... made from among various alternatives’ by city policymakers.” Id. (quoting Pembaur, 475 U.S. at 483-84, 106 S.Ct. at 1300). Further merging the deliberate indifference standard with Monell’s municipal policy or custom requirement, the Court held that “[o]nly where a failure to train reflects a ‘deliberate’ or ‘conscious’ choice by a municipality — a ‘policy’ as defined by our prior cases — can a city be liable for such a failure under § 1983.” Id. City of Canton, similarly to Monell, therefore appears to require that a plaintiff, in order to meet the deliberate indifference standard for directly subjecting a municipality to section 1983 liability, must present scienter-like evidence of indifference on the part of a particular policymaker or policymakers. Such a requirement would tend to support the City’s contention, based on Williams, that the primary liability of an actual person — namely, a municipal employee — is a predicate to holding a municipality liable under section 1983. It is necessary to look to the Supreme Court’s trio of cases beginning with Pembaur, however, to determine whether Monell, as both that opinion and Canton suggest, in fact requires a plaintiff to present scienter-like evidence with respect to specific municipal policymakers as an element of establishing a deliberately indifferent policy, custom, or failure to train. In Pembaur, the first case in this trio, the Supreme Court, in a plurality opinion, determined that, although for purposes of section 1983 liability Monell’s municipal policy or custom requirement “was intended to distinguish acts of the municipality from acts of employees,” unconstitutional actions cannot be diffusely attributed to a municipality as an abstract entity. 475 U.S. at 479, 106 S.Ct. at 1298 (emphasis in original). Instead, Monell “expressly envisioned” that municipal liability under section 1983 would be predicated on official policies established by legislators or by “other officials ‘whose acts or edicts may fairly be said to represent official policy.’ ” Id. at 480, 106 S.Ct. at 1299 (quoting Monell, 436 U.S. at 694, 98 S.Ct. at 2037-38). The Pembaur plurality concluded that whether an official has the authority to formulate a municipality’s official policy is a matter of state law. Id. at 483, 106 S.Ct. at 1300. City of St. Louis v. Praprotnik, 485 U.S. 112, 108 S.Ct. 915, 99 L.Ed.2d 107 (1988), the second decision in the trio, confirmed and expanded on Pembaur’s conclusion that a municipal policy cannot be established absent evidence of scienter attending the decisionmaking of particular officials. In Praprotnik, the Supreme Court, once again in a plurality opinion, noted that Mo-nell is animated by the awareness that “governmental bodies can act only through natural persons” and reiterated Pemb-aur ’s criteria for directly subjecting a municipality to section 1983 liability. Id. 108 S.Ct. at 923. The Praprotnik plurality firmly rejected the argument that municipal policymakers should be defined broadly to include officials other than those on whom state law specifically confers policy-making authority in the area at issue. Id. at 928. The plurality also emphasized that it should not be left to juries to decide which officials’ decisions should subject a municipality to section 1983 liability. Id. In Jett v. Dallas Independent School District, 491 U.S. 701, 109 S.Ct. 2702, 105 L.Ed.2d 598 (1989), the final case in the trio, the plurality positions in Pembaur and Praprotnik finally acquired the status of a majority opinion. In Jett, which was decided shortly before the case sub judice went to trial, a majority of the Supreme Court approved the foregoing teachings of Pemb-aur and Praprotnik and held that there are two preconditions to a municipality’s ultimate liability under section 1983. First, the district court must identify the officials or governmental bodies that have final poli-cymaking authority for the local government assertedly liable for a constitutional violation by “[rjeviewing the relevant legal materials, including state and local positive law, as well [as] ‘ “custom or usage” having the force of law.’ ” Id. 109 S.Ct. at 2723 (citation omitted). Second, once the district court has identified the relevant policymakers, the jury must determine whether these individuals have, through their decisions, “caused the deprivation of rights at issue by policies which affirmatively command that it occur or by acquiescence in a longstanding practice or custom which constitutes the ‘standard operating procedure’ of the local governmental entity.” Id. (citation omitted). In Jett, therefore, the Supreme Court held that even when a plaintiff alleges that a municipal custom or practice, as opposed to a municipal policy, worked a constitutional deprivation, the plaintiff must both identify officials with ultimate policymaking authority in the area in question and adduce scien-ter-like evidence — in this case of acquiescence — with respect to them. In my opinion, reading Monell and Canton in light of the Pembaur trio resolves the ostensible inconsistency in the jury’s section 1983 verdicts in this case and reveals that the district court’s, the City’s, and plaintiff’s differing perspectives on whether employee liability is a prerequisite to establishing a municipality’s section 1983 liability, although ultimately incomplete, are complementary, rather than mutually exclusive. I believe that the district court and plaintiff are correct in reasoning that plaintiff need not have established deliberate indifference on the part of Panati. Further, I believe that the City is correct insofar as it contends that plaintiff, in order to prove either her municipal policy or custom or her failure to train theory, must have adduced evidence of scienter on the part of a municipal actor. In my opinion, however, under the Pembaur trio, and Jett in particular, the scienter-type evidence must have been adduced with respect to a high-level official determined by the district court, in accordance with local law, to have final policymaking authority in the areas in question. Because Panati, a low-level employee, is not the City actor whose primary section 1983 liability must have been established as a predicate to subjecting the City to section 1983 liability for a policy or custom or a failure to train, I find no inconsistency in the jury’s section 1983 verdicts in this case. I believe that this analysis of the prerequisites for establishing a municipal policy or custom and a failure to train comports with the relevant jurisprudence. I think, first, that the foregoing analysis is consistent with our conclusion in Williams, based on City of Los Angeles v. Heller, 475 U.S. 796, 106 S.Ct. 1571, 89 L.Ed.2d 806 (1986) (per curiam), that the primary liability of a municipal employee under section 1983 — as opposed to the primary liability of an official with policymaking authority — was a prerequisite to the section 1983 liability of the municipality itself. See 891 F.2d at 467. I think that our conclusion in Williams in substance expresses our essential determination here that, absent the conscious decision or deliberate indifference of some natural person, a municipality, as an abstract entity, cannot be deemed to have engaged in a constitutional violation by virtue of a policy, a custom, or a failure to train. Williams, moreover, posed a problem distinct from that in this case. In Williams, the plaintiffs predicated a municipality’s liability, as does plaintiff in this case, on the municipality’s alleged unconstitutional policy or custom of inadequately caring for suicidal detainees and its deliberate indifference in failing to train officers who dealt with them. The issue in Williams was whether plaintiffs could proceed to trial on their section 1983 claim against the municipality in the face of insubstantial evidence of any violation of the decedent’s constitutional rights at the hands of the defendant police officers or otherwise. Id. The plaintiffs in Williams — in contrast to plaintiff in this case — neither alleged nor adduced any evidence to establish that the municipality, through its policies or its deliberate indifference, directly violated their decedent’s constitutional rights. Id. With the case in that posture, we determined that the municipality was entitled to summary judgment, emphasizing the Supreme Court’s holding in Heller that the constitutionality of a police department’s regulations is irrelevant in the absence of a constitutional injury causally related to those regulations. Id. I think, moreover, that my analysis of the elements of establishing a municipal policy or custom and deliberate indifference coheres with our reasoning in Andrews v. City of Philadelphia, 895 F.2d 1469 (3d Cir.1990), which we decided shortly after the Supreme Court announced its opinion in Jett. In Andrews, female officers in the City’s police department brought a section 1983 action against the Police Commissioner, among others, alleging that the department had a policy or custom of sexual harassment that violated their constitutional right to equal protection. Id. at 1471. We applied Pembaur, Praprotnik, and Jett in determining the elements of establishing an unconstitutional municipal policy or custom and determined that neither could be established absent conscious decisionmaking or acquiescence in a longstanding custom or practice on the part of a policymaker. Id. at 1481 (“even in ‘custom’ type cases, it is impossible on the delivery of a kick to inculpate the head [or municipality] and find no fault with the foot [or policymaker]”). Because the jury had found that the Police Commissioner, whom we determined to be the relevant policymaker, was not liable under section 1983, we concluded that the district court properly had granted the City’s motion for j.n.o.v. in that case. Id. In sum, based on Monell, Canton, and the Supreme Court’s Pembaur trio, as well as on our decisions in Williams and in Andrews, I conclude that plaintiff, in order to have subjected the City to section 1983 liability under each of her theories, must have established the following. In order to establish the City’s liability under her theory that Simmons’s rights were violated as a result of a municipal policy or custom of deliberate indifference to the serious medical needs of intoxicated and potentially suicidal detainees, plaintiff must have shown that the officials determined by the district court to be the responsible policymakers were aware of the number of suicides in City lockups and of the alternatives for preventing them, but either deliberately chose not to pursue these alternatives or acquiesced in a longstanding policy or custom of inaction in this regard. As a predicate to establishing her concomitant theory that the City violated Simmons’s rights by means of a deliberately indifferent failure to train, plaintiff must similarly have shown that such policymakers, likewise knowing of the number of suicides in City lockups, either deliberately chose not to provide officers with training in suicide prevention or acquiesced in a longstanding practice or custom of providing no training in this area. As I discuss, infra at 1069, plaintiff in my opinion additionally must establish, with respect to each of her theories, that the City’s affirmative or acquiescent election to take no measures to prevent suicides caused one or more of its police officers to neglect Simmons’s serious medical needs, thereby causing his constitutional injury. 3. More on Waiver It is clear from the record that plaintiff never requested the district court to determine, by reference to local law, which City officials had final policymaking authority over the procedures for and the training of City police officers in the handling of detainees in City lockups at the time of Simmons’s death. My examination of the record also reveals that plaintiff failed to adduce any scienter-like evidence showing that such officials: (1) consciously chose, in the face of the number of suicides in City lockups and the alternatives for preventing them, to institute no preventive training or other measures; or (2) acquiesced in a practice of providing turnkeys with no training or other means of preventing suicides, despite knowledge of the past suicides in City lockups and the consequent likelihood that future suicides would occur. The trial testimony of plaintiff’s expert and other witnesses, implied, but did not directly establish, such conscious decisionmaking or acquiescence on the part of specific responsible policymakers. I note in this connection that plaintiff moved and was granted permission to withdraw her action against Police Commissioner Sambore before her case went to trial. See supra at 1050. It also is clear from the record, however, that the City never argued before the district court that plaintiff, through neglecting to identify the responsible policymakers and to provide evidence of either their deci-sionmaking or their acquiescence in a longstanding practice with respect to the training of turnkeys and the handling of detainees, failed to establish this essential “scien-ter” element of her section 1983 case. The City did not ground either its motion for a directed verdict or its motion for j.n.o.v. on this specific failure on plaintiff’s part. Neither does the City contend on appeal— at least with any specificity — that plaintiff’s failure to establish this essential “scienter” element of her case constitutes grounds for reversing the district court’s judgment on the jury’s verdict against it. We recently emphasized, in Brenner v. Local 514, United Brotherhood of Carpenters, 927 F.2d 1283, 1298 (3d Cir.1991), the well-established rule that “failure to raise an issue in the district court constitutes a waiver of the argument.” We concluded that reversing the judgment of the district court on the basis of a theory that the plaintiffs had failed to raise before it would contravene this longstanding waiver rule. Because the plaintiffs also had failed to raise the theory at issue on appeal, we further concluded that our consideration of that theory would vitiate the requirement of the Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure and our own local rules that, absent extraordinary circumstances, briefs must contain statements of all issues presented for appeal, together with supporting arguments and citations. Id. (citing Fed. R.App.P. 28(a)(1) — (3) and Third Circuit Rule 21(l)(A)(d)); see also Institute for Scientific Information v. Gordon & Breach Science Publishers, Inc., 931 F.2d 1002, 1011 (3d Cir.1991) (district court’s dismissal of one of plaintiff’s claims was not appealable, because dismissal was not challenged, as required by Fed.R.App.P. 28(a)(2)-(4), anywhere in plaintiff’s brief). It might be argued that one or more of the issues that the City has preserved encompasses the particular contention that plaintiff failed to establish the “scienter” element of her section 1983 case against the City, thus rendering that contention appealable. As we have discussed, the City was entitled to raise the issue of the consistency of the jury’s verdicts on appeal. Through challenging the sufficiency of plaintiffs evidence in its motion for a directed verdict, its motion for j.n.o.v., and its appellate brief, the City has properly preserved this contention, as well. I do not think, however, that either of these contentions fairly can be interpreted to have encompassed, and thereby to have preserved, the particular argument that plaintiff failed to establish the “scienter” element of her section 1983 case against the City. Under the specificity requirements of Federal Rule of Appellate Procedure 28 and Third Circuit Rule 21, a passing reference to an issue in a brief will not suffice to bring that issue before this court on appeal. See Lunderstadt v. Colafella, 885 F.2d 66 (3d Cir.1989) (brief mention of issue did not suffice, under Fed.R.App.P. 28(a)(2) & (4), to present issue on appeal); Jackson v. University of Pittsburgh, 826 F.2d 230 (3d Cir.1987) (same). In Frank v. Colt Industries, 910 F.2d 90 (3d Cir.1990), moreover, we squarely addressed the issue whether general arguments raised before the district court and on appeal were sufficient to frame a specific theory of the case that the defendant had not previously presented. We concluded that, although it was conceivable that the defendant’s previous arguments logically incorporated his new theory, “[particularly where important and complex issues of law are presented, a far more