Full opinion text
OPINION OF THE COURT HUTCHINSON, Circuit Judge. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page I. THE PARTIES AND THE CHARGES. . 314 II.THE ISSUES ON APPEAL. . 315 III. JURISDICTION. . 315 IV. FACTS. V. DISCUSSION. CO to H A. The Sufficiency of the Evidence. CO CO H 1. The Evidence Against Hauser. CO to CO 2. The Evidence Against Cotton. CO to 05 3. The Evidence Against Kulkovit. CO to “4 B. Challenges to the Admission of Notes Seized From McGlory’s Residences and his Trash. CO 1. Authenticity . 00 2. Hearsay. H 3. Coconspirator Exception to the Hearsay Rule . CO C. Cotton’s Challenge to the Admission of Butler’s Testimony. 00 to Sever. C5 E. Cotton’s Motion to Suppress the Evidence Seized From his Vehicle.. r-i F. Hauser’s and Kulkovit’s Motions for a Mistrial. CO G. Kulkovit’s Challenge to the Government’s Affidavit in Support of Orders Authorizing Electronic Surveillance. lo ^ CO H. Kulkovit’s Challenge to the Admission of Expert Testimony. UO ^ CO I. Sentencing Challenges by McGlory and Kulkovit. <X> ^ CO 1. Challenge to the Guidelines Calculation. t- ^ CO 2. McGlory’s Challenge to the Status of His Two Prior Felony Convictions . CO ^ CO VI. CONCLUSION. H LO CO I. THE PARTIES AND THE CHARGES In these four consolidated appeals, Reginald McGlory (McGlory), Melvin Hauser (Hauser), Charles Cotton (Cotton) and Vira Kulkovit (Kulkovit) seek to overturn their drug offense convictions on various grounds. Following a jury trial in the United States District Court for the Western District of Pennsylvania, McGlory, Hauser, Cotton and Kulkovit were convicted of conspiring to possess with intent to distribute and to distribute heroin in violation of 21 U.S.C.A. § 846 (West Supp.1991) (Count One). McGlory, Hauser and Cotton were each convicted of possession of heroin with intent to distribute in violation of 21 U.S.C.A. § 841(a)(1), (b)(1)(C) (West 1981 & Supp.1991) (Counts Three, Four, Nine and Ten). Cotton was also convicted of possessing a mixture of heroin and cocaine with intent to distribute (Count Two). McGlory was convicted of being a felon in possession of a firearm in violation of 18 U.S.C.A. § 922(g)(1) (West Supp.1991) (Count Thirteen) and of using a firearm during drug trafficking in violation of 18 U.S.C.A. § 924(c)(1) (West Supp.1991) (Count Fourteen). McGlory and Kulkovit were also each convicted of laundering drug proceeds in violation of 18 U.S.C.A. § 1956(a)(1)(A)(i) (West Supp.1991) and 18 U.S.C.A. § 2 (West 1969) (Counts Fifteen through Twenty-Four). The district court sentenced Kulkovit to a term of imprisonment of 360 months at Count One (conspiracy) and 240 months at Counts Fifteen through Twenty-Four (money laundering) to be served concurrently with each other and with the sentence imposed at Count One. Hauser received concurrent sentences of 300 months at Count One (conspiracy) and 240 months at both Counts Nine and Ten (possession). Cotton received concurrent sentences of 240 months on each count against him. McGlory was sentenced to life imprisonment at Count One (conspiracy) under 21 U.S.C.A. § 841(b)(1)(A)(i) (West Supp.1991) because he had two prior convictions for a felony drug offense. At Count Fourteen (felon in possession of firearms), he received sixty months to be served consecutively with his sentence at Count One. At Counts Four (possession of heroin), Thirteen (use of firearm during drug trafficking) and Fifteen to Twenty-Four (money laundering), he received sentences concurrent with the one at Count One. We will affirm. II. THE ISSUES ON APPEAL Hauser, Cotton and Kulkovit claim that there is insufficient evidence to sustain their conspiracy convictions. All four contest the admissibility of undated notes and scraps of paper seized from McGlory’s trash and his residences. McGlory, Cotton and Kulkovit argue the district court abused its discretion in denying them relief from prejudicial joinder. Hauser and Kul-kovit argue the district court should have granted a mistrial when a government witness invoked the fifth amendment thereby precluding cross-examination. Kulkovit and McGlory argue the district court erred in considering statements at sentencing of the same government witness who was not subject to cross-examination at trial. Independent of each other, Cotton, Kul-kovit and McGlory make additional arguments. Cotton argues that evidence implicating him in crimes not charged should not have been admitted and that evidence improperly seized from his vehicle should have been suppressed. Kulkovit argues there was not substantial evidence sufficient to support his conviction for money laundering and that the affidavit the government filed in support of orders authorizing electronic surveillance did not sufficiently allege the need for electronic surveillance. He also says that the district court abused its discretion both in admitting the testimony of a Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) agent concerning heroin coming from Thailand and the opinions of a handwriting expert about his signature on wire transfer forms. Finally, McGlory argues that his life sentence was not mandated because he only had one, rather than two, predicate prior felonies. III. JURISDICTION The district court had subject matter jurisdiction under 18 U.S.C.A. § 3231 (West 1985). We have jurisdiction over the district court’s final orders of conviction and sentence under 28 U.S.C.A. § 1291 (West Supp.1991). Because appellants raise a multitude of issues, we will set out the standard for review of each issue at or near the beginning of our analysis relating to each issue. IV. FACTS The issues concerning sufficiency of the evidence the various appellants raise are close and difficult. Therefore, we will review the evidence in detail. After two years of investigation by agents of the DEA and the Pittsburgh Police, including personal observation in Pittsburgh, Los An-geles and Thailand, as well as electronic surveillance and searches of McGlory’s garbage in Pittsburgh, the government concluded it had pieced together a major heroin conspiracy involving defendants McGlo-ry, Kulkovit, Cotton, Hauser, Norman Gomez (Gomez) and others. The government’s evidence showed the following chronology of events. On July 14, 1986 and August 28, 1986, McGlory, using the name Timothy Reed, sent $2,000.00 via Western Union from the CheckMart in Pittsburgh to Vira Kulkovit in Los Angeles. On June 16, 1987, McGlo-ry again purchased a money order for $2,000.00 in the name of Timothy Reed and sent it to Kulkovit. Upon his arrest, McGlory acknowledged that he had been using Timothy Reed as an alias. A driver’s license with the alias Timothy Reed had McGlory’s picture on it. A copy of a birth certificate for Timothy Reed and a letter setting out a social security number in the name of Timothy Reed were recovered from McGlory’s trash in May 1989. McGlory, again using the name Reed, made frequent trips to Los Angeles in 1987. Hotel telephone records reveal that while there he made calls to numbers listed in his personal phone book for Kulkovit. During the summer of 1987, Rolland Slade (Slade) began purchasing heroin from McGlory for redistribution. Slade testified concerning several purchases from McGlo-ry. Also in the summer of 1987, Charles Butler (Butler) sold a kilogram of cocaine to Cotton. In succeeding months until Butler’s arrest in September 1988, Cotton bought approximately five to ten ounces of cocaine a week from Butler. Cotton told Butler that he combined the cocaine with heroin and sold it under a tradename he had coined, “Double Dutch.” On December 1, 1987, Detective Mary Causey observed Cotton sell a mixture of heroin and cocaine to an individual she set up to make the purchase. On February 16, 1988, McGlory, still using the name Reed, sent a $2,500.00 money order to Kulkovit in Los Angeles. On March 8, 1988, McGlory was in Los Ange-les and again made calls to a number associated with Kulkovit. On March 21, 1988, government informant Vernon Williams (Williams) made a controlled buy of a gram of heroin from Slade. Slade testified that McGlory, his source, provided the heroin he sold to Williams. Slade was arrested after this transaction and McGlory paid his bail. Slade also testified that on one occasion he saw several bags of heroin in McGlory’s car and, on another occasion, a shoulder bag. McGlory told him the shoulder bag held $100,000.00. McGlory’s telephone books also listed Slade. On April 19, 1988, McGlory, again using the name Timothy Reed, sent yet another $2,500.00 money order to Kulkovit. On May 5,1988, Kulkovit entered Thailand and departed that country on May 19, 1988. Between May 12 and May 15 of 1988, an individual named Prasert Poavalee (Poava-lee) stayed at a hotel in Pittsburgh and made calls to McGlory and K & K Exotic Imports in Los Angeles, an operation associated with Kulkovit. Sometime in July, 1988 the Pittsburgh Police began working with thé DEA to collect garbage from two of McGlory’s known residences at 4267 Bryn Mawr Road and 236 South Negley Avenue in Pittsburgh. They would sort through the trash bags at a nearby dump, identify the bags that contained McGlory’s garbage and keep anything that pertained to him. On July 8, 1988, officers recovered a piece of paper from McGlory’s trash with names and numbers, including BroMel and “lk” and “V2,” on it. See Exhibit 106. One of McGlory’s phone books contained the name “BroMelvin” with Hauser’s number next to it. On August 9, 1988, the police recovered several more pieces of paper from McGlo-ry’s trash. See Exhibits 105, 105A and 105B. One contained a list of seven names, including BroMel and Charley C, with numbers next to them. See Exhibit 105. The government argued to the jury that Charley C stands for Charles Cotton. On August 25, 1988, and September 13, 1988, an individual named Larry Brown sent two money orders for $2,000.00 and $2,500.00 to Kulkovit in Los Angeles. On the money orders McGlory’s Bryn Mawr Road address and phone number were listed beneath Brown’s name. A Western Union employee testified that McGlory had used the name Brown to buy money orders. On September 15, 1988, Detectives Pires and Smith observed a drug deal go down between Cotton and Gregory Tempolski in Cotton’s vehicle. A search of Cotton’s vehicle resulted in the seizure of approximately sixteen grams of heroin and $7,200.00 in cash. On September 26,1988, McGlory traveled to Los Angeles, again under the alias Timothy Reed, and stayed at the Stouffer’s Concourse Hotel. On October 11, 1988, Pittsburgh Police recovered notes from McGlo-ry’s trash with initials and numbers in columns such as BM “5-45-15” and CC “5-50-20” and BroMel 16-146. See Exhibits 103, 103A, 103B, 104, 104A and 104B. Three of the notes were written on Stouf-fer’s notepaper. Agent Rotter, the DEA agent in charge of the investigation, testified that, based on his experience in drug investigations, these notes were “owe sheets” which indicated McGlory’s profit on the sale of approximately thirty-two ounces of heroin. On October 17, 1988, Kulkovit traveled to Pittsburgh and placed calls from his hotel to McGlory’s residences. On October 28, 1988, McGlory, under his alias Timothy Reed, sent a $1,000.00 money order to Kulkovit. On November 8, 1988, Kulkovit traveled to Pittsburgh and made calls from his room to numbers associated with Hauser and McGlory, and to Bangkok, Thailand. An individual named Sutichai Kulkovit travelled to Pittsburgh on November 25,1988 and made calls to McGlory and a number in Bangkok. On November 15, 1988 a piece of paper was recovered from McGlory’s trash with the name “We” and a Bangkok telephone number on it. See Exhibit 136. Other evidence showed that Kul-kovit used the name “We.” On December 13 and 18, 1988, the Pittsburgh Police again recovered papers from McGlory’s trash with names and numbers written on them, such as Mel 10-50. See Exhibits 107 and 108. There was evidence that the numbers indicated the cost of heroin supplied to the named person. On January 17, 1989, $8,800.00 was recovered from McGlory’s trash at 4267 Bryn Mawr Road in a brown paper bag. Although it was not written up in their report, Agents Rotter and Craig testified they recalled that an envelope addressed to McGlory was found in the same trash bag. On December 27, 1988, Kulkovit again entered Thailand. He left that country on January 23, 1989. On January 1,1989, two calls were placed from McGlory’s residence to a Bangkok, Thailand number associated with Kulkovit. A piece of paper with the name “We” and this same number written on it was recovered from McGlory’s trash on January 31, 1989. See Exhibit 137. Kulkovit was registered at a hotel in Pittsburgh from January 26-27, 1989. McGlo-ry’s girlfriend Hefflin was registered at the same hotel as Kulkovit during this time. Surveillance agents observed McGlo-ry’s car parked next to the hotel. On February 9, 1989, McGlory, still using the name Timothy Reed, sent $2,000.00 to Kul-kovit in Los Angeles. On February 21, 1989, Pittsburgh Police recovered a piece of paper from McGlory’s trash which stated “Tell We [Kulkovit] I never called because the newspaper never came in.” See Exhibit 102. On February 28, 1989, a bag containing a wrapper with heroin residue was recovered from the trash in front of 4265 and 4267 Bryn Mawr Road. Dr. Charles Winek, the government’s expert, testified that the package would hold approximately thirty-two ounces of heroin. Agent Rotter testified that the trash bag containing the package with heroin residue also held dog waste wrapped in newspapers. He testified that McGlory had several dogs at the time, but his neighbor at 4265 Bryn Mawr Road had none. A different bag of garbage removed from in front of 4265 and 4267 Bryn Mawr Road that same day contained materials identifying it as coming from McGlory’s neighbor’s house at 4265 Bryn Mawr Road. On March 11, 1989, McGlory wired $1,000.00 to Poavalee. On April 12, 1989, McGlory, as Timothy Reed, wired Kulkovit $3,000.00 via Western Union. The receipt for this transaction was found in McGlory’s garbage on May 1, 1989. Also found in his trash on that day were three pieces of paper. One had various calculations and the figure $1,404,000.00 written on it. See Exhibit 110. Another piece of paper had written on it “7 salesman, 32 plots at 10K per plot.” See Exhibit 100. Two of the seven initials on the paper were BM and CC. App. at 964. Charles Cotton’s initials are CC. Hauser was listed in one of McGlory’s telephone books as BroMelvin. Agent Rotter testified that the notes indicated that McGlory was buying heroin in thirty-two ounce quantities for $6,000.00 an ounce and selling it for $10,000.00. The third piece of paper was a torn deposit slip from McGlory’s bank account with initials and numbers in columns written on it similarly to the other notes found in the trash. See Exhibit 101. On April 22-24, 1989, Thautong, an alleged associate of Kulkovit’s, was registered at the Holiday Inn Greentree in Pittsburgh and made phone calls to McGlo-ry’s residences. An envelope with the name and number of the Holiday Inn written on it was recovered from McGlory’s trash on April 24, 1989. On May 5-8, 1989, Thauthong was again registered at a hotel in Pittsburgh. He made phone calls to McGlory, Los Angeles and Bangkok. Surveillance agents observed Thautong meet with McGlory on May 8, 1989. When he entered McGlory’s residence he was carrying a shoulder bag that appeared to be empty. When he exited it appeared heavier. On May 21-22, 1989, S. Kulkovit was registered at a hotel in Pittsburgh under the name of K & K Exotic Imports. On June 9, 1989, McGlory, yet again using the name Timothy Reed, wired $2,000.00 to Kulkovit in Los Angeles. In Spring of 1989, Robert Harris began buying cocaine and heroin from Cotton. Harris testified that Cotton told him to package the cocaine and heroin in one balloon and sell it as “Double Dutch.” Appendix of Appellant McGlory (App.) at 675, 683. Harris received heroin and cocaine from Cotton on a weekly basis until Harris’ arrest in September 1989. Williams testified that he tried to purchase heroin from Cotton for $2,700.00 in the summer of 1989. Cotton told Williams that he did not sell anything under $3,000.00 and if Williams wanted an eighth of an ounce he should see McGlory. Sometime in May 1989, Williams discussed purchasing heroin with co-defendant Gomez and Gomez told him that the heroin came from out west. Williams bought heroin from Gomez twice in August of 1989. In June 1989, the government obtained a warrant .authorizing wire receptions at MeGlory’s residences at 4267 Bryn Mawr Road and 236 South Negley Avenue. The government recorded telephone calls to and from these residences from June 15, 1989 to August 11, 1989. On June 17, 1989, Kulkovit called a number associated with McGlory but could not reach him. On July 1, 1989, McGlory, using the name Timothy Reed, wired $2,000.00 to Kulkovit. On July 1, 1989, at approximately 7:00 p.m., Hauser called McGlory and McGlory said “I’m getting ready to go out, Man, I’ll bring it by.” Government Appendix (Govt.App.) at 7. Surveillance agents then saw McGlory exit his residence carrying “what appeared to be” two white plastic trash bags, App. at 987, with something rectangular in shape in them. He dropped one of the bags off at Hauser’s residence. Hauser left a message at McGlory’s residence at approximately 10:00 p.m. that evening that “I’m gonna bring those slippers back down to you.” Govt.App. at 8. On July 2, 1989, Hauser told informant Williams he could supply him with heroin but his source was “at a eookout that night.” App. at 265. On the morning of July 3, 1989, Hauser called McGlory and asked him if he sent his “slippers” back to the store yet and that he was going to come over and look at them. Govt.App. at 13. Special Agent lorio observed Hauser meet with McGlory at McGlory’s house. Hauser was carrying a box about six inches by six inches wrapped in brown paper. When he left, he was not carrying the box and was placing something white in his waistband. After Hauser returned home, McGlory called Hauser and asked if “that was 44” and Hauser agreed that.it was. Id. at 14. Later that evening Williams purchased an eighth ounce of heroin from Hauser for $2,000.00. Williams purchased another eighth ounce of heroin from .Hau-ser three weeks later. On July 8, 1989 at 2:00 p.m. McGlory asked Cotton in a recorded conversation if he was ready to meet him at the Crossroads Bar in fifteen minutes. McGlory asked Cotton if he still had some “pizzas” or “pieces” and Cotton replied he was trying to get some now. Id. at 19. Following that conversation Agent Rotter observed McGlory and Cotton meet in the area of the Crossroads Bar. McGlory had left his residence carrying a small gym bag. McGlory got into Cotton’s vehicle carrying a small black paper bag, sat there momentarily and exited the vehicle without the bag. On July 8, 1989, Vira Kulkovit, travelling under the name of W. Bamroonk, arrived in Pittsburgh. He called McGlory and told him his hotel room number. From July 8 to July 9, 1989, Kulkovit made repeated attempts to reach McGlory saying he needed money and had to “go back” tomorrow or he would be in “big trouble.” Id. at 20-32. In the afternoon of July 9, 1989, surveillance agents observed McGlory meet with Kulkovit. Kulkovit exited McGlory’s vehicle carrying a plastic bag. DEA Agent Michael Moore testified that the bag had “jagged edges” and looked like it was filled with stacks of paper. App. at 1130-31. Agent Rotter' testified that the bag appeared full. Kulkovit boarded a plane for Los Angeles that day. Later that evening, McGlory told an unidentified caller that he hadn’t gone out all day because his “moy” or man was there from California. Govt.App. at 35. On July 17,1989, McGlory left a message for Kulkovit at the Thai Town Restaurant in Los Angeles that he would “see him tomorrow.” Id. at 43. Oh July 18, 1989, McGlory called his mother to say that he was going out to California to pick up his money. Id. at 45. That same day he called Kulkovit at the Thai Town Restaurant and said “How about if, a, you take 8 out of that right, and I take care of the guy, that, tell him to bring it, Man, and give him a ‘G’ and, whatever it takes.” Id. at 48. On July 19, 1989, McGlory called Hauser and told him the figure was “19-29-75. Uh, 627, 75, 1000 and 302.” Id. at 50. On July 24, 1989, McGlory called his mother and asked if We called because We owed him “big money.” Id. at 53. On July 25, 1989, McGlory called his mother who told him that a Mrs. Walker had been subpoenaed by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). On this date, the IRS had sent subpoenas to certain individuals seeking information about McGlory’s financial transactions. On July 26, 1989, McGlory called his mother and again indicated that Kulkovit had his money, “my 75,” and he was going to have to go out there. Id. at 58. McGlo-ry spoke with Cotton later that day: [McGlory]: Hey, look. We remodeling the restaurant, right? [Cotton]: Uh huh. [McGlory]: Uh, an we might have, uh, one last, uh, she-bang Man. We have a. party there for the summer. We may have to ... it might take a while to get it back together. [Cotton]: Uh huh. [McGlory]: I wanted to inform you cause, uh, I know you wanted to make sure your party got to eat. [Cotton]: Right. [McGlory]: So, its not good. I got the information for you and whenever you can get out, I can talk to you. Id. at 57-62. On August 2, 1989, McGlory told an unidentified caller that he had problems and “I may never buy no more, man.” The caller responded “But you already got your load” and McGlory reiterated that he had problems. Id. at 63. In August of 1989, Cotton told Harris he would have to cut back on the amount of heroin he had been supplying Harris because Cotton’s supplier was under investigation by the. FBI and had cut back on his supply to Cotton. On August 6, 1989 Hauser called McGlo-ry about meeting and suggested that it might be better to wait until it got dark. Later that evening surveillance agents observed Hauser pick up McGlory and drive a short distance. McGlory was in Hauser’s vehicle for only five minutes and then got out and proceeded on foot. On August 8, 1989, Kulkovit called McGlory and McGlory told him not to say too much on the phone and “that was another phone I called you from.” McGlory told Kulkovit he couldn’t work anymore. They talked about a person “carrying” for McGlory and an “order” that McGlory didn’t need anymore because he was under investigation by the FBI. McGlory then said the following: “Put the shit down in the ice box or something. It ain’t gonna spoil_ It don’t need the paper that bad, Man. They lock your ass up, Man, you don’t believe that....' I’m telling you they know your name. I’m saying you, you file your stuff under, under this gambling acti Man, you just going to have to put aside, tell them that you gave me twenty-five grand to invest for you and I paid it back, Mari, and that’s why I sent the money out there. Two thousand at a time. You don’t have that correlating, Man. They might arrest you while you sitting down there.eating.” Id. at 69. Finally; McGlory said he’d call Kulkovit tomorrow from another phone. Id. On September 8, 1989, the Pittsburgh police and DEA agents seized narcotics paraphernalia containing heroin residue from McGlory’s residence at 4267 Bryn Mawr Road. They also searched the basement which was common to the residences at 4265 and 4267 Bryn Mawr Road. In the basement, they found a metal bowl, spoons, a triple beam scale, playing cards, a sifter and a grinder in a large bag. The bag also contained McGlory’s business card for KYE Enterprises and a business card with initials and numbers written on it similar to those on the notes found in McGlory’s trash. See Exhibits 56 and 57A. The agents also found cash in the amount of $184,515.00 in an attache case which was locked in a room in the basement and a shaving kit containing $4,000.00 at 236 South Negley Avenue. A United States currency validator, a money counting machine, a binder containing an article entitled “Money Laundering. How Crooks Recycle $80 Billion a Year in Dirty Money” and several weapons were also seized from' both residences. Finally, the agents also recovered address books containing phone numbers for Cotton, Hauser and Kulkovit, and several more notes with initials, computations and phone numbers written on them similar to those recovered from earlier searches of McGlory’s trash. See Exhibits 112, 113, 114, 115 and 138. When McGlory was arrested, Agent Rotter wrote down McGlory’s statements in a report. Agent Rotter told McGlory that McGlory was said to be the number one heroin man in Pittsburgh and McGlory replied “that’s what they say.... the ones that know.” App. at 1743. McGlory also discussed his “friend” in Los Angeles, and advised that he had gone to Los Angeles once or twice a month. Id. at 1744, 2169. He indicated that his “friend” was like family to him and he would have to think about cooperating against him. Id. at 227. From the evidence admitted at trial, the jury found that McGlory operated a large heroin distribution business in the Pittsburgh area from about July 1986 to September 1989. The heroin was imported from Thailand to Los Angeles and then brought to Pittsburgh for distribution. Kulkovit was McGlory’s supplier. Defendants Cotton, Hauser and others helped McGlory distribute it. Whether the jury was justified in these findings is the issue before us. V. DISCUSSION Because we review the entire record in addressing a claim of insufficient evidence, regardless of challenges to the admission of some evidence, we consider appellants’ sufficiency argument first. We must reverse a conviction when the evidence is insufficient to support the verdict. United States v. Inigo, 925 F.2d 641, 649 (3d Cir.1991). If we decide the evidence is sufficient, only then do we need to decide whether any of the appellants’ challenges entitle them to a new trial, resentencing or other relief. Cf. Burks v. United States, 437 U.S. 1, 98 S.Ct. 2141, 57 L.Ed.2d 1 (1978) (when reviewing court reverses conviction for insufficiency of evidence, Double Jeopardy clause bars retrial). A. The Sufficiency of the Evidence Hauser, Cotton and Kulkovit, but not McGlory, seek reversal of their conspiracy convictions on the ground that the evidence against them is insufficient to prove their participation in the charged conspiracy. We note at the outset that a “claim of insufficiency of the evidence places a heavy burden on an appellant.” United States v. Gonzalez, 918 F.2d 1129, 1132 (3d Cir.1990) (quotation omitted), cert. denied, - U.S. -, 111 S.Ct. 1015, 112 L.Ed.2d 1097 (1991). Moreover: It is not for [an appellate court] to weigh the evidence or to determine the credibility of witnesses. The verdict of a jury must be sustained if there is substantial evidence, taking the view most favorable to the Government, to support it. United States v. Glasser, 315 U.S. 60, 80, 62 S.Ct. 457, 469, 86 L.Ed. 680 (1942); see United States v. Cooper, 567 F.2d 252, 254 (3d Cir.1977) (“The evidence does not need to be inconsistent with every conclusion save that of guilt if it does establish a case from which the jury can find the defendant guilty beyond a reasonable doubt.”) (quoting United States v. Allard, 240 F.2d 840, 841 (3d Cir.1957)). The government must, however, prove each element of conspiracy beyond a reasonable doubt. Thus, it must establish “a ‘unity of purpose,’ intent to achieve a common goal, and an agreement to work together toward that goal.” United States v. Wexler, 838 F.2d 88, 90-91 (3d Cir.1988); see United States v. American Investors of Pittsburgh, Inc., 879 F.2d 1087, 1100 (3d Cir.), cert. denied, 493 U.S. 955, 110 S.Ct. 368, 107 L.Ed.2d 354 (1989). The government may, nevertheless, prove these elements entirely by circumstantial evidence. United States v. Kapp, 781 F.2d 1008, 1010 (3d Cir.), cert. denied, 479 U.S. 821, 107 S.Ct. 87, 93 L.Ed.2d 40 (1986). In Kapp, we said: [T]he existence of a conspiracy can be inferred “from evidence of related facts and circumstances from which it appears as a reasonable inference, that the activities of the participants ... could not have been carried on except as the result of a preconceived scheme or common understanding.” Id. at 1010 (quoting United States v. Ellis, 595 F.2d 154, 160 (3d Cir.), cert. denied, 444 U.S. 838, 100 S.Ct. 75, 62 L.Ed.2d 49 (1979)). If “any rational trier of fact could have found the essential elements of the crime beyond a reasonable doubt,” the conviction must be upheld. Jackson v. Virginia, 443 U.S. 307, 319, 99 S.Ct. 2781, 2789, 61 L.Ed.2d 560 (1979) (emphasis in original). We examine the record with these general principles in mind. 1. The Evidence Against Hauser A conspiracy is by its very nature clandestine. Thus circumstantial evidence is sometimes the sole support for a conviction. United States v. Martinez, 937 F.2d 299, 304 (7th Cir.1991). Hauser and McGlory were very careful. They spoke on the telephone only briefly and used guarded language. The record shows McGlory often used a cellular phone or made calls from other phones the government could not tap. The government contends there was more than sufficient evidence from which a jury could infer that Hauser was obtaining heroin from McGlory and distributing it on a continuous basis. The government says that given the regularity and continuity of the relationship between McGlory and Hau-ser, and their use of guarded and coded language such as “slippers,” the jury could infer Hauser’s participation in the conspiracy. Hauser contends that out of the “mountain” of reports, surveillance, recordings, transcripts and fingerprints accumulated in over two years of investigating McGlory, the evidence of his involvement with McGlory was minimal. Hauser contends that the only evidence connecting him with McGlory is that they talked on the phone about shoes, Hauser went to McGlo-ry’s house carrying a rectangular box, Hauser’s phone number was in McGlory’s address book and “Bro Mel” was written by an unknown author on undated scraps of paper which, in Agent Rotter’s opinion, were drug records. The following evidence implicates Hau-ser in the conspiracy the government charged. On November 8, 1988, Kulkovit was registered at a hotel in Pittsburgh and made two calls to a number listed to Hau-ser. On July 1,1989, at approximately 7:00 p.m., Hauser called McGlory and McGlory said “I’m getting ready to go out, Man, I’ll bring it by.” Govt.App. at 7. Surveillance agents then saw McGlory exit his residence carrying what appeared to be two white plastic trash bags with something rectangular in shape in them. He dropped one of the packages off at Hauser’s residence. Hauser left a message at McGlory’s residence at approximately 10:00 that evening that “I’m gonna bring those slippers back down to you.” Id. at 8. Williams testified that in the afternoon of July 2, 1989, he arranged to purchase heroin from Hauser. Hauser told Williams to see him later because his source was “at a cookout” that evening. App. at 263-65. On the morning of July 3, 1989 Hauser called McGlory and the conversation was as follows: [Hauser]: Did you send it back to the store yet? [McGlory]: My shoes? [Hauser]: Yeah. Them slippers. [McGlory]: Yeah. [Hauser]: Did you send them back to the store yet? [McGlory]: Oh, no, Man, no. [Hauser]: Still got them? [McGlory]: Uhm uh. [Hauser]: I’m gonna come over and have a look at ’em.... Govt.App. at 13. At approximately 8:00 a.m., surveillance agents observed Hauser arrive at McGlory’s residence carrying a rectangular box wrapped in brown paper. Agent lorio testified that McGlory came to the door, Hauser stepped inside and that Hauser and McGlory met for about five to ten minutes outside of his view. Hauser left the house without the box, stuffing something white into the waistband or pocket of his jogging suit. Hauser returned to his residence at 8:20 a.m. and at 8:36 a.m., he received the following call from McGlory: [McGlory]: Hey, Boss, you, that was 44, right? [Hauser]: Was it 44? [McGlory]: Forty-Four. [Hauser]: Alright. Id. at 14. Officer Hediger testified that he and Agent Rotter sent Williams to buy heroin from Hauser later that day. Hau-ser sold an eighth ounce of heroin to Williams that evening. On July 18, 1989, McGlory called his mother and told her he was going to California. On July 19, 1989, McGlory called Hauser and told him the figure was “19-29-75” and then said the numbers “627, 75, 1000 and 302.” Id. at 50. On July 28, 1989, Williams purchased another eighth ounce of heroin from Hauser. About July 25, 1989, McGlory became aware that he was under investigation. On August 6, 1989, Hauser telephoned McGlo-ry around 6:00 p.m. and Hauser suggested “Hey, man, wouldn’t it be a little better as soon as it gets dark, man? How about that?” Id. at 64. At 9:15 p.m., surveillance agents observed Hauser pick up McGlory. About five minutes later, McGlo-ry got out of the car and proceeded on foot. Notes and scraps of paper seized during searches of McGlory’s known residences and from the trash outside in 1988 and 1989 indicate that McGlory was keeping track of transactions involving large sums of money with an individual named “Bro-Mel” on a regular basis. Agent Rotter testified that in his opinion these notes were records of drug transactions. Government informants Slade and Williams testified that they would use the nicknames “Brother Melvin” “Brother Mel” or “Abdul” in speaking with Hauser. App. at 283, 474. McGlory’s personal phone book contained an entry for “BroMelvin” and a number listed to Hauser. Four of the seized notes characterized as owe sheets used in the drug trade contain the name “BroMel” in a column of names matched with numbers. See Exhibits 104, 105, 106 and 112. One contains the name BroM and another the initials BRM. See Exhibits 109 and 114. Four similar notes contain the initials BM. See Exhibits 100, 103A, 103B and 108. One contains the name Mel. See Exhibit 107. Finally, three notes contain just the initial B or M. See Exhibits 101, 104B and 113. The government’s handwriting expert found “numerous similarities” to McGlory’s handwriting exemplars on four of the notes the government offered as evidence of Hauser’s participation in the conspiracy. The sufficiency question may be close but, from this evidence and all the facts and circumstances of the case, we think Hauser’s knowing participation in the conspiracy to distribute heroin can be inferred. Although Agent Rotter admitted that he and the other agents never broke any “code” between Hauser and McGlory, App. at 187, a reasonable jury could infer that “slippers” was a code word. Although Hauser tells McGlory he is going to come over and look at McGlory’s slippers, he brings to McGlory’s residence a box wrapped in brown paper, leaves without the box and is seen stuffing something white, possibly a bag, into his pocket. McGlory then calls Hauser and says “that was 44, right?” Hauser argues that he and McGlory were discussing shoes. The jury did hear evidence that McGlory, on the same day, placed a call to a shoe dealer he frequented in Los Angeles. Even though there was testimony from Agent Hediger and invoices showing that McGlory had bought shoes from Maurice Tawil of C & E Fashions in Los Angeles, we think that, based on the evidence, the jury could have believed “slippers” meant heroin. In United States v. Theodoropoulos, 866 F.2d 587, 593 (3d Cir.1989), defendant Barrera worked in an electronics store. He challenged the .sufficiency of the evidence of his participation in a drug conspiracy arguing that his recorded conversations with an alleged coconspirator Theodoropou-los related to transactions for television sets and not for cocaine. In the first recorded conversation Theodoropoulos expressed to Barrera his desire to buy a television. In a conversation three days later, Barrera offered to sell a television that was “a little bit over fifteen.” Id. (quotation omitted). In a conversation five days later, Theodoropoulos relayed his client’s displeasure with the quality of the television’s picture, and Barrera said he had better quality televisions available. Id. at 593-94. Barrera’s employer testified that he did not stock- a television that was “a little” over fifteen inches. Id. at 594. An FBI agent trained in cryptanalysis (code breaking) testified that the references to televisions were references to drugs. Id. We held that the Theodoropoulos jury could have concluded that these conversations related to a drug transaction in which Barrera supplied drugs to Theodoropoulos. We said the evidence that on the date of one of the conversations Theodoropoulos was contemporaneously arranging a cocaine sale with a third party and went to Barrera’s place of employment twice that day could also have supported this conclusion. Id. In Hauser’s case, Williams’s request for heroin, Hauser’s visit to McGlory’s house early the next morning, a follow up call that “that was 44,” and Hauser’s sale of heroin to Williams the same day permits a jury rationally to infer that Hauser and McGlory were discussing heroin, not slippers. From this and the other evidence we have recited, the jury could have also inferred that McGlory had supplied the heroin Hauser sold to Williams. Hauser relies on United States v. Stroupe, 538 F.2d 1063 (4th Cir.1976). There the court held that evidence of a co-defendant’s visit to the defendant’s trailer just prior to a drug transaction with government agents was insufficient proof of the defendant’s participation in a conspiracy. In Stroupe, there was no evidence that any drugs were obtained from the defendant’s trailer. Id. at 1065-66. In Hauser’s case, agents observed Hauser leaving McGlory's residence stuffing something white into his pocket and McGlory later called Hauser and said “that was 44, right?” Still, even if he received heroin from McGlory on July 3, 1989, Hauser contends the relationship of buyer and seller, standing alone without any evidence of a prior understanding beyond the mere sales agreement, does not establish a conspiracy. See Kapp, 781 F.2d at 1010; United States v. DeLutis, 722 F.2d 902 (1st Cir.1983) (evidence that defendant was advised by phone that the “stuff” was ready, and then went to the home of a distributor with $5,000.00 insufficient to establish conspiracy); United States v. Tramunti, 513 F.2d 1087, 1112 (2d Cir.) (defendant’s single purchase of heroin from alleged coconspirator and statement that he “wanted to get rolling again” held insufficient evidence of participation in conspiracy), cert. denied, 423 U.S. 832, 96 S.Ct. 54, 55, 46 L.Ed.2d 50 (1975). Here, however, there was evidence beyond a single act connecting Hauser and McGlory to drug trafficking. For example, a jury could believe that the “BroMel,” “BM” and “Mel” listed on the owe sheets referred to Hauser. A jury could also believe, based on Agent Rotter’s testimony, that the notes seized from McGlory’s trash regularly showing large numbers next to Hauser’s nickname demonstrate the relationship between MeGlory and Hauser was more than that of a one-time buyer/seller. United States v. Brown, 584 F.2d 252 (8th Cir.1978), cert. denied, 440 U.S. 910, 99 S.Ct. 1220, 59 L.Ed.2d 458 (1979), another case Hauser relies on, is distinguishable. There, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit considered a sufficiency challenge to evidence against the defendant limited to the following: the defendant was closely associated with those involved in the drug conspiracy; defendant was twice present at or about the time of a drug transaction; the defendant, though unemployed, had a substantial amount of money sewn into his jacket upon his arrest; and the defendant’s first name was written on two pieces of paper found in a co-defendant’s apartment which the case agent described as “drug notes.” Id. at 262-65. The Eighth Circuit held that mere presence at or around the time of a drug transaction and the fact that an unemployed person possesses money were insufficient to establish the defendant’s participation in a conspiracy. Id. at 264. It then held that the scraps of paper alleged to be “drug notes,” standing alone, could not comprise proof of conspiracy beyond a reasonable doubt. Id. at 265. The “drug notes” were found in the residence of an alleged cocon-spirator, but the author and dates written were unknown. The word “blow” and “550” were next to the defendant’s first name on one note and an agent testified that “[b]low is a frequent slang term for cocaine.” Id. Another note had numbers with names behind them, such as Cleo (250), the defendant’s name. A government expert testified that some of the numbers on the notes corresponded to prices of drugs. The court concluded that given the inherent ambiguity of the notes and the agent’s inability to identify some of the markings, the agent’s opinion regarding the meaning of the notes was not sufficiently probative to sustain the conviction. Id. at 265. The notes in the present case are more damning to Hauser than the notes offered against the defendant in Brown. The initials “BM,” Hauser’s nickname, were on a sheet of paper listing “seven salesman.” Agent Rotter interpreted the notations on this piece of paper to indicate seven salesman selling thirty-two ounces of heroin at an average of $10,000.00 per ounce, with a profit of $4,000.00 per ounce. See Exhibit 100. The other notes had similar notations consistent with these heroin prices. Significantly, BroMel, BroM or BM appears again on a list of seven names on three of the other owe sheets, and on a list of from five to ten names on the remainder. The same names or initials are repeated again and again on each list. A reasonable jury could have inferred that ten pieces of paper found in McGlory’s residences or his trash with BroMel, BroM or BM written on them represented drug transactions in which Hauser was involved more heavily than on a one-time sale basis. See United States v. Ramos, 861 F.2d 461, 467 (6th Cir.1988) (recognizing probative value of notes, receipts and telephone numbers found in co-conspirator’s apartment), cert. denied, 489 U.S. 1071, 109 S.Ct. 1353, 103 L.Ed.2d 820 (1989). The jury also had the evidence of Hauser’s two sales of heroin to Williams. Though McGlory’s recorded conversations with his long time friend Hauser were brief and guarded, often containing little more than cryptic numbers such as “44” and “19-29-75,” they provide still other evidence of Hauser’s participation in a drug conspiracy with MeGlory. At a time when MeGlory knew he was under investigation, Hauser suggested they wait until dark before meeting. See United States v. Gambino, 926 F.2d 1355, 1362 (3d Cir.) (timing and circumstances of meeting may be sufficiently suspicious to permit reasonable inference of complicity in conspiracy), cert. denied, - U.S. -, 111 S.Ct. 2800, 115 L.Ed.2d 973 (1991). Finally, even though the government need not prove that each defendant knew all the details, goals or other participants of the conspiracy, Theodoropoulos, 866 F.2d at 593, there were records of calls made from Kulkovit’s Pittsburgh hotel room to numbers associated with Hauser. Although each piece of evidence, taken alone, may not be enough to establish by logical deduction Hauser’s participation in the conspiracy, taking all of it together a reasonable jury could infer “that the activities of the participants ... could , not have been carried on except as the result of a preconceived scheme or common understanding.” Kapp, 781 F.2d at 1010. The owe sheets and guarded conversations between McGlory and Hauser demonstrate the agreement between them. We cannot say that the record “contains no evidence ... from which the jury could find guilt beyond a reasonable doubt.” United States v. McNeill, 887 F.2d 448, 450 (3d Cir.1989) (quoting Brandom v. United States, 431 F.2d 1391, 400 (7th Cir.1970), cert. denied, 400 U.S. 1022, 91 S.Ct. 586, 27 L.Ed.2d 634 (1971)), cert. denied, 493 U.S. 1087, 110 S.Ct. 1152, 107 L.Ed.2d 1055 (1990). Nor can we say that this evidence, in its totality, was not substantial. Hauser did more than “keep[ ] bad company.” See Cooper, 567 F.2d at 255. There was sufficient evidence from which the jury could have concluded that each drug transaction involving Hauser “was a step in achieving the conspiracy’s common goal of distributing [heroin] for profit.” Theodoropoulos, 866 F.2d at 593. 2. The Evidence Against Cotton At trial, the government produced evidence showing that Cotton had developed the concept of selling packets of heroin and cocaine together under the trade name “Double Dutch.” Detective Causey observed him sell such a combination in a controlled buy. Charles Butler testified that he sold cocaine to Cotton in Cotton’s car and that from its trunk Cotton would often obtain large amounts of money to pay Butler. Harris testified about drug transactions in Cotton’s car. Harris also said that Cotton used a beeper to communicate with others and told him never to discuss drug transactions over the telephone because their conversations might be overheard or recorded. Williams testified that Cotton told him that he did not sell heroin for under $3,000.00 and if Williams wanted an eighth ounce he should see McGlory. On September 15, 1988, Detectives Pires and Smith of the Pittsburgh Police observed a drug deal between Cotton and Gregory Tempolski take place in Cotton’s vehicle. A search of Cotton’s vehicle resulted in the seizure of sixteen grams of heroin and $7,200.00 in cash. On July 8, 1989, McGlory and Cotton arranged a meeting by telephone. When McGlory asked Cotton if he still had some “pizzas (pieces),” Cotton replied that he was “trying to get some now.” Govt.App. at 18-19. Surveillance agents observed McGlory enter Cotton’s vehicle carrying a small black paper bag, sit there momentarily, and depart the vehicle without the bag. On or about July 25, 1989, McGlory discovered he was under investigation. On July 28, 1989, McGlory spoke with Cotton and told him “We remodeling the restaurant” and “we might have, uh, one last, uh, she-bang Man. We have a party there for the summer. We may have to ... it might take a while to get it back together.... I wanted to inform you cause, uh, I know you wanted to make sure your party got to eat_ So, it’s not good. I got the information for you and whenever you can get out, I can talk to you.” Id. at 61. Cotton was then selling heroin to Robert Harris on a continual basis. In early August of 1989, Cotton told Harris he would have to cut back on the amount of heroin he was supplying because Cotton’s supplier was under investigation by the FBI and had cut back his supply. The notes seized from McGlory’s trash indicated that he was supplying heroin to an individual by the name of- “Charley C” or “CC” on a regular basis. See Exhibits 100, 101, 103A, 103B, 104A, 105, 105B, 109, 113, 114 and 115. Cotton contends that the name “Charley C” appeared on only one note and at least three other individuals subject to the government’s investigation had the initials “CC”: Cool Charlie, Coxie Cox and Carla Canda. The note containing the name Charley C. also contained six other names and numbers the jury could believe referred to McGlory’s salesmen and his drug profits. See Exhibit 100. As set forth in the discussion of Hauser’s sufficiency challenge, the format of the notes and the names, initials and amounts written thereon were strikingly similar. Even if a jury could not reasonably conclude that “CC” or “Charley C” on the owe sheets referred to Cotton, there remains the evidence of Cotton’s meeting with McGlory and the transfer of the small black bag, the conversation in what appears to be “coded” language of “remodeling the restaurant” just after McGlory discovered he was under investigation, and Cotton’s subsequent cutback of his supply to Harris. The jury could readily find that McGlory was not in the restaurant business at the time this conversation took place. Indeed, there is no evidence McGlory was ever a restaurateur, and this conversation supports an inference that Cotton knew he was “a part of a venture which extend[ed] beyond his individual participation.” See United States v. Prieskorn, 658 F.2d 631, 635 (8th Cir.1981) (quoting United States v. Magnano, 543 F.2d 431, 434 (2d Cir.1976) (citations omitted), cert. denied, 429 U.S. 1091, 97 S.Ct. 1100, 1101, 51 L.Ed.2d 536 (1977)). Finally, with respect to McGlory’s remark that he wanted to assure that Cotton’s party “got to eat,” the jury had heard testimony from Slade that whenever McGlory wanted to meet with him about selling drugs he would ask if Slade was ready to go to “lunch” or “dinner.” App. at 438, 517. Slade said that “it had something to do with eating.” Id. at 517. Viewing the evidence in the light most favorable to the government, we hold there is sufficient evidence of Cotton’s participation in the conspiracy to sustain his conviction. The government need not prove that each defendant knew all the details, goals or other participants of the conspiracy. Theodoropoulos, 866 F.2d at 593. The jury could have inferred the necessary conspiratorial agreement or understanding between McGlory and Cotton from the owe sheets, the recorded conversations about getting “pieces” and “remodeling the restaurant” and the transfer of the black bag. The jury could have also inferred that the numerous drug deals the evidence showed involving Hauser were steps “in achieving the conspiracy’s common goal of distributing [heroin] for profit.” Id. 3. The Evidence Against Kulkovit There is likewise substantial evidence implicating Kulkovit in the conspiracy. There were trips by McGlory to Los Angeles and by Kulkovit and others to Pittsburgh and Thailand, along with the use of aliases and coded language. McGlory, consistently using the alias Timothy Reed over a period of years, was paying Kulkovit in individual installments, usually in even amounts of $2,000.00, each through wire transactions. It is true that Kulkovit was never caught with heroin in his possession. This case is distinguishable, however, from those cases in which this Court has overturned conspiracy convictions because the defendant was not proven to have had knowledge of the illegal objective of the conspiracy. See United States v. Terselich, 885 F.2d 1094, 1096-99 (3d Cir.1989) (no evidence that passenger knew purpose of trip was to transport drugs concealed in hidden compartment of car); United States v. Wexler, 838 F.2d 88, 91-92 (3d Cir.1988) (insufficient evidence to conclude that defendant who acted as lookout for truck knew there were drugs in truck). These cases “are inappo-site because they concern situations where there was no proof that the defendant knew of the existence of the drugs.” United States v. Touby, 909 F.2d 759, 772 (3d Cir.1990) (emphasis added), aff'd on other grounds, Touby v. United States, - U.S. -, 111 S.Ct. 1752, 114 L.Ed.2d 219 (1991); see United States v. American Investors of Pittsburgh, Inc., 879 F.2d 1087, 1102 (3d Cir.) (noting distinction), cert. denied, 493 U.S. 955, 110 S.Ct. 368, 107 L.Ed.2d 354 (1989). It is undisputed that there was overwhelming evidence linking McGlory to heroin trafficking, and he does not contest the sufficiency of the evidence against him. The evidence showed that Kulkovit met with McGlory on numerous occasions, exchanged large sums of money with him, and that the two were clearly involved in some illegal conspiracy, the object of which Kulkovit knew. That McGlory was so heavily engaged in heroin trafficking and so deeply involved in trafficking something with Kulkovit, coupled with the fact that when Kulkovit came to Pittsburgh he called Hauser, a known drug dealer, is sufficient to establish that Kulkovit participated in the heroin conspiracy. Kulkovit’s August 8, 1989 conversation with McGlory is in itself sufficient to lead a reasonable jury to conclude that Kulkovit had knowledge of and voluntarily participated in the conspiracy. McGlory tells Kulkovit “don’t say too much on this phone, see, that was another phone I called you from.” Govt.App. at 66. Kulkovit refers to someone that can “carry” for McGlory and an “order” for McGlory that McGlory says he doesn’t want because he’s “under investigation.” Id. at 67-68. McGlory also tells Kulkovit to “[p]ut the shit down in the ice box or something. It ain’t gonna spoil.” Id. at 68. He also tells him to tell the “feds” that the $2,000.00 wire transfers related to an investment, and that they might arrest him while he’s sitting down there “eating.” Id. at 68-69. The evidence against Kulkovit that he conspired with McGlory to possess and distribute heroin was sufficient to support his conviction. B. Challenges to the Admission of Notes Seized From McGlory’s Residences and his Trash On grounds of authenticity, hearsay, or both, all four defendants object to the admission of the notes and scraps of paper seized from McGlory’s trash and his residences. 1. Authenticity McGlory objected at trial to the introduction of handwritten notes seized from his garbage and residences for lack of authentication because the handwriting expert had insufficient handwriting exemplars to determine the author of some of the writings. The district court, nevertheless, found the notes were properly authenticated. We review the district court’s ruling as to proper authentication for abuse of discretion. In re Japanese Elec. Prod. Antitrust Litig., 723 F.2d 238, 285 (3d Cir.1983), rev’d on other grounds, 475 U.S. 574, 106 S.Ct. 1348, 89 L.Ed.2d 538 (1986). “The admission or exclusion of evidence is a matter particularly suited to the broad discretion of the trial judge.” In re Merritt Logan, Inc., 901 F.2d 349, 359 (3d Cir.1990). Under Federal Rule of Evidence 901 “[t]he requirement of authentication or identification as a condition precedent to admissibility is satisfied by evidence sufficient to support a finding that the matter in question is what its proponent claims.” Fed.R.Evid. 901(a). For authentication or identification pf the notes the government could rely on “[cjomparison by the trier of fact or by expert witnesses with specimens which have been authenticated,” Fed.R.Evid. 901(b)(3), or on “[ajppearance, contents, substance, internal patterns, or other distinctive characteristics, taken in conjunction with circumstances.” Fed.R.Evid. 901(b)(4); see Link v. Mercedes-Benz of North America, 788 F.2d 918, 927 (3d Cir.1986). We stated the standard for authentication based on circumstantial evidence in Link: [T]he showing of authenticity is not on a par with more technical evidentiary rules, such as hearsay exceptions, governing admissibility. Rather, there need be only a prima facie showing, to the court, of authenticity, not a full argument on admissibility. Once a prima fa-cie case is made, the evidence goes to the jury and it is the jury who will ultimately determine the authenticity of the evidence, not the court The only requirement is that there has been substantial evidence from which they could infer that the document was authentic. Link, 788 F.2d at 928 (quoting United States v. Goichman, 547 F.2d 778, 784 (3d Cir.1976)) (emphasis omitted). Viewing the record in its entirety, there was sufficient evidence from which the jury could find that McGlory authored the notes in question despite the government’s inability to establish fully McGlory’s authorship by expert opinion. The evidence showed that the notes were seized from the trash outside of McGlory’s known residences during the course of the charged conspiracy or during the September 9, 1989 search of his residences. Some of the notes from the trash were torn from a notebook found in one of his residences. Some of the notes were contained in the same garbage bag as other identifying information. Some of the notes were written on note paper from hotels at which McGlory stayed during the course of the conspiracy. Although he could not be conclusive, the government’s handwriting expert did testify to numerous similarities between the writing on several of the notes and a handwriting exemplar McGlory had provided. Finally, the notes were similar in form and contained similar amounts as well as initials of persons listed in McGlory’s private phone books known to associate with him. The evidence demonstrated that Exhibits 100 and 110, which were seized -from the trash at 236 South Negley Avenue on May 1, 1989, were torn from government Exhibit 113, a notebook seized from the same property on September 8, 1989. Exhibit 101 is written on a bank deposit slip which corresponds to an account utilized by McGlory. A wire transfer receipt dated April 12,1989 showing the transfer of money from McGlory to Kulkovit was found in the same garbage bag as Exhibits 100 and 101. Exhibit 102 is a piece of notepaper with the message “tell We I never called because the newspaper never came in.” The evidence shows “We” is the appellant Kulkovit. Although the handwriting expert testified that McGlory did not write Exhibit 102, McGlory had his mother take and relay messages between himself and Kulkovit. Exhibits 103, 103A and 103B, recovered from the trash at 4267 Bryn Mawr Road, were written on notepaper from a Stouf-fer’s tablet. McGlory stayed at a Stouf-fer’s hotel on several occasions when he travelled to Los Angeles during the course of the conspiracy. Exhibits 136 and 138 were also written on Stouffer’s note paper. Exhibits 104, 104A and 104B, obtained from the trash at 4267 Bryn Mawr Road, were written on notepaper obtained from the Westin Hotel in Detroit. McGlory stayed at this hotel in July 1988. The handwriting on Exhibits 104 and 104A was identified by the government’s handwriting expert as being similar to McGlory’s. Exhibits 105, 105A and 105B were taken from the trash at 4267 Bryn Mawr Road. The names and initials contained on these three exhibits are similar to those that appear on the exhibits discussed above. The handwriting on Exhibit 105 was identified as being similar to that of McGlory. Exhibit 106 was seized from the trash at 4267 Bryn Mawr Road. The initials on this exhibit are similar to the ones on the exhibits discussed above. Exhibit 107, recovered from the trash at 4267 Bryn Mawr Road, consists of notes written on notepaper taken from Bally’s Hotel in Las Vegas. Other evidence indicates that McGlory made trips to Las Vegas during the relevant time period. The initials in columns on the back of Exhibit 107 are similar to the initials on the other exhibits. A notation on the front of Exhibit 107 refers to “Cellular One.” A bill from Cellular One was found in McGlo-ry’s trash in April 1989. Exhibit 108 is a note recovered from the trash at 4267 Bryn Mawr Road. The initials and notations written on it are similar to the ones that appear on the exhibits discussed previously. Exhibit 109 is a note seized from the trash at 236 South Negley Avenue. The initials written on it are similar to the initials that appear on the other exhibits. The handwriting expert testified that the handwriting on Exhibit 109 is similar to the handwriting exemplar provided by McGlory. Exhibit 111 was also obtained from the trash at 236 South Negley Avenue and contains numbers, initials and notes in the same format as the other notes. Exhibit 112 is a spiral notebook found during the search of 4267 Bryn Mawr Road. Several of the pages in Exhibit 112 contain lists of initials and numbers similar to that found in the other notes. The handwriting expert testified that there were similarities between the handwriting in Exhibit 112 and that of McGlory. Exhibit 113 is a spiral notebook found during the search at 236 South Negley Avenue. Several pages contain columns of names and number