Full opinion text
KEARSE, Circuit Judge: Defendants Gerald Miller, Ronald Tucker, Roy Hale, Waverly Coleman, Harry Hunt, Shannon Jimenez, Raymond Robinson, Wilfredo Arroyo, and David Robinson, appeal from judgments entered in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York after jury trials before Raymond J. Dearie, Judge, convicting them of a host of crimes in connection with their participation in a criminal enterprise engaged in the distribution of narcotics. All nine defendants were convicted of conspiracy to distribute and to possess with intent to distribute cocaine base, in violation of 21 U.S.C. § 846 (1994); all except Jimenez were convicted of conducting the affairs of an enterprise through a pattern of racketeering activity, in violation of the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (“RICO”), 18 U.S.C. § 1962(e) (1994); most were convicted of distributing cocaine base, in violation of 21 U.S.C. §§ 841(a) and 841(b)(1)(A) (1994): Miller (four counts), Tucker (one count), Coleman (three counts), Raymond Robinson (two counts), Arroyo (four counts), and David Robinson (three counts); and three, Hale, Hunt, and Arroyo, were convicted on one count of possession with intent to distribute cocaine, in violation of 21 U.S.C. §§ 841(a)(1) and 841(b)(1)(C) (1994). In addition, Miller was convicted on one count of engaging in a continuing criminal enterprise, in violation of 21 U.S.C. §§ 848(a) and 848(b)(1)(A) (1994), and one count of conducting a financial transaction with proceeds from narcotics transactions, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1956(a)(1)(B) (1994); and Arroyo was convicted on one count of using a facility in interstate commerce to facilitate and promote unlawful activity, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1953(a)(3) (1994). Defendants were sentenced principally to the following terms of imprisonment: Miller to seven concurrent life terms, plus a 20-year term to be served concurrently with his life terms; Tucker to three concurrent 168-month terms; Hale to two concurrent life terms, plus a 20-year term to be served concurrently with his life terms; Coleman to five concurrent 156-month terms; Hunt to two concurrent life terms, plus a 20-year term to be served concurrently with his life terms; Jimenez to one 360-month term; Raymond Robinson to four concurrent 180-month terms; Arroyo to six concurrent life terms, plus one term of five years and one term of 20 years, both to be served concurrently with his life terms; and David Robinson to five 232-month terms, to be served concurrently with a sentence imposed in New York Supreme Court. Each period of imprisonment was to be followed by one or more periods of supervised release, generally five years in length. On appeal, defendants make numerous challenges to their convictions, including challenges to the constitutional and statutory validity of the jury selection plan in effect in the Eastern District of New York at the time of their trial; the government’s use of evidence gathered through wiretaps and pen registers; the district court’s refusals to conduct a Massiah hearing concerning the testimony of a cooperating witness and a Mas-trangelo hearing concerning the admission of hearsay evidence as to statements by homicide victims; the court’s jury instructions and the sufficiency of the evidence with regard to certain aspects of the RICO count; and various other trial and procedural rulings and sentencing calculations. In addition, Miller contends, and the government concedes, that under the Double Jeopardy Clause, he could not properly be convicted of both narcotics conspiracy and engaging in a continuing criminal enterprise. Accordingly, we reverse Miller’s narcotics conspiracy conviction and remand to the district court for dismissal of that charge against him. For the reasons below, we find no basis for reversal in any of defendants’ other arguments, and we therefore affirm the judgments of conviction in all other respects. I. BACKGROUND The present appeals arise out of the prosecution of these defendants in connection with their participation in the activities of a gang known as the “Supreme Team,” whose business was the distribution of cocaine base (“crack”) by means of a RICO enterprise conducted through a campaign of violent enforcement and retribution. The seven defendants other than Coleman and Raymond Robinson were tried together (the “Miller Trial”). Coleman, who was arrested too late to be included in the main trial, and Raymond Robinson, to whose severance motion the government had consented, were tried together (the “Coleman Trial”). At the Miller Trial, the government presented voluminous evidence, including tapes and transcripts of more than 100 wiretapped conversations among Supreme Team members, crime scene photographs, telephone records, fingerprint evidence, photographs of assembled Supreme Team members, firearms and ammunition, narcotics paraphernalia, and assorted documents. Among the government’s approximately 80 witnesses at that trial were former accomplices including Ernesto Piniella, the gang’s “chief of security”; Julio Hernandez, a member of the gang’s security force; Trent Morris, the gang’s primary drug courier; Toni McGee, a gang associate; and Ina McGriff, a corrupt former New York State Parole officer who had sold information to the gang. Scores of federal and state law enforcement officers testified about the discovery of homicide victims killed by the Supreme Team, crime scene analysis, searches, surveillances, and other investigative activities. Much of the physical evidence, surveillance evidence, and testimony by law enforcement agents was also admitted at the Coleman Trial. With respect to that trial, however, the parties agreed that there would be no evidence as to the Supreme Team’s acts of violence, and the only accomplice witness was Trent Morris. Taken in the light most favorable to the government, the government’s evidence revealed the following. A. Gang Structure and Operations The Supreme Team was a street gang organized in the early 1980s in the vicinity of the Baisley Park Houses in Jamaica, Queens, New York, by a group of teenagers who were members of a quasi-religious sect known as the “Five Percenters.” Under the leadership of Kenneth “Supreme” McGriff, with Miller, his nephew, as second-in-command, the gang concentrated its criminal efforts on the widespread distribution of crack cocaine. At its 1987 peak, the Supreme Team’s receipts exceeded $200,000 a day, and the gang regularly committed acts of violence and murder to maintain its stronghold on the area’s drug trade. After McGriff went to jail in 1987, leadership of the Supreme Team was assumed by Miller. Miller solidified his control by increasing the security force and employing it against rivals and against Team members suspected of disloyalty. During 1987 alone, Miller and the then-incarcerated McGriff ordered at least eight homicides. The Supreme Team’s narcotics operations used dozens of employees, including layers of drug sellers to insulate the gang leaders from the street-level activity. Team members communicated in coded language and numerical systems. To thwart law enforcement efforts further, Miller used armed bodyguards and deployed sentinels with two-way radios on rooftops. The sophistication of the gang’s operation enabled it to survive the periodic targeting of various members for prosecution by the New York City Police Department (“NYPD”) and the Queens County District Attorney’s Office (collectively, the “State”). In late 1987, however, while Miller was incarcerated on state charges, a task force of NYPD and Federal Bureau of Investigation (“FBI”) officers executed search warrants on a number of Supreme Team storage locations, drug outlets, and residences. Although the gang was tipped off about the raid shortly before it occurred and was able to remove 11 kilograms of cocaine and $200,-000 from targeted premises, authorities nonetheless seized an array of weapons, narcotics trade hardware, photographs, documents, and instructional manuals on criminal conduct, as well as a kilogram of cocaine and thousands of dollars. Following that raid and his own arrest by federal agents, McGriff ordered that the gang’s operations be shut down. When Miller was released from prison in the spring of 1989, he began to rebuild the Supreme Team and regained control of two of its most lucrative retail locations known as “spots.” The reorganized gang under Miller included Arroyo as the second-in-command, Hunt as Miller’s bodyguard, Ernesto Piniella as head of security, and Hale, Jimenez, and Julio Hernandez as security workers. Tucker and Coleman managed retail spots and supervised crews of workers; long-time gang member David Robinson helped supervise the drug operations and kept records. Raymond Robinson assisted in arranging cocaine purchases, provided security during drug transactions, supervised the processing of cocaine into crack, and delivered crack to sales locations. The Supreme Team began to reclaim its hold on the area drug trade and built its gross receipts up to $10,000 a day. The substantive narcotics distribution charges against the present defendants focused on the period from December 1989 to March 1990, during which the State was monitoring the gang’s activity with wiretaps. During that period, the Supreme Team conducted its business in the Baisley Park apartment of David Robinson’s mother. Tucker, Coleman, and David Robinson would deliver to the apartment the moneys received at the retail spots they supervised; Miller and the Team’s primary drug courier Trent Morris would negotiate cocaine deals by telephone with William Graham, a supplier who had Colombian connections; and Morris and Raymond Robinson would then drive to Graham’s apartment with money to purchase kilogram-quantities of cocaine. The cocaine would be brought back to the Robinson apartment, where it was processed as crack, packaged, and given to Arroyo, David Robinson, Tucker, or Coleman, who in turn arranged for its sale by street-level employees. The gang also resumed its use of violence and homicide. The government presented evidence at trial, not all of which resulted in convictions, of homicides committed both pri- or to the Supreme Team’s 1987 shut-down and after its 1989 renascence. 1. The Bolden and Page Murders In 1987, the Supreme Team was allied with another drug gang, led by Lorenzo (“Fat Cat”) Nichols, that supplied the Supreme Team with powder cocaine. Nichols suspected two men, Henry and Isaac Bolden, of robbing Nichols’s organization. While Nichols was incarcerated, he sought Miller’s assistance in locating the Boldens so that Nichols’s crew members could kill them. To obtain that information, Miller sought the help of two corrupt New York State Parole Division employees, Parole Officer Ina McGriff (not related to Kenneth McGriff) and secretary Ronnie Younger. Ina McGriff was responsible for supervising the parole of Supreme Team security chief Ernesto Piniella but had become romantically involved with him; Younger had become romantically involved with Miller. The Team regularly paid both women for corrupt assistance. For example, McGriff falsely certified that Piniella was in compliance with parole requirements; she and Younger provided the gang leaders with information from their parole files, false identification documents, and information about the whereabouts of other parolees; and McGriff, who as a Parole Officer carried a gun, supplied Supreme Team members with ammunition. Piniella and Ina McGriff testified that Miller paid the two women $3,000 for the addresses for the two Boldens and their families. Handwritten notes of such addresses were recovered in a raid of a Supreme Team apartment; the notes were written in part by Younger, according to a handwriting expert’s testimony, and in part by Ina McGriff, according to her own testimony. The notes provided Henry Bolden’s address in the Bronx, where, thereafter, he was shot; and they provided Isaac Bolden’s mother’s address, in the immediate vicinity of which he was thereafter shot and killed. In 1987, Ina McGriff also gave Piniella copies of Parole Division documents indicating that Supreme Team member James Page was cooperating with authorities. Upon receiving that information, Kenneth McGriff, who had just been arrested on federal charges, ordered that Page be killed; Piniel-la subsequently arranged Page’s murder. 2. The Murders of Gus Rivera and Four Unidentified Suppliers Gus Rivera was a Supreme Team member who had introduced the gang’s leaders to some of its Colombian suppliers. According to the trial testimony, four of these Colombian drug traffickers were robbed of their cocaine and brutally murdered in July 1989 by Miller, Arroyo, Hale, Hunt, and Jimenez. However, other than the testimony that two of these men were known as “Fernando” and “George,” the government was unable to present evidence as to their identities, and their bodies were never identified. The jury found that these murders, alleged as RICO predicate acts, were not proven beyond a reasonable doubt. In the wake of these murders, the gang decided that Rivera was more of a liability than an asset. Accordingly, in August 1989, Arroyo arranged for him to be killed. Rivera was shot in the head in a Baisley Park courtyard, but he survived and hid from the gang, temporarily. Arroyo learned Rivera’s whereabouts from Rivera’s girlfriend by threatening to kill her. Arroyo and Hale proceeded to track Rivera to a Queens motel room, where they shot him to death. 3. The Suarez-Perlaza Murders Fernando Suarez and Pablo Perlaza were also Columbian suppliers to the Supreme Team. In the summer of 1989, the Team decided to steal these suppliers’ cocaine rather than buy it. Accordingly, in August 1989, when Suarez and Perlaza arrived at Hale’s Baisley Park apartment, they were held at gunpoint by Julio Hernandez while Arroyo and Hale bound them with tape. Supreme Team members then tied the suppliers’ heads in plastic bags. While Suarez and Perlaza were suffocating, Hale beat their heads with a baseball bat. Thereafter, Hunt was called upon to help dispose of the bodies. After he arrived, the bodies were loaded into a car and dumped in separate locations in Queens. Later, knowing that her husband had gone to meet Arroyo before disappearing, Suarez’s wife telephoned Arroyo, who told her that Suarez was supposed to have met him but never arrived. B. The Present Prosecution In March 1990, after lengthy investigations, several members of the Supreme Team were arrested by State authorities and were charged with offenses similar to those at issue here. After certain pretrial motions were decided adversely to the State, see Part II.B.2. below, the State indictments were dismissed. In anticipation of those decisions, the State turned its evidence over to the United States, which brought the present prosecution. In a 14r-count superseding indictment, the government charged all of the defendants with conducting the affairs of the Supreme Team through a pattern of racketeering, based in part on some of the acts of racketeering described above, in violation of RICO, 18 U.S.C. § 1962(c), and with conspiring to distribute and to possess with intent to distribute cocaine base, in violation of 21 U.S.C. § 846. All but Hunt were charged with one or more counts of distributing cocaine base at various times, in violation of 21 U.S.C. §§ 841(a) and 841(b)(1)(A); and Miller, Arroyo, Hale, Tucker, Hunt, and Jimenez were charged with one or more counts of possession with intent to distribute cocaine, in violation of 21 U.S.C. §§ 841(a)(1) and 841(b)(1)(C). In addition, Miller was charged with one count of engaging in a continuing criminal enterprise, in violation of 21 U.S.C. § 848, one count of threatening violence in connection with his position in a racketeering organization, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1959, and two counts of conducting financial transactions with proceeds of narcotics transactions, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1956(a)(1)(B); Miller and Coleman were charged with one count of distributing cocaine base within 1,000 feet of a public school, in violation of 21 U.S.C. § 841(a)(1); and Arroyo was charged with one count of using a telephone in interstate commerce to facilitate and promote the unlawful activities of the Supreme Team, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1953(a)(3) (1994). Defendants made various unsuccessful pretrial motions, including challenges to the jury selection system, see Part II.A. below; motions to suppress pen register and wiretap evidence that had been gathered by the State, see Parts II.B.l. and 2. below; motions to exclude testimony by Julio Hernandez on the ground that his continued association with defendants after he had begun to cooperate with the government violated defendants’ Sixth Amendment rights to counsel, see Part II.C. below; and motions to exclude the testimony of the widow of homicide victim Fernando Suarez as to statements Suarez had made to her prior to his murder, see Part II.D. below. Following disposition of the pretrial motions, and the dismissal of two counts (ie., one of the financial transaction counts against Miller and the distribution-near-a-sehool count against Miller and Coleman), the two trials were held, and the evidence included that described above. At the Miller Trial, Miller was acquitted on the possession count and the count of threatening violence; he was convicted on all of the other counts on which he was tried. Tucker was convicted on the RICO and narcotics conspiracy counts and on one distribution count; he was acquitted on all of the other counts against him. Hale was convicted on the RICO and narcotics conspiracy counts and on one possession count; he was acquitted on all of the other counts against him. Hunt and Arroyo were each acquitted on one count of possession, and they were convicted on all of the other counts against them. David Robinson was convicted on all of the counts against him. The jury found Jimenez not guilty on the possession count but guilty on all other counts against him; the district court subsequently granted Jimenez’s Rule 29 motion and entered judgments of acquittal for him on the RICO count and the distribution count, leaving him convicted only of narcotics conspiracy. At their separate trial, Coleman and Raymond Robinson were each acquitted on one distribution count. They were convicted on all of the other counts on which they were tried. Appellants were sentenced as indicated above, and these appeals followed. II. DISCUSSION On appeal, defendants make numerous challenges to their convictions, each joining in the contentions advanced by others, to the extent that those contentions are applicable to him. They contend principally (1) that the jury selection plan in effect in the Eastern District of New York at the time of their trial violated their statutory and constitutional rights; (2) that the district court erred in rejecting, without conducting evidentiary hearings, their contentions that (a) the State pen registers and wiretaps used to gather evidence were unlawful, (b) their Sixth Amendment rights would be violated by the receipt at trial of testimony from a cooperating witness, and (c) their Confrontation Clause rights would be violated by the introduction of hearsay evidence as to statements attributed to homicide victims; and (3) that the district court’s instructions to the jury with respect to the RICO count were erroneous. In addition, Hunt contends that the district court impermissibly allowed the government to amend the indictment to restore a count against him. Miller challenges his RICO conviction on the grounds that it was based on an improper legal predicate and that, in any event, the evidence was not sufficient to establish that predicate; and he contends that his conviction of both narcotics conspiracy and continuing criminal enterprise violated his rights under the Double Jeopardy Clause. Defendants also make a variety of other challenges to the district court’s pretrial decisions on suppression and procedural motions, to certain evidentiary rulings at trial, and to certain determinations affecting their sentences. Although we agree that there were flaws in some of the proceedings, we conclude, for the reasons that follow, that only Miller’s double jeopardy contention merits relief. A. Contentions with Respect to Jury Selection The Eastern District of New York comprises five counties. Three, Queens, Kings, and Richmond are part of New York City (collectively the “New York City counties”); the' other two counties are Nassau and Suffolk (collectively the “Long Island counties”). At the time defendants were tried, the jury selection plan for the Eastern District (the “Eastern District Plan” or “Plan”) provided for a master jury wheel that included residents of all five counties for trials held in the District’s courthouse in Brooklyn, and provided for a separate master jury wheel that included residents of only the Long Island counties for trials in the District’s courthouse in Uniondale, Long Island. See In re Jury Plan of the Eastern District of New York, 27 F.3d 9, 9-10 (2d Cir. Judicial Council 1994) (outlining history of the Eastern District’s jury selection plans). Defendants’ trial was held in Brooklyn, and, in accordance with the Plan, the venire-persons summoned were selected at random from voter registration lists and licensed driver lists in the five counties. Defendants, pointing out that the Long Island counties have a relatively higher white population and the New York City counties have a relatively higher minority population, and arguing that jurors should have been summoned from census lists, contend that the Eastern District Plan (a) violated the requirements of the Jury Selection and Service Act, 28 U.S.C. § 1861 et seq. (1994) (“JSSA” or the “Act”), (b) resulted in a disproportionate underrep-resentation of minorities, in violation of their rights under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fifth Amendment, and (c) violated the fair-cross-section requirement of the Sixth Amendment. These contentions have no merit. 1. The Statutory Challenge The JSSA requires each federal judicial district to have a plan for random selection of jurors that reflects the policy that jurors are to be “selected at random from a fair cross section of the community in the district or division wherein the court convenes,” 28 U.S.C. § 1861, and that no person is to be excluded from service as a juror for any invidious reason, see id. § 1862. See id. § 1863(a). The plan must provide procedures designed to “ensure that each county, parish, or similar political subdivision within the district or division is substantially proportionally represented in the master jury wheel.” Id. § 1863(b)(3). The JSSA’s “aim is to assure all litigants that potential jurors will be selected at random from a representative cross section of the community and that all qualified citizens will have the opportunity to be considered for jury service.” H.R.Rep. No. 90-1076 (1968) (“House Report”), reprinted in 1968 U.S.C.C.A.N. 1792, 1792. The Act provides that [f]or the purposes of determining proportional representation in the master jury wheel, either the number of actual voters at the last general election in each county, parish, or similar political subdivision, or the number of registered voters if registration of voters is uniformly required throughout the district or division, may be used. 28 U.S.C. § 1863(b)(3). It also provides that the plan is to “prescribe some other source or sources of names in addition to voter lists where necessary to foster the policy and protect the rights secured by sections 1861 and 1862 of this title.” Id. § 1863(b)(2). The legislative history explains that the statute expresses a preference for the use of voter registration lists because “[tjhese lists provide the widest community cross section of any list readily available,” whereas “[c]en-sus data quickly become out of date and are not suitable.” House Report, reprinted in 1968 U.S.C.C.A.N. at 1794. Once the master wheel is established in this manner, random selection “virtually eliminates the possibility of impermissible discrimination and arbitrariness at all stages of the jury selection process, and thereby tends to insure that the jury list will be drawn from a cross section of the community.” Id., reprinted in 1968 U.S.C.C.A.N. at 1794. The statute requires only that each county’s representation in the master jury wheel be “substantially” proportionate to the county’s portion of the population of the district as a whole. See 28 U.S.C. § 1863(b)(3). By imposing these requirements for the composition of a master jury wheel, Congress did “not [mean to] require that at any stage beyond the initial source list[,] the selection process shall produce groups that accurately mirror community makeup.” House Report, reprinted in 1968 U.S.C.C.A.N. at 1794. In order to prevail on a JSSA challenge, a defendant must show a “substantial failure” in proportional representation. See 28 U.S.C. § 1867(a). “Mere technical violations of the procedures prescribed by the Act do not constitute substantial failure to comply with its provisions.” United States v. LaChance, 788 F.2d 856, 870 (2d Cir.) (internal quotation marks omitted), cert. denied, 479 U.S. 883, 107 S.Ct. 271, 93 L.Ed.2d 248 (1986). To establish a violation based on group underrepresentation, a defendant must show not only that the representation of a distinctive group in the community is not fair and reasonable in relation to the number of such persons in the community, but also that that underrepresentation is the result of systematic exclusion. See, e.g., United States v. Rioux, 97 F.3d 648, 654, 660 (2d Cir.1996). Although “it remains unclear whether statistics alone can prove systematic exclusion,” id. at 658, we have cautioned that “[e]ven if they can, however, they would have to be of an overwhelmingly convincing nature,” id. (citing Duren v. Missouri, 439 U.S. 357, 366, 99 S.Ct. 664, 669, 58 L.Ed.2d 579 (1979) (disapproving plan in which women, 54% of the population, constituted less than 15% of the jury venires)). Defendants in the present case challenged the Eastern District Plan as violating the JSSA on the principal grounds that since jurors for the Long Island division were-summoned only from the Long Island counties, it was improper not to limit jurors for Brooklyn trials solely to residents of the New York City counties; and that, even if it were permissible to include Long Island residents in the master wheel for Brooklyn juries, the Plan produced a master wheel for trials in Brooklyn that did not contain a fair cross-section of the community because Long Island residents were overrepresented and minorities underrepresented. The district court properly rejected these contentions because defendants did not show either a systematic exclusion of minorities or a substantial failure to comply with the Act’s requirements. The Eastern District Plan called for a source list for each of the five counties, compiled from both voter registration lists and motor vehicle records. The District’s jury administrator testified that the source lists were compiled every four years. The administrator culled a master jury wheel from those fists by starting at a random point on each fist and selecting every one-hundredth name thereafter. This procedure resulted in a wheel whose contents correlated with the number of potential jurors on the source fist for each county and thereby provided the appropriate balance of jurors of the several counties. The 1988 combined source fist, in use at the time of trial, contained 6,438,689 names. From that source list, 378,511 names were selected for a master jury wheel. Twice a year, questionnaires were sent out to between 10,000 and 15,000 persons drawn at random from the master jury wheel. Of that group, approximately one-quarter were found to be qualified for jury duty and, without regard to ethnicity or county residence, were placed on the qualified jury panel. From that group, prospective jurors were summoned at random for service. Defendants did not show that members of any ethnic group had been hindered in their attempts to register to vote or to obtain driver licenses, and did not show any other kind of systematic exclusion of ethnic minorities. Nor did defendants undertake an adequate statistical examination in an effort to demonstrate underrepresentation; they rely on the juror questionnaires for the panels during only a two-month period. Although the questionnaires for those months did request ethnic data, the question was labeled “optional” and more than a quarter of the jurors refused to answer it. Defendants attempted to remedy this shortcoming by inferring from each questionnaire the citizen’s “probable ethnic background” based on address, religion, occupation, and other lifestyle data, including magazine subscriptions, and then comparing the resulting statistical profiles to the census data for residents of the district. The census, however, which counts, inter alios, resident aliens as well as citizens, and children as well as adults, does not accurately reflect the pool of qualified jurors. The district court properly declined to employ these speculative ethnic background figures in weighing the constitutionality of a jury selection plan, and it properly concluded that defendants did not make a sufficient showing of group underrepresentation. Defendants also contend that they were hampered in making the necessary showing because they were improperly denied discovery. Though a defendant plainly has a right to discovery, see, e.g., Test v. United States, 420 U.S. 28, 30, 95 S.Ct. 749, 750, 42 L.Ed.2d 786 (1975) (per curiam), we see no improper curtailment of that right in the present case. The JSSA disclosure section provides, in pertinent part, that “[t]he contents of records or papers used by the jury commission or clerk in connection with the jury selection process shall not be disclosed, except ... as may be necessary in the preparation or presentation of a motion” challenging the district’s jury selection procedures. 28 U.S.C. § 1867(f). To the extent necessary with respect to such a motion, a defendant may “inspect, reproduce, and copy such records or papers.” Id. These provisions, revolving around records and papers that are or were “used” by the administrators in the jury selection process, plainly give a defendant access only to records and papers already in existence. We see nothing that entitles defendants to require the jury administrator to analyze data on their behalf. Cf. United States v. Rioux, 97 F.3d at 658 (defendant’s failure to show that undeliverable questionnaires went to blacks or Hispanics was decisive despite clerk’s lack of analysis of such data because the defendant “had unrestricted access to all the envelopes returned as undelivered” and “could have compiled his own list”). Here, the district court permitted defendants to take testimony of the jury administrator and to receive geographic breakdowns. The court denied, however, defendants’ request to require the administrator to calculate the ethnic breakdown of jury panels in the Eastern District during a 14-month period, which would have required substantial work by the administrator’s office. The administrator explained: [a]s far as the ethnicity, that would require several hours of work because we do have to check an index for where each person, qualification questionnaire is located and then within a particular batch of the questionnaires we have to shuffle through, find a given individual’s questionnaire. (Transcript of Jury Selection at 428.) After hearing this testimony, the court concluded that defendants would be allowed to take testimony from the jury administrator and to examine the juror questionnaires themselves, but that it was inappropriate to require “court personnel to research manually thousands of responses.” (Id. at 434-35.) After further discussion, during which the district court considered permitting discovery beyond that required by the statute, the court adhered to its decision. The court’s considered denial of defense requests for disclosures that were not required by the statute and that the court deemed infeasible or irrelevant was not an abuse of discretion. 2. The Constitutional Challenges Defendants contend that the Eastern District Plan, even if in compliance with the JSSA, produced an ethnic disparity in the jury wheel that violated their rights under the Fifth and Sixth Amendments. These contentions have no merit. “To succeed on a Fifth Amendment equal protection challenge to a criminal jury selection system, the defendant must establish that (1) there is a cognizable group, (2) that is substantially underrepresented by reason of (3) a selection procedure that is not racially neutral, i.e., is the result of intentional discrimination by the District.” United States v. Rioux, 97 F.3d at 659. Absent intentional discrimination, a jury selection plan does not violate the Equal Protection Clause. See id. Defendants presented no evidence whatever of any intentional discrimination. “[AJbsent positive evidence that some groups have been hindered in attempting to register to vote, a jury venire drawn from voter registration lists violates neither the Sixth Amendment’s fair cross-section requirement nor the Fifth Amendment’s guarantee of Equal Protection.” Schanbarger v. Macy, 77 F.3d 1424, 1424 (2d Cir.1996) (per curiam); see also United States v. Biaggi, 909 F.2d 662, 676-78 (2d Cir.1990) (upholding jury plan using voter registration lists despite underrepresentation of minority groups in the master jury wheel of the Manhattan courthouse for the Southern District of New York, where there was no showing that registration by minorities had been hindered), cert. denied, 499 U.S. 904, 111 S.Ct. 1102, 113 L.Ed.2d 213 (1991). The Sixth Amendment guarantees an accused “an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed.” U.S. Const., amend. VI. Defendants’ challenge to the inclusion of residents of the Long Island counties in the master wheel for Brooklyn trials carries no Sixth Amendment implications. That Amendment’s guarantees of an impartial jury “of the State and district” in which the crime was committed does not require a narrower geographical focus than the district itself. Cf. United States v. Bahna, 68 F.3d 19, 24 (2d Cir.1995) (rejecting challenges under JSSA and the Constitution to separate jury wheel for the Long Island counties), cert. denied, - U.S. -, 116 S.Ct. 1682, 134 L.Ed.2d 784 (1996). Further, the Sixth Amendment’s fair-cross-section provision guarantees “the opportunity for a representative jury venire, not a representative venire itself.” United States v. Jackman, 46 F.3d 1240, 1244 (2d Cir.1995) (emphasis in original). In order to establish a violation of the Amendment based on group underrepresentation, a defendant need not prove intentional discrimination, but he must show (1) that the group alleged to be excluded is a “distinctive” group in the community; (2) that the representation of this group in venires from which juries are selected is not fair and reasonable in relation to the number of such persons in the community; and (3) that this underrepresentation is due to systematic exclusion of the group in the jury-selection process. Duren v. Missouri, 439 U.S. at 364, 99 S.Ct. at 668. These requirements mirror those for proof of a violation of the JSSA. See United States v. Rioux, 97 F.3d at 660. As discussed above, defendants did not show any systematic exclusion of minorities in the Eastern District jury-selection process. B. Challenges to the Wiretap Evidence Gathered by the State The evidence at the Miller and Coleman trials included more than 100 taped conversations among Supreme Team members. Defendants challenge the admission of these tapes on the principal grounds that warrants permitting the interception of these conversations (1) were issued partly on the basis of information obtained through the use of pen registers for which the State had not obtained court authorization, and (2) were otherwise improperly granted. Defendants also contend that the evidence should have been suppressed in the present case because it was suppressed in state-court prosecutions. 1. The Use of Pen Registers During the investigation of the Supreme Team by State authorities, pen registers were used on telephones at the apartments of Supreme Team members or their relatives to identify the numbers dialed from those locations. Information thus gained was included in applications by the State for warrants permitting wiretaps. At a pretrial hearing during the State prosecution, an Assistant District Attorney (“ADA”) indicated that the registers used were likely of a new type that would have been capable, with minor alterations, of intercepting the contents of the telephone calls. The ADA stated, however, that the pen registers were not used to intercept contents. Thereafter, while proceedings in the present prosecution were ongoing in the district court, the New York Court of Appeals decided People v. Bialostok, 80 N.Y.2d 738, 745, 594 N.Y.S.2d 701, 705, 610 N.E.2d 374 (1993), in which that court noted that although a traditional pen register recorded only the telephone numbers dialed and was incapable of intercepting the contents of the communications, the model at issue before it needed only the attachment of an audio cable, a tape recorder, and a wire to enable the interception of such contents. Although those modifications were not made until after a warrant was acquired, the court concluded that the ease of modification jeopardized the privacy of participants to wire communications and that a warrant should have been obtained prior to use of even the unmodified pen register. In the present ease, relying chiefly on Bialostok, defendants contend that the district court should have held a hearing to determine whether the pen registers used in investigating the Supreme Team had the capability of intercepting the contents of the communications. They argue that if the pen registers employed had that capability, the State’s use of those devices did not conform to the requirements of State law; they contend that any resulting evidence should have been suppressed because under § 2516(2) of Title III of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Street Act, 18 U.S.C. § 2510-2521 (1994) (“Title III”), orders by a state court authorizing the interception of wire communications are required to be “in conformity with [18 U.S.C.] section 2518 ... and with the applicable State statute.” 18 U.S.C. § 2516(2) (emphasis added). In so arguing, defendants also rely on dicta in three cases in which we considered conflicting state and federal wiretap standards: United States v. Manfredi, 488 F.2d 588 (2d Cir.1973), cert. denied, 417 U.S. 936, 94 S.Ct. 2651, 41 L.Ed.2d 240 (1974); United States v. Rizzo, 491 F.2d 215 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, 416 U.S. 990, 94 S.Ct. 2399, 40 L.Ed.2d 769 (1974); and United States v. Marion, 535 F.2d 697 (2d Cir.1976). That trio of cases culminated in the following dictum: “If a state should set forth procedures more exacting than those of the federal statute ... the validity of the interceptions and the orders of authorization by which they were made would have to comply with that test as well.” Id. at 702 (emphasis in original). We have several difficulties with defendants’ arguments. First, Title III does not apply to pen registers performing their routine functions of merely recording the numbers to and from which calls are dialed. Title III generally prohibits the intentional interception of wire communications, including telephone conversations, in the absence of authorization by court order. See 18 U.S.C. §§ 2511, 2516-2518. “[I]ntercept[ion]” is defined as “the aural or other acquisition of the contents of any wire, electronic, or oral communication through the use of any electronic, mechanical, or other device.” Id. § 2510(4) (emphasis added). A pen register used merely to record the numbers dialed does not intercept the contents of a communication. Accordingly, Title III does not require law enforcement authorities to obtain court authorization for the installation of a pen register. See Smith v. Maryland, 442 U.S. 735, 739-46, 99 S.Ct. 2577, 2579-83, 61 L.Ed.2d 220 (1979). Although the Smith Court dealt only with traditional models of pen register, we view its holding as applying also to models that have not been altered so as to enable interception of a wire communication’s contents. Title III guards against actual infringements of privacy, not purely hypothetical ones. Accord United States v. Veksler, 62 F.3d 544, 549 (3rd Cir.1995) (“mere suggestion that pen register equipment is now capable of misuse does not give us a basis to depart from the controlling precedent of the Smith case”), cert. denied, - U.S.-, 116 S.Ct. 780, 133 L.Ed.2d 731 (1996). We conclude that § 2516(2)’s reference to compliance with state law for wiretap authorizations was not applicable to the pen registers employed here and that that section provided no basis for requiring the district court to hold a hearing to determine whether those pen registers, though not capable in the form used of intercepting the contents of wire communications, were capable of being modified to enable such interception. Second, even if Title III were applicable, defendants’ reliance on the Manfredi-Rizzo-Marion trilogy would be unavailing for several reasons. To begin "with, the dicta in those cases have never been applied to exclude evidence. This Court noted in United States v. Sotomayor, 592 F.2d 1219 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, 442 U.S. 919, 99 S.Ct. 2842, 61 L.Ed.2d 286 (1979), that even if given wiretap evidence would not be admissible in a New York State court, we did not consider Manfredi and its progeny to obligate us automatically to apply in a federal proceeding all provisions of a state wiretap statute containing more stringent requirements than those prescribed by Title III. We believe that at most Manfredi requires us, in determining whether to admit a wiretap obtained by a state officer acting under a state court order issued pursuant to a state statute, to apply only those more stringent state statutory requirements or standards that are designed to protect an individual’s right of privacy, as distinguished from procedural rules that are essentially evidentiary in character. Id. at 1225. Moreover, even the interpretive dicta of Sotomayor, suggesting that a state’s more stringent statutory requirements might be applied in a federal prosecution if those requirements were more substantive than procedural, have never been applied to bar the introduction of wiretap evidence. Cf. United States v. Rowell, 903 F.2d 899, 902-03 (2d Cir.1990) (criticizing the reasoning of So-tomayor, applying federal standards for probable cause to a state-issued wiretap warrant, and affirming denial of suppression motion); United States v. Workman, 80 F.3d 688, 695 n. 4 (2d Cir.) (noting that Sotomayor is “somewhat at odds with our holdings in more recent cases”), cert. denied, - U.S. -, 117 S.Ct. 319, 136 L.Ed.2d 233 (1996). Further, we have refused to apply retroactively state decisions announcing a more restrictive interpretation of state wiretap law to evidence obtained by state officers acting in good faith based on existing interpretations of state law if doing so were contrary to the interests of justice. In United States v. Aiello, 771 F.2d 621 (2d Cir.1985), for example, we declined to suppress a state-authorized wiretap for failure to comply with timing requirements governing extension applications, even though two state decisions issued since the time of the wiretap had indicated that the relevant statute was designed to protect privacy interests. We held instead that “when the state officer ... relies in good faith on pre-existing less stringent state court interpretations, we will not apply new interpretations retroactively, at least when to do so would not serve the interests of justice.” Id. at 627. In United States v. Spadaccino, 800 F.2d 292 (2d Cir.1986), we again applied this “good faith” exception where there had been no prior “authoritative state court interpretation.” Id. at 297. Here, defendants rely on the New York Court of Appeals decision in Bialostok, which was handed down well after the state had completed its use of the pen registers in this case. There is no claim that the state officers who employed the pen registers violated then-existing state law, nor any basis on which to infer a need for a hearing into their good faith. Finally, we note that even suppression of the fruits of the pen registers would not require suppression of the evidence obtained in the wiretaps. See generally United States v. Nanni, 59 F.3d 1425, 1433 (2d Cir.) (wiretap authorization will not be invalidated if flawed information in the application was so inconsequential that warrant would have been issued without that information), cert. denied, - U.S. -, 116 S.Ct. 576, 133 L.Ed.2d 499 (1995); People v. Bialostok, 594 N.Y.S.2d at 705, 610 N.E.2d 374 (erroneous use of pen register data in wiretap application was harmless where “other evidence supporting the application ... provided ... probable cause”). In the present case, the police relied on several other acceptable sources to show probable cause for authorization of the wiretaps, including the debriefings of multiple informants, surveillance of gang members, and permissibly intercepted telephone calls made from prisons. Thus, even if we were to conclude that the district court erred in not ruling that a warrant was required for the use of the pen registers in this case, we would conclude that that error was harmless. 2. Wiretap Evidence Gathered by the State In August 1989, State agents installed a pen register on the home telephone of Polly Douglas, the mother of Jimenez. The register indicated that the telephone was used to place many calls to telephones where Supreme Team members lived or conducted illegal business, and that several calls were received from state prisons where gang members were incarcerated. Based on this and other information, the State subsequently obtained authorization to install a wiretap which became operational in December 1989 (the “Douglas wiretap”). The Douglas wiretap intercepted discussions of the Supreme Team’s narcotics trafficking between the Douglas home and the home of Miller. With this and other information, the State obtained authorization to tap the telephone in Miller’s home (the “Miller wiretap”); the Miller wiretap became operational in January 1990. The Miller wiretap intercepted the conversations of Miller, Arroyo, Hale, David Robinson, Raymond Robinson, Tucker, Coleman, and other Supreme Team members as they discussed narcotics trafficking. Miller was intercepted discussing drug transactions with William Graham on Graham’s home telephone, and the State soon thereafter obtained authorization to wiretap the latter telephone (the “Graham wiretap”); the Graham wiretap became operational in February 1990. The Graham wiretap also intercepted several incriminating conversations between Graham and other gang members, including Miller, Arroyo, Hale, David Robinson, and Raymond Robinson. All of the wiretaps were renewed at least once, and the Miller and Graham wiretaps remained in place until defendants, and William Graham, were arrested by State officers in March 1990. In the State’s case against Graham, who was prosecuted separately from Miller and the other Supreme Team members, the state court suppressed the evidence gathered through the Graham and Miller wiretaps on the grounds that the State officers had not disclosed to the authorizing judge that Hale had been cooperating with the police, and that the officers had recklessly disregarded state-law requirements that the identities of all persons whose conversations are likely to be intercepted be disclosed in the warrant application. On the basis of that decision, Miller successfully moved to suppress the evidence collected through the Graham wiretap on the ground of collateral estoppel. In the present case, defendants challenge the district court’s denial of their motion to suppress the evidence gathered through all three wiretaps. They contend principally that their convictions must be reversed and their indictments dismissed with prejudice because the indictments were obtained with the use of evidence suppressed in the state prosecutions of Miller and William Graham; Miller contends in his pro se brief that the state court’s suppression ruling was binding in the present case. Defendants also contend, inter alia, that their motion to suppress in the district court should have been granted on its merit because of the officers’ failures (a) to comply with the requirements that alternative investigative techniques be exhausted and that the availability of such techniques be disclosed to the issuing judge, and (b) to make proper disclosures in the warrant applications. We find none of defendants’ arguments persuasive. a. The Effect of the State Court’s Suppression Orders We reject first the contention that defendants are entitled to dismissal of the indictments by reason of the government’s presentation to the federal grand jury of evidence that was suppressed by the state court. A grand jury may make use of information obtained through a wiretap unless it is clear that the wiretap was illegal, such as when there is a government concession that the surveillance was unlawful, or there is “patent” illegality “such as, for example, when no prior court order was obtained, or when the unlawfulness of the Government’s surveillance has been established in a prior judicial proceeding.” In re Persico, 491 F.2d 1156, 1161 (2d Cir.) (ruling that grand jury witness, who was asked a question based on information gained through wiretaps, had no right under Title III to a suppression hearing as to whether the wiretap was lawful), cert, denied, 419 U.S. 924, 95 S.Ct. 199, 42 L.Ed.2d 158 (1974). Absent such clear or patent illegality, the grand jury is entitled to consider the wiretap evidence. The Pérsico phrase “unlawfulness ... established in a prior judicial proceeding” does not refer to orders of suppression in state court prosecutions, for those orders do not “establish^ ]” unlawfulness for purposes of a proceeding in federal court. “[I]t has long been the rule in this Circuit that collateral estoppel never bars the United States from using evidence previously suppressed in a state proceeding in which the United States was not a party.” United States v. Davis, 906 F.2d 829, 832 (2d Cir.1990) (internal quotation marks omitted); see also United States v. Peterson, 100 F.3d 7,12 (2d Cir.1996) (discussing narrowness of exceptions). Indeed, when Graham (prosecuted separately in federal court) and Miller themselves appealed to this Court from the district court’s denial of their motions for a temporary restraining order to prevent the government from using the very wiretap evidence at issue here, we stated obiter that “state court rulings in a criminal trial are not binding on a federal court” because the “state and national sovereignty are separate and distinct from one another.” United States v. Miller, 14 F.3d 761, 763 (2d Cir.1994) (dismissing for mootness and lack of appellate jurisdiction). Thus, the state court’s suppression order did not foreclose consideration of the wiretap evidence by the grand jury, and it was not binding on the district court. The latter court properly held an evidentiary hearing on defendants’ suppression motion and considered the motion on its merits. b. The Merits of the Suppression Motions Both federal law and state law are designed to harmonize the needs of law enforcement officials with the privacy rights of the individual. Title III requires that wiretap applications include a full and complete statement as to whether or not other investigative procedures have been tried and failed or why they reasonably appear to be unlikely to succeed if tried or to be too dangerous. 18 U.S.C. § 2518(l)(c); see also N.Y. Criminal Procedure Law § 700.20(2)(d) (McKinney 1995) (containing similar requirement). In United States v. Lilia, 699 F.2d 99 (2d Cir.1983), we disapproved of the use of wiretap evidence because the affidavit underlying the application for wiretap authorization “d[id] not reveal what, if any, investigative techniques were attempted prior to the wiretap request” and “d[id] not enlighten us as to why this narcotics case presented problems different from any other small-time narcotics case.” Id. at 104; see also id. at 102 (“discem[ing] no difference between the federal and state case law relating to this requirement”); People v. McGrath, 46 N.Y.2d 12, 412 N.Y.S.2d 801, 807, 385 N.E.2d 541 (1978) (New York statute was designed to harmonize “State standards for court authorized eavesdropping warrants with federal standards”), cert. denied, 440 U.S. 972, 99 S.Ct. 1535, 59 L.Ed.2d 788 (1979). The requirement that there be disclosure as to the use, success, and potential success of other investigative techniques, however, does not mean “that any particular investigative procedures [must] be exhausted before a wiretap may be authorized.” United States v. Young, 822 F.2d 1234, 1237 (2d Cir.1987) (internal quotation marks omitted). [T]he purpose of the statutory requirements is not to preclude resort to electronic surveillance until after all other possible means of investigation have been exhausted by investigative agents; rather they only require that the agents inform the authorizing judicial officer of the nature and progress of the investigation and of the difficulties inherent in the use of normal law enforcement methods. United States v. Vazquez, 605 F.2d 1269, 1282 (2d Cir.) (internal quotation marks omitted), cert. denied, 444 U.S. 981, 100 S.Ct. 484, 62 L.Ed.2d 408 (1979). In reviewing a ruling on a motion to suppress wiretap evidence, we accord deference to the district court because “[t]he role of an appeals court in reviewing the issuance of a wiretap order ... is not to make a de novo determination of sufficiency as if it were a district judge, but to decide if the facts set forth in the application were minimally adequate to support the determination that was made.” United States v. Torres, 901 F.2d 205, 231 (2d Cir.) (internal quotation marks omitted), cert. denied, 498 U.S. 906, 111 S.Ct. 273, 112 L.Ed.2d 229 (1990). As to the present case, when the State applied in state court for wiretap authorizations, it explained that it had been investigating the Supreme Team for some years and had nearly exhausted its battery of traditional investigative techniques with little significant success. Using normal techniques, the State had been unable to penetrate the Supreme Team or gain sufficient admissible evidence against any members other than those at the lowest echelons. The Team’s leaders had insulated themselves from police contact through extensive use of bodyguards and lookouts, and when the State applied for wiretap authorization it had yet to identify all of the upper and middle level members of the Supreme Team, or to determine where the narcotics and illegal proceeds were kept, or to identify the Team’s cocaine suppliers. The State had procured the cooperation of one accomplice, but it hesitated to attempt other undercover infiltration because of the extreme violence in which the Supreme Team engaged against persons it believed were threats to its security. Even by the time the State applied for the Graham wiretap, it was still unable to obtain the physical evidence whose existence could be gleaned from conversations intercepted by wiretap, given both the difficulty of infiltration by undercover officers and the unreliability of cooperating defendants. For example, Hale at one time agreed to cooperate and then at various points refused to cooperate; his history of homicide and drug abuse further decreased his reliability. Thus, the State sought wiretaps in order to identify the Team’s leaders and suppliers and to locate their drug storage facilities. We conclude that the district court did not err in ruling that the State met its burden of showing its need for a wiretap. Defendants fare no better in their challenge to the Miller wiretap on the ground that affidavits supporting the application for that tap omitted material information that had been provided by informants who were cooperating with the State. A challenge to the veracity of such an affidavit will succeed only when it establishes intentional or reckless omissions or false statements that are “necessary to the finding of probable cause” supporting the wiretap authorization. Franks v. Delaware, 438 U.S. 154, 156, 98 S.Ct. 2674, 2676, 57 L.Ed.2d 667 (1978); see Rivera v. United States, 928 F.2d 592, 604 (2d Cir.1991). In the present case, the district court held an evidentiary hearing to determine whether State officers had sought to mislead the state-court judges to induce them to authorize wiretaps. The court found that [t]he credible testimony of assistant district attorneys Quinn and Ruiz and Detective Ryan at that supplemental hearing establishe[d] beyond any doubt that these state officials did not seek to deceive the state court, nor did they act in a suspiciously careless manner in the preparation of the wire tap application. District Court Memorandum dated March 10, 1993, at 1-2. Although the Miller and Graham wiretaps had been suppressed by the state court, the district court “found no reason to grant the relief, applying either state or federal law to the resolution of the issues.” Id. at 1. Giving due deference to the district court’s assessment of witness credibility, we can see no basis for overturning its refusal to suppress evidence on this ground. Finally, the district court properly rejected defendants’ contention that they were entitled to suppression because the State, knowing that Graham was engaged in criminal activity with Miller and that Graham’s conversations would likely be intercepted, omitted Graham’s name from the application for the Miller wiretap. Although the state court, relying in part on state-court decisions, ruled that the State was “obligated to identify ... Graham when the Miller warrant was obtained,” People v. Graham, Ind. No. QN13137/90, Memorandum Decision at 21 (N.Y.Sup.Ct. Nov. 15, 1991), there is no such requirement under federal law. See United States v. Donovan, 429 U.S. 413, 435, 97 S.Ct. 658, 671, 50 L.Ed.2d 652 (1977) (where wiretap meets Title III standards, “the failure to identify additional persons who are likely to be overheard engaging in incriminating conversations could hardly invalidate an otherwise lawful judicial authorization”). We have considered all of defendants’ challenges to the wiretap evidence and have found them to be without merit. The district court properly denied the motion to suppress. C. The Massiah Challenge to the Testimony of Julio Hernandez The present prosecution was commenced in January 1992, and Supreme Team member Julio Hernandez was arraigned on the federal charges in February. Federal agents immediately made the usual efforts to persuade him to cooperate, and although Hernandez showed some interest, he gave little information, and no further cooperation session was scheduled. More than a month later, Hernandez’s court-appointed counsel contacted the government to request a proffer session. Such a session was held in April 1992, and Hernandez recounted the details of several of the crimes charged