Full opinion text
CLAY, J., delivered the opinion of the court, in which COLE, J., joined. NELSON, J., (pp. 827-28), delivered a separate concurring opinion. OPINION CLAY, Circuit Judge. Defendants, Albert. Lorenzo, William MacQueen, and Gus J. Demás, appeal from the order granting Plaintiffs, John C. Bon-nell and his wife Nancy L. Bonnell, injunc-tive relief as to Defendants’ disciplinary suspension of John Bonnell from his teaching position at Macomb Community College (“the College”), in this case brought by Plaintiffs for, among other things, violation of John Bonnell’s civil rights under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 and § 1985. This case presents us with the difficult task of balancing the precious First Amendment rights of a professor in the academic setting, against the legal obligation of a college to guarantee the rights of students to learn in an environment free of sexual harassment and hostility. Mindful of the significant import of the respective interests involved, we conclude that the balance tips in favor of the College such that the district court erred in granting the extraordinary relief of a preliminary injunction under the specific facts of this case. We therefore REVERSE the district court’s order. BACKGROUND Plaintiff has taught English Language and Literature at the College since the Fall of 1967. Plaintiff is a member of the Macomb Community College Faculty Organization (“MCCFO”) and is employed pursuant to a Collective Bargaining Agreement (“CBA”). In a memorandum dated February 19, 1998, entitled “Obscene and vulgar language in classroom,” MacQueen informed Plaintiff that the parent of one of Plaintiffs students (not the complainant in the instant case) had filed a letter of complaint against him based upon a handout that Plaintiff had circulated to the members of his class. The handout, entitled “My Semester Overview,” is actually a review of Plaintiffs class prepared by one of Plaintiffs former students in 1991. The handout, as quoted in the memorandum, states as follows: “Next, the language that was used during the first four weeks or so of class, in my opinion, was very inappropriate and distasteful. Never before have I encountered an English teacher who used the word “fuck” so openly and so frequently in a classroom discussion. In addition, the use of words such as “pussy’ and “cunt” are simply uncalled for and very offensive to many, including me. I really feel that language such as this is very degrading to women.” (J.A. at 101.) MacQueen went on to inform Plaintiff that “[although I do not know the context in which these words are used, I am concerned that your use of such language in the classroom will give rise to a claim of sexual harassment on the theory that this language creates a hostile learning environment for women. Simple knowledge of your past use of this language places the College under a legal duty to investigate whether you are creating a hostile learning environment.” (J.A. at 101.) Accordingly, a meeting was scheduled with Plaintiff, his MCCFO representative, and MacQueen, Dr. Ruth Reed, James Van Eman (the College’s General Counsel), and Margaret MacTavish (the College’s Affirmative Action Officer), for February 26, 1998 to investigate the matter. Plaintiff agreed to the meeting and defended his use of such language. Plaintiff maintained that none of the terms at issue were directed to a particular student and were only used for demonstrating an academic point. Plaintiff claimed that he used the terms to “point out the chauvinistic degrading attitudes in society that depict women as sexual objects, as compared to certain words to describe male genitalia, which are not taboo or considered to be deliberately intended to degrade.” (J.A. at 30.) The February 26, 1998, investigation concluded with MacQueen issuing a warning to Plaintiff via a memorandum dated March 4, 1998, entitled “Obscene and vulgar speech,” which states in relevant part: This memorandum will confirm my verbal warning to you concerning your use of obscene and vulgar language in the classroom.... Unless germane to discussion of appropriate course materials and thus a constitutionally protected act of academic freedom, your utterance in the classroom of such words as ‘fuck,’ ‘cunt,’ and ‘pussy’ may serve as a reasonable basis for concluding as a matter of law that you are fostering a learning environment hostile to women, a form of sexual harassment. Federal and state law imposes a duty on the College to prevent the sexual harassment of its students and therefore requires that the College discipline you if it finds that you have created a hostile environment. The principle of academic freedom under the 1st Amendment serves to protect the utterances in question only if they are germane to course content as measured by professional teaching standards. Since the precise frontier between academic freedom and sexual harassment remains to be defined by the courts case by case, a teacher of English literature or composition courses may be able to find safety and comfort under the 1st Amendment only if the words uttered are found in appropriate textual materials and the utterances are pertinent to discussion of those materials. Beyond this point, the teacher enters uncharted territory and proceeds at his or her own risk of being found guilty of sexual harassment. Consequently, you are warned that a general use in the classroom of words like ‘fuck,’ ‘cunt,’ and ‘pussy’ outside a professional exegesis may compel the conclusion that you are creating a hostile learning environment requiring disciplinary action. (J.A. at 102.) About eight months later, in November of 1998, a female student enrolled in Plaintiffs English 122 class, and filed a written “sexual harassment” complaint with the College (“the Complaint”), claiming that Plaintiffs classroom language constituted sexual harassment. (J.A. at 230.) The Complaint states in relevant part: This is a letter of formal complaint against Professor John Bonnell. I am currently a student in Mr. Bonnell’s class, English 122 from 8-9:30 PM on Mondays and Wednesdays. My complaint against Mr. Bonnell is sexual harassment.... Beginning in middle to late September the atmosphere of the class started to change from comfortable to extremely offensive. Mr. Bonnell began using lude [sic] and obscene comments. These comments stemmed from English stories that we were reading in class, and he decided to add his own personal comments. These comments were dehumanizing, degrading, and sexually explicit. Some of the stories that were required reading revealed sexual innu-endoes and implications. This should have been dealt with in a professional and appropriate manner, yet Mr. Bon-nell displayed a lack of maturity, sensitivity, and responsibility, by taking advantage of the conversations to express his own previous sexual experiences. If this class had been a psychology or human sexuality class, I might have understood more of why sex was the major content of our class. This was supposed to be an English class and I feel cheated out of my money because I paid tuition to learn English. I did not pay to hear about Mr. Bonnell’s sexual escapades. I feel that he also used his teacher position as a platform for authority to intimidate his students not to complain about him. Mr. Bonnell repeatedly made fun of students who had expressed offense or disgust and he also laughed at them: This is one of the reasons why I did not come forward sooner. I feel compelled to speak up now so as to save further embarrassment to Macomb Community College. I, as a student, and as a wife have been strongly affected mentally and emotionally due to the sexual harassment from Mr. Bonnell. My husband and I are fully prepared to take this sexual harassment complaint to the highest level of authority it can go. My goals of filing this complaint is [sic] to, at the very least, receive credit for English 122, and a written apology from Mr. Bonnell. I also would like Mr. Bonnell to be dismissed from the college immediately. Mr. Bonnell also needs to go to a counselor to discuss his sexual problems. I would also like Mr. Bonnell to be denied all access to my and my husbands [sic] social security numbers, student accounts, address, and telephone numbers. I expect and demand that this sexual harassment be taken seriously and given top priority. Thank you for acting immediately and swiftly in this matter. (J.A. at 230.) As a result, Gus J. Demas, Dean of Arts and Science at the College, scheduled a meeting with Plaintiff to further investigate the matter, and also provided Plaintiff with a copy of the Complaint. Plaintiff made copies of the Complaint and passed them out to the students in all six of his classes after redacting the complaining student’s name, and also posted a copy of the Complaint on the bulletin board outside of his classroom. At a December 3, 1998, investigatory meeting, MacQueen warned Plaintiff about disseminating the Complaint inasmuch as it is the College’s policy that all student complaints be kept confidential. However, Plaintiff did not heed MacQueen’s warning and instead distributed copies of the Complaint to the more than two hundred College faculty members; attached to each copy of the Complaint was an eight-page satirical essay entitled “An Apology: Yes, Virginia, There is a Sanity Clause” (“the Apology”) written by Plaintiff in response to the complaining student’s sexual harassment Complaint. (J.A. at 232.) Another meeting was held on December 18, 1998, which led to Demás issuing a memorandum to Plaintiff on January 5, 1999, entitled “Disciplinary suspension,” which informed Plaintiff that he was suspended for three days, commencing February 1,1999 and ending February 3,1999. (J.A. at 108.) The memorandum provides as follows: This memorandum is submitted as a statement of my finding that you used vulgar and obscene language without reference to assigned readings in your English 122 KR class during the fall 1998 term. Specifically, I find: 1.You made it a practice (as announced to the class at the start of the term) to swear in the classroom, using such words as ‘shit,’ ‘damn,’ ‘fuck,’ and ‘ass.’ 2. In relating a newspaper account of an act of necrophilia, you said that one doesn’t expect to receive a serious ‘butt-fucking’ after being dead for two weeks. 3. In discussing President Clinton’s relationship with Monica Lewinsky, you said that he received a ‘blow job’ from her. This term was used by you twice. 4. You remarked two or three times that “tits on a nun are as .useful as balls on a priest.” In September, 1993 all faculty were informed that discipline will be imposed for the gratuitous and regular use of vulgar or obscene language in the classroom. In February, 1996 all faculty were informed that classroom speech is insulated from the College’s sexual harassment policy only if it is germane to course content as measured by professional standards. In July, 1997 all faculty were informed that the “regular use of profane, vulgar, or obscene speech in the classroom which is not germane to course content (and thus educational purpose) as measured by professional standards will lead to the imposition of discipline.” ■ In March, 1998, you alone were warned that “the principle of academic freedom under the First Amendment serves to protect the utterance [of words ‘fuck,’ ‘cunt,’ and ‘pussy’] only if they are germane to course content as measured by professional standards and that general use in the classroom of [these words] outside a professional exegesis may compel the conclusion that you are creating a hostile learning environment requiring disciplinary action.” In view of these warnings and the defiance you have expressed in face of them, you are to be suspended from your teaching duties without pay for three days, commencing February 1, 1999 and ending February 3,1999. (J.A. at 231 (alterations in original).) On January 8, 1999, after becoming aware of Plaintiffs dissemination of the Complaint and other materials such as the Apology, MacQueen issued a memorandum to Plaintiff entitled, “Discussion of student complaints,” which reads as follows: Please be advised that the administration is aware of the distribution to faculty of your paper titled “An Apology: Yes, Virginia, There is a Sanity Clause” and intends to determine the extent of and means used in the distribution. Because your posting, distribution and discussion of student complaints of sex harassment or your use of obscene or vulgar language conveys the message that complaining students may be expected to be ridiculed by you and ostracized by their classmates, and thus may be deterred from complaining, you are hereby directed not to post, distribute, or discuss verbally or in writing (inside or outside the classroom) specific complaints filed by one or more of your students against you regarding sex harassment or your use of obscene or vulgar language, or such complaints against you generally, with any person enrolled in one or more of your classes unless written permission has been granted by Dr. Rose Bellanca upon application of your union or attorney. This prohibition extends to discussion of any disciplinary action which has or may be taken against you. (J.A. at 240.) In response to this directive, Plaintiff provided a copy of the redacted Complaint and the Apology to local television Channels 4 and 50, as well as to The Macomb Daily local newspaper, and also informed the students in his class that he had been suspended for three days. On the days of Plaintiffs suspension, nearly every student in all five of his classes did not attend class despite the fact that a substitute teacher was there to take Plaintiffs place. However, the students pre-signed attendance sheets indicating that they supported Plaintiff and were protesting his suspension. On February 2, 1999, MacQueen notified Plaintiff that he was suspended with pay and benefits pending an investigation into Plaintiffs actions such as disseminating the Complaint to the news media, because such actions “[are] or may be causally related to disruption of the educational process.” (J.A. at 340.) Thereafter, Plaintiff filed the instant suit. In response to the disciplinary action taken by Defendants, Plaintiff filed a six-count complaint against Defendants on March 10, 1999. Count I alleged that Defendants conspired to violate Plaintiffs civil rights in violation of 42 U.S.C. § 1985 and § 1983; Count II alleged that Defendants violated Plaintiffs First Amendment rights to free speech and association, Sixth Amendment right to counsel, and Fourteenth Amendment right to due process and equal protection of the law; Count III alleged that Defendants were grossly negligent in violating Plaintiffs civil rights; Count IV sought a temporary restraining order to enjoin Defendants from enforcing their disciplinary suspension of Plaintiff; Count V alleged negligence and breach of the duty of fair representation against Defendant Mark Cousens in failing to represent Plaintiff as legal counsel on behalf of the union; and Count VI alleged loss of consortium. Plaintiff later amended the complaint to add the pendent state law claim of breach of contract against the Board of Trustees of the Community College District of the County of Macomb. Plaintiff also filed a motion for a preliminary injunction requesting his immediate reinstatement to his teaching position at the College. The district court initially denied the motion for a preliminary injunction and remanded the matter to the College for an administrative hearing. Defendant William MacQueen, Vice President for Human Resources, presided over the May 25, 1999, hearing and on June 7, 1999 issued a memorandum finding “reasonable cause to believe that [Plaintiff] ... violated Federal and Michigan law, College policies and directives, and the collective bargaining agreement between MCCFO and the College. In addition, there is reasonable cause to believe that you contributed improperly to the disruption of the educational process in your classes.” (J.A. at 314.) The memorandum, entitled “Notice of charges,” went on to specifically charge Plaintiff with 1) insubordination; 2) breach of confidentiality; 3) retaliation; and 4) disruption of educational process. Id. The memorandum concluded by informing Plaintiff that he was entitled to a hearing: Since a finding that you committed any of the violations alleged above (including disruption of the educational process) may lead to the imposition of discipline, you are entitled to a hearing before Dr. Rose Bellanca[, Provost,] at which you, your attorneys, and/or MCCFO may present evidence or argument in opposition to a conclusion that you committed them or that disciplinary action should be taken. Please have your attorneys or MCCFO representative inform Thomas P. Brady by June 18, 1999 whether you wish a hearing. If a hearing is not requested, Dr. Bellanca will proceed to a determination of these charges. (J.A. at 316.) Plaintiff declined the invitation for a further hearing. Subsequently, on July 9, 1999, Dr. Bel-lanca issued a memorandum to Plaintiff, entitled “Disciplinary Suspension,” wherein Dr. Bellanca rendered her findings regarding the charges brought against Plaintiff, and concluded that Plaintiff “breached confidentiality and retaliated against the complaining student.” Dr. Bellanca went on to state that the College was imposing the following disciplinary action for Plaintiffs conduct: As a result of your disruption of the educational process, you are hereby reprimanded and warned that any future actions which contribute to the disruption of the educational process at the College will subject you to further discipline. ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ As a result, the College finds you were insubordinate under the January 8 directive, and in light of the previous three-day disciplinary suspension which was issued to you, you are hereby suspended from your duties without pay for a period of fourteen calendar days, commencing August 18, 1999, and ending August 31, 1999. Your fringe benefits will remain in place during the period of this suspension. * * * sfc sfc * The College, therefore, finds you breached confidentiality and retaliated against the complaining student. In determining the appropriate discipline to be imposed for these offenses, the College has looked to the “Guidance” published by the Office of Civil Rights within the U.S. Department of Education and to case law. The OCR Guidance states that the school should tell the complainant that Title IX prohibits retaliation and that, if she or he is afraid of reprisals from the alleged harasser, the school will take steps to try to prevent retaliation and will take strong responsive actions if retaliation occurs. The College tried to prevent further retaliation by its directive to you of January 8, 1999, which you ignored. The College now feels obliged to take strong responsive action. Case law supports actions as severe as termination as being appropriate for breach of confidentiality. The College gave serious consideration to terminating your employment effective immediately. However, in deference to your length of service with the institution, and in the belief that rehabilitation is still possible, the College has decided upon a suspension instead. Therefore, you are hereby suspended from your duties without pay for the four months of the Fall 1999 semester, commencing August 18, 1999 and ending December 18, 1999. This suspension will run concurrent with the fourteen day suspension issued for insubordination. In anticipation of your return to work in the Spring semester, your fringe benefits will remain in effect during the period of this suspension. (J.A. at 425 (emphasis added).) In response, Plaintiff filed a renewed emergency motion for preliminary injunction, upon which the district court heard testimony and oral argument on July 15 and 30, and August 3 and 19, 1999. On August 27, 1999, the district court issued its memorandum opinion and order granting Plaintiffs renewed motion for preliminary injunction. Plaintiff returned to his teaching position at the College on August 30,1999. Shortly after Plaintiffs return to the College, another student filed a complaint regarding Plaintiffs alleged profanity and offensive language used in the first night of class; his alleged denigration of the Jewish faith; and his alleged denigration of women. The student was so offended by Plaintiffs conduct, she demanded a full refund of her tuition for the class. The student stated that the only reason that she stayed throughout the entire class the first night was because she “did not want to take the chance of being caught in the crossfire of someone’s rage. A feeling of uneasy nervousness overcame me. I felt trapped in the room for fear of getting up and causing a scene where he might humiliate me all the more.” (J.A. at 493-94.) The student opined that “if you continue to employ this perverted man, I suggest that you put warning labels on all of the classes that he will be teaching ... which state ‘extremely explicit language and sexual content’ on the course list each semester.” Id. Defendants now appeal from the district court’s August 27, 1999, opinion and order granting Plaintiffs motion for a preliminary injunction and reinstating Plaintiff to his teaching position at the College. DISCUSSION A. Standard of Review — Preliminary Injunction A preliminary injunction is an extraordinary measure that has been characterized as “one of the most drastic tools in the arsenal of judicial remedies.” Hanson Trust PLC v. ML SCM Acquisition Inc., 781 F.2d 264, 273 (2d Cir.1986); see also Detroit Newspaper Publishers Ass’n v. Detroit Typographical Union No. 18, 471 F.2d 872, 876 (6th Cir.1972) (emphasizing that a preliminary injunction is the strong arm of equity which should not be extended to cases which are doubtful or do not come within well-established principles of law). We review the district court’s decision to grant a preliminary injunction for an abuse of discretion- while giving great deference to the district court’s determination; however, our deference to the district court is not absolute. Mascio v. Pub. Employees Ret. Sys., 160 F.3d 310, 312-13 (6th Cir.1998). Which is to say, the injunction will be disturbed if the district court relied upon clearly erroneous findings of fact, improperly applied the governing law, or used an erroneous legal standard. See Blue Cross & Blue Shield Mut. v. Blue Cross & Blue Shield Ass’n, 110 F.3d 318, 322 (6th Cir.1997). “A finding is ‘clearly erroneous’ when although there is evidence to support it, the reviewing court is left with the definite and firm conviction that a mistake has been committed.” See United States v. United States Gypsum, Co., 333 U.S. 364, 395, 68 S.Ct. 525, 92 L.Ed. 746 (1948). With our review standard and the gravity of the relief in mind, we now address the district court’s order in the case at hand granting Plaintiff injunctive relief. B. Analysis — Whether the District Court Properly Granted a Preliminary Injunction In exercising its discretion with respect to a motion for a preliminary injunction, a district court must give consideration to four factors: “(1) whether the movant has a strong likelihood of success on the merits; (2) whether the movant would suffer irreparable injury without the injunction; (3) whether issuance of the injunction would cause substantial harm to others; and (4) whether the public interest would be served by issuance of the injunction.” Rock & Roll Hall of Fame & Museum, Inc. v. Gentile Prods., 134 F.3d 749, 753 (6th Cir.1998). Mascio, 160 F.3d at 312-13. Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 52(c) “requires a district court to make specific findings concerning each of these four factors, unless fewer are dispositive of the issue.” See In re DeLorean Co., 755 F.2d 1223, 1228 (6th Cir.1985). In Elrod v. Burns, 427 U.S. 347, 373, 96 S.Ct. 2673, 49 L.Ed.2d 547 (1976), the Supreme Court held that when reviewing a motion for a preliminary injunction, if it is found that a constitutional right is being threatened or impaired, a finding of irreparable injury is mandated. In other words, the first factor of the four-factor preliminary injunction inquiry — whether the plaintiff shows a substantial likelihood of succeeding on the merits — should be addressed first insofar as a successful showing on the first factor mandates a successful showing on the second factor— whether the plaintiff will suffer irreparable harm. See id.; see also Connection Distrib. Co. v. Reno, 154 F.3d 281, 288 (6th Cir.1998) (finding that “[wjhen a party seeks a preliminary injunction on the basis of a potential violation of the First Amendment, the likelihood of success on the merits often will be the determinative factor”); Deerfield Med. Ctr. v. City of Deerfield Beach, 661 F.2d 328, 338 (5th Cir.1981) (holding that if the constitutional right of privacy is either threatened or in fact being impaired, this mandates a finding of irreparable injury). The district court erred in this regard because it considered the second preliminary injunction factor— whether Plaintiffs would suffer an irreparable injury without the injunction-first, claiming that this factor was dispositive. 1. Substantial Likelihood of Plaintiff Succeeding on His Civil Rights Claims Brought Against Defendants As a public employee, in order to establish a likelihood of success on his § 1983 claim that Defendants denied Plaintiff his First Amendment right to free speech, Plaintiff has to demonstrate that 1) he was disciplined for speech that was directed toward an issue of public concern, and 2) that his interest in speaking as he did outweighed the College’s interest in regulating his speech. See Connick v. Myers, 461 U.S. 138, 147-50, 103 S.Ct. 1684, 75 L.Ed.2d 708 (1983); Pickering v. Bd. of Educ., 391 U.S. 563, 568, 88 S.Ct. 1731, 20 L.Ed.2d 811 (1968). The inquiry into whether Plaintiffs speech is entitled to protection under the First Amendment as addressing a matter of public concern is a question of law for the court to decide. See Rankin v. McPherson, 483 U.S. 378, 383 & 386 n. 9, 107 S.Ct. 2891, 97 L.Ed.2d 315 (1987). The inquiry into whether Plaintiffs interests in speaking outweigh the College’s interests in regulating Plaintiffs speech is a factual determination conducted under the well known Pickering balancing test. See Pickering, 391 U.S. at 568, 88 S.Ct. 1731. If Plaintiffs interests in the prohibited speech outweigh the College’s interests, then Plaintiffs First Amendment rights have been violated. See Dambrot v. Cent. Mich. Univ., 55 F.3d 1177, 1186 (6th Cir.1995). If the First Amendment violation was a substantial or motivating factor in Defendants’ disciplinary action against Plaintiff, Defendants may present evidence that they would have disciplined Plaintiff in the absence of his protected conduct. See Mt. Healthy City Sch. Dist. Bd. of Educ. v. Doyle, 429 U.S. 274, 285, 97 S.Ct. 568, 50 L.Ed.2d 471 (1977). However, if Plaintiffs speech does not involve a matter of public concern, it is unnecessary for the court to scrutinize the reason for the discipline. See Connick, 461 U.S. at 146, 103 S.Ct. 1684. Many commentators have recently addressed the degree of protection that should be afforded speech in the college and university setting, particularly in reference to protected speech as it relates to the prohibition of sexual harassment under Title IX, 20 U.S.C. § 1681. See, e.g., Lisa M. Woodward, Comment, Collision in the Classroom: Is Academic Freedom a License for Sexual Harassment?, 27 Cap. U.L.Rev. 667 (1999); Beverly Earle & Anita Cava, The Collision of Rights and a Search for Limits: Free Speech in the Academy and Freedom from Sexual Harassment on Campus, 18 Berkeley J. Emp. & Lab. L. 282 (1997); Arthur L. Coleman & Jonathan R. Alger, Beyond Speech Codes: Harmonizing Rights of Free Speech and Freedom from Discrimination on University Campuses, 23 J.C. & U.L. 91 (1996). Indeed, as one commentator has noted: Currently, a debate rages concerning the degree to which speech that is sexually or racially harassing is protected. And nowhere is that debate more heated than on university campuses, historically committed to unrestricted inquiry and exploring of ideas, yet morally obligated to promoting respect, and legally forbidden from permitting sexual harassment under Title VII and Title IX. 18 Berkeley J. Emp. & Lab. L. at 283 (footnotes omitted). The Supreme Court has similarly recognized the unique protection afforded speech generally in the academic realm: Any word spoken, in class, in the lunchroom, or on the campus, that deviates from the views of another person may start an argument or cause a disturbance. But our Constitution says we must take this risk, Terminiello v. Chi cago, 337 U.S. 1, 69 S.Ct. 894, 93 L.Ed. 1131 (1949); and our history says that it is this sort of hazardous freedom — this kind of openness — that is the basis of our national strength and of our independence and vigor of Americans who grow up and live in this relatively permissive, often disputatious, society. In order for the State in the person of school officials to justify prohibition of a particular expression of opinion, it must be able to show that its action was caused by something more than a mere desire to avoid the discomfort and unpleasantness that always accompany an unpopular viewpoint. Certainly where there is no finding and no showing that engaging in the forbidden conduct would ‘materially and substantially interfere with the requirements of appropriate discipline in the operation of a school,’ the prohibition cannot be sustained. Burnside v. Byars, 363 F.2d 744, 749 (5th Cir.1966). Tinker v. Des Moines Indep. Cmty. Sch. Dist., 393 U.S. 503, 508-09, 89 S.Ct. 733, 21 L.Ed.2d 731 (1969); see also Shelton v. Tucker, 364 U.S. 479, 487, 81 S.Ct. 247, 5 L.Ed.2d 231 (1960) (“The vigilant protection of constitutional freedoms is nowhere more vital than in the community of American schools.”). In the matter at hand, although we ultimately agree with the district court that Plaintiffs speech was protected as addressing a matter of public concern, the district court made erroneous factual determinations and legally incorrect rulings in rendering its decision which should be noted for the record. Moreover, the district court erred when it found that Plaintiffs interests in speaking as he did outweighed the College’s interests in prohibiting retaliation against students who file sexual harassment complaints, maintaining the confidentiality of its students, maintaining a disruption-free environment, and maintaining its federal funding. a. Was Plaintiffs Speech Protected as Addressing a Matter of Public Concern? At this juncture, we turn to our analysis of Plaintiffs speech and why we find that a portion of the speech addresses a matter of public concern. Plaintiffs distribution of the Apology along with the student’s sexual harassment Complaint to his students, fellow faculty members, and the media, as well as his use of classroom language considered to be obscene and not germane to the course content, are the acts of expression for which he was disciplined and thus are at issue here. See Johnson v. Lincoln Univ. of the Commonwealth Sys. of Higher Educ., 776 F.2d 443, 451 (3d Cir.1985) (“It is implicit in Connick that the court must examine each activity which the employee claims provided the actual motivation for his termination to see whether it ‘touch[es] ... upon a matter of public concern.’ ”) (quoting Connick, 461 U.S. at 149, 103 S.Ct. 1684) (alteration in Johnson). “Whether an employee’s speech addresses a matter of public concern must be determined by the content, form, and context of a given statement, as revealed by the whole record.” Connick, 461 U.S. at 147-48, 103 S.Ct. 1684. Speech which can be “fairly considered as relating to any matter of political, social, or other concern to the community” touches upon matters of public concern. See id. at 146, 103 S.Ct. 1684. Absent unusual circumstances, a public employee’s speech dealing with “matters only of personal interest” is not afforded constitutional protection. See id. at 147, 103 S.Ct. 1684. However, mixed questions of private and public concern, where the employee is speaking both as a citizen as well as an employee, can be protected, see Kennedy v. Tangipahoa Parish Library Bd. of Control, 224 F.3d 359, 366 (5th Cir.2000), such that “if any part of an employee’s speech, which contributes to the [disciplinary action], relates to a matter of public concern, the court must conduct a balancing of interests test as set forth in Pickering v. Board of Education, 391 U.S. 563, 88 S.Ct. 1731, 20 L.Ed.2d 811 (1968).” Rahn v. Drake Ctr., Inc., 31 F.3d 407, 412 (6th Cir.1994); see also Connick, 461 U.S. at 147, 103 S.Ct. 1684 (finding that “when a public employee speaks not as a citizen upon matters of public concern, but instead as an employee upon matters only of personal interest,” no First Amendment protection is afforded to the speech); Johnson, 776 F.2d at 451 (finding that the fact that a statement evolves from a personal dispute does not preclude some aspect of it from touching upon matters of public concern). We find the case at hand to be a mixed speech case inasmuch as Plaintiffs speech at issue concerns both private as well as public matters. Stated otherwise, although aspects of Plaintiffs speech involve matters of personal interest where he is speaking regarding a personal grievance as an employee, his speech also involves matters of public interest such that Plaintiff is speaking as a concerned citizen. “Mixed speech cases are perhaps the most difficult subset of employee speech cases to adjudicate. Because the employee admittedly speaks from multiple motives, determining whether she speaks as a citizen or employee requires a precise and factually-sensitive determination.” Kennedy, 224 F.3d at 367. However, “[w]hether an employee’s statement is predominated by ‘the employee’s personal interest qua employee’ is primarily a content-based inquiry, not an exclusively motive-based inquiry.” Chappel v. Montgomery County Fire Prot. Dist. No. 1, 131 F.3d 564, 575 (6th Cir.1997). In other words, “ ‘[t]he motive which underlies an employee’s statements is a relevant, but not necessarily disposi-tive factor’ when considering whether an employee’s statements may be fairly characterized as relating to any matter of political, social, or other concern to the community.” Id. at 576 (quoting Cliff v. Bd. of Sch. Comm’rs, 42 F.3d 403, 409 (7th Cir.1994)). i. “The Complaint” One of the acts of expression for which Plaintiff was disciplined was his distribution of the sexual harassment Complaint lodged against him. Regarding the content of the Complaint, it is well-settled that allegations of sexual harassment, like allegations of racial harassment, are matters of public concern. See Connick, 461 U.S. at 146, 103 S.Ct. 1684 (noting that “it is clear that ... statements concerning the school district’s allegedly racially discriminatory policies involved a matter of public concern”) (citing Givhan v. W. Line Consol. Sch. Dist., 439 U.S. 410, 415-16, 99 S.Ct. 693, 58 L.Ed.2d 619 (1979)); Wilson v. UT Health Ctr., 973 F.2d 1263, 1269 (5th Cir.1992) (finding that “reports of sexual harassment perpetrated on [the plaintiff] and other women at [the University of Texas Health Center]—is of great public concern”); see also Perry v. McGinnis, 209 F.3d 597, 608 (6th Cir.2000) (finding that because the plaintiffs complaint was for race discrimination, it inherently involved a matter of public concern). It is true that the plaintiff alleging a First Amendment violation is usually the person who lodged the sexual or racial harassment complaint, claiming that the employer retaliated against him for filing the complaint; while in the case at hand, it is the person against whom the complaint was made who is claiming a First Amendment violation. However, the lack of parallelism between Plaintiff in this case and the plaintiffs in other eases does not change the fact that the Complaint related to sexual harassment ■ and therefore involves a matter of public import. The context and form of Plaintiffs speech in this regard require further inquiry. Plaintiffs expression of circulating the sexual harassment Complaint came on the heels of his being called before the College to answer to the allegations made by the complaining student regarding Plaintiffs classroom conduct. Although Plaintiff may have circulated the Complaint in the context of a heated dispute with the College and out of personal animus in retaliation against the complaining student, the fact remains that the context of his circulating the Complaint to faculty members, students, and the media is a matter of public concern where the public — particularly other students attending and planning to attend the College — certainly would be interested in learning the nature of the sexual harassment Complaint lodged against Plaintiff. See Moore v. City of Kilgore, 877 F.2d 364, 370-71 (5th Cir.1989) (finding that the plaintiffs criticism of the fire department to the media addressed a matter of public concern, although the criticisms may have been borne out of the plaintiffs personal disagreement with the fire department’s staffing problems, because the public was eager to hear about the ability of the fire department to perform its duties). Accordingly, we believe that Plaintiffs distribution of the Complaint involved a matter of public concern such that the act of expression was protected under the First Amendment. See id. The district court likewise found that Plaintiffs distribution of the redacted Complaint was protected as a matter of public concern inasmuch as the content, context, and form of the expression dealt with the issue of sexual harassment, and we do not take issue with the district court’s findings or holding in this regard. However, the district court’s factual findings regarding Plaintiffs distribution of the Apology presents a different case where, although the court ultimately reached the correct conclusion of law, the court’s findings were clearly erroneous. ii. “The Apology” The district court could not be more incorrect when it found that “[t]he entire eight page Yes, Virginia memorandum does not state that the student had filed a sexual harassment complaint against Bonnell, or even use the term sexual harassment. It is totally directed toward a discussion of the English language.” (J.A. at 146.) One need look no further than the second paragraph of the Apology to find the term “sexual harassment” used, and the Apology opens in the first paragraph with a salutation to “Young lady,” — obviously in reference to the complaining student — as well as with a reference to the apology that she sought from Plaintiff for his allegedly harassing conduct. (J.A. at 103.) Specifically, the Apology states as follows: Young lady, before identifying the clause in the title, and as a preface to the apology that you desire, let me review the two articles of impeachment which you have preferred against me. First, there is the one count of buttfuek-ing; second, there are the three counts of blow-job. The first charge all by itself, I must confess, would inspire squeals of protest even from the most asinine, the most cheeky. The second charge, on the face of it, is more than your average mouthful. I marvel at your courage in bringing notice of these alleged outrages to the proper authority, and I am amazed by the modest remedy you require. In short order, I was summoned before the college’s highest tribunal where the grand inquisitor himself, with the support of sundry assistants, subjected me to rigorous cross-examination. I was not informed beforehand as to the specifics of this interrogation, apparently because the examiners were after the truth of the matter and probably felt that the element of surprise would tend more profitably to that end. Professors are rather like politicians: give them ample time to consider any question, they are apt to expatiate ad nauseam. I did know, because of your “formal complaint,” what the fundamental charge might be: sexual harassment. But, as that might be anything from gang rape by a branch of the Hell’s Angels to' an indiscreet plucking at one’s own wedgie, I couldn’t imagine what witches’ spew might be brewing. (J.A. at 103 (emphasis added).) Indeed, contrary to the district court’s finding, the Apology is explicitly directed toward the complaining student, as the salutation indicates and as the entire exposition reiterates. Throughout the entire eight-page Apology, Plaintiff continually refers to the complaining student as “Virginia,” and does so with mockery, disdain, and insults as to her immaturity in bringing the sexual harassment Complaint against Plaintiff. For example, Plaintiff states as follows on the fourth page of the Apology: It is true — this is your half of a truth — that I talked about previous hassles with the college administration over some students “lining up” (an obvious exaggeration for comic effect) at some dean’s office to complain about the “bad man” with the “potty mouth.” And, yes, a semester or more after the fact, I probably dismissed such folks (especially the cowards, the ones who never broach their disaffection in class or at any time to my face) with a gibe, a jeer, a hiss of derision. I tend to get a tad defensive when people don’t just disagree with me, my values, my behavior, but who would also campaign for and delight in my utter destruction. Disagreement is fine; I welcome it and always remember to reward it. The clash of ideas and values is usually both exciting and illuminating. But I have never “dressed down,” attacked, insulted, or ridiculed any actual student in any actual class. And you know that; you know there can be no corroboration for your arrant lie. (Shame on you, Virginia — so very young and yet so devious). (J.A. at 106.) Also replete throughout the Apology is the phrase, “I am sorry, Virginia, that you find your own language, the English language, so painful,” again directed at the complaining student in reference to the fact that she filed a sexual harassment complaint against Plaintiff for his use of profanity which she found so offensive that it allegedly created a hostile learning environment. (J.A. at 104, 105, 107.) It is not until that last paragraph of the Apology that Plaintiff identifies the First Amendment, or as Plaintiff coins it, the “sanity clause.” (J.A. at 107.) Accordingly, the district court’s finding that the Apology is “totally directed toward a discussion of the English language” is clearly erroneous where a review of the Apology on its face does not support this finding. Based upon its previous finding that the Apology never once mentions the term sexual harassment and is “totally directed toward a discussion of the English language” — the district court went on to find that “[t]his indicates that Bonnell’s motive in writing the Yes, Virginia memorandum was not to retaliate for a sexual harassment complaint, but instead to discuss First Amendment concerns in the context of classroom language.” (J.A. at 147.) However, at the time of the preliminary injunction hearing, the district court ruled that Plaintiffs motivation in writing the Apology was irrelevant and he refused to allow Plaintiff to be questioned regarding his motivation. Then, despite the court’s finding to the contrary, in discerning Plaintiffs motive, the district court also found it “important” that at the time Plaintiff wrote the Apology, the Complaint had been decided in his favor. Apparently, the district court was of the opinion that because the outcome of the student’s claim against Plaintiff had been decided in his favor, Plaintiff could not have been motivated by retaliation in writing the Apology. However, Plaintiff expressly states in the Apology that he was on the “defensive” because of the Complaint lodged against him, and Plaintiff expressly testified that at the time he wrote the Apology, he did not know the outcome of the sexual harassment Complaint. (J.A. at 107, 697.) Furthermore, Plaintiff could have sought to retaliate against the student and the College regardless of the actual outcome of the matter. The district court then based its conclusion of law that Plaintiffs Apology was protected under the First Amendment as a matter of public concern on its finding that Plaintiffs motive in writing the Apology was to discuss the First Amendment in the context of classroom language. However, as previously indicated, an employee’s motivation in speaking is not dispositive as to whether the speech was protected, thereby making the district court’s basis for its conclusion of law erroneous. See Chappel, 131 F.3d at 574 (finding that “the argument that an individual’s personal motives for speaking may dispositively determine whether that individual’s speech addresses a matter of public concern [to be] plainly illogical and contrary to the broader purposes of the First Amendment”). And, also as indicated, the district court refused to allow Plaintiff to be questioned as to his motive in writing and distributing the Apology on the basis that Plaintiffs motive was “not relevant.” Despite these erroneous factual findings and the erroneous legal premise upon which the court based its conclusion of law, we believe that the district court properly concluded that Plaintiffs speech was protected under the First Amendment because the Apology — although expressed as a satirical diatribe fraught with references to Plaintiffs personal disagreement with the student’s characterization and reaction to his classroom language — addressed a matter of public concern. Regarding the content of the Apology, it is true that Plaintiff apparently crafted the title in response to the remedy sought by the complaining student; that he addresses the Apology to the complaining student, albeit under the pseudo-name “Virginia” in order to create a sarcastic spoof on the editorial, “Yes, Virginia, There is a Santa Claus;” and that he criticizes both the student and the sexual harassment Complaint that she filed against him, as well as the College’s disciplinary measures taken in response to the Complaint, all in relation to the First Amendment-which Plaintiff describes as “the Sanity Clause.” While the content of the Apology appears to be a personal attack on the various parties involved, the content also addresses the College’s sexual harassment policy as it relates to classroom language. For example, It says, after all, in the cover letter to the college’s “Revised sexual harassment policy” (July 30, 1997) that “Regular use of profane, vulgar, or obscene speech in the classroom which is not germane to course content (and thus educational purpose) as measured by professional standards will lead to the imposition of discipline.” But you see, Virginia, this sort of legalese is variantly known in the grownup, adventitiously sane, world as bullshit. Profanity, vulgarity (I’m especially fond of this one, since it ensnares virtually everyone in its aristo — analcratic web; look it up, and you’ll see what I mean. You will think: “sump’n’ ain’t right here,” and you’ll be right, and wrong, altogether.), and obscenity (this one’s a doozy, too. “Inciting lustful feelings; lewd,” is - the second definition. The other applications are reminiscent of “vulgar.” The only persons in my classes who are stirred, in any antisocial sense, by my diction are either the very unfortunately “wired,” on the one hand, or the very young, Virginia, on the other.) — all these are in the eye of the beholder. That’s why even so august a body as the U.S. Supreme Court has continually tied itself into comical knots trying to sort out .the sordid, parse the putrid, and teet the totter. That which is “germane to course content” is best left to the professional (more on “academic freedom” later), while “imposition of discipline” is reserved for the amusement of inquisitors. (J.A. at 103-04.) A review of the Apology also indicates that Plaintiff was speaking as a concerned citizen about the importance of the right to free speech under the First Amendment, and the need to protect that right in society. For example, Plaintiff wrote as follows: So, then to conclude this my apologia. I am sorry, almost ineffably sorry, that you find our language, the English language, so painful. You will never have the power, of course, to restrict it, or to kill part of it, as you wish. Nor am I possessed of the tongue of men and of angels, so as to protect it from you or all the tribe of its detractors. It will continue to wend its way and may even find complete vindication, one day, from its shaky jurisprudential custodians. I will probably not see that day, as it lies somewhere beyond the frenetic millennial epoch. But you may. Hopefully, by then, you will have learned to appreciate it. Maybe, then, you will understand that life without the fullness of your language’s energy would be like that life Khalil Gibran says languishes without love: life where you may still laugh, but not all of your laughter; where you may still cry, but not all of your tears. Oh!' — the sanity clause! Virginia, I almost forgot! Here it is: “Congress shall make no law ... abridging the freedom of speech.... ” This has driven the thought police, the language censors, and all deputy inquisitors beyond despair, into madness. If I had access to your Christmas stocking, I would stuff it there. When, at length, you grow up, you will cherish it above every other gift, save love itself. Cheers. (J.A. at 107.) As noted at the outset of our analysis, the debate of constitutionally protected speech in the classroom setting — particularly as it relates to sexual harassment and a college’s obligations under Title IX — is a heated one where the most learned of academic institutions struggle to find a common ground. Therefore, speech which sets forth the type of remarks that served as the catalyst to a sexual harassment complaint lodged against a college professor, and the professor’s reaction thereto, is speech which can “fairly be considered as relating to any matter of political, social, or other concern to the community.” Connick, 461 U.S. at 146, 147-48, 103 S.Ct. 1684. Said differently, the subject of profane classroom language which precipitates a sexual harassment complaint lodged against the instructor for his use of this language in relation to the First Amendment, as well as the sanctity of the First Amendment in preserving an individual’s right to speak, involves a matter of public import. See Wilson, 973 F.2d at 1269. Stated more broadly, there is a public interest concern involved in the issue of the extent of a professor’s independence and unfettered freedom to speak in an academic setting. The context and form of Plaintiffs circulation of the Apology was public in nature such that Plaintiff distributed the Apology to the College’s more than two hundred faculty members as well as to two local television stations and a local newspaper, thereby bringing to light the subject of allegedly profane classroom language which led to the filing of a sexual harassment complaint. Although it is true that finding speech to be a matter of public concern does not turn on communication of the speech to the public, see Johnson v. Univ. of Cincinnati, 215 F.3d 561, 585 (6th Cir.2000), and that a “finding of public concern is ... strengthened by the fact that the plaintiff did not solicit the attention of the media, but simply responded to questions regarding the existing controversy,” see Matulin v. Vill. of Lodi 862 F.2d 609, 613 (6th Cir.1988), we believe that Plaintiffs circulation of the Apology was in the context of bringing the issue to the fore as a matter of public interest. The district court found — by virtue of its own devices and not based upon Plaintiffs testimony — that Plaintiffs motivation, or the context in which he circulated the Apology, was to discuss the bounds of the First Amendment, which thereby rendered Plaintiffs speech a matter of public import. We have two concerns regarding the district court’s assessment. First, as noted, a speaker’s underlying motivation in expressing himself as he did, although relevant, is not dispositive of the issue of whether the act of expression addresses a matter of public concern. See Chappel, 131 F.3d at 574. Second, we do not believe that the record supports a finding that Plaintiffs motivation in circulating the Apology was necessarily only one of public interest. Based upon the nature of the Apology, one could conclude that Plaintiff was motivated by personal animus against the complaining student as well as against the College for its reaction to her Complaint, and that he circulated the Apology as a retaliatory gesture against these parties. Indeed, in the Apology Plaintiff states that until the formal Complaint had been lodged against him, he had ignored similar complaints made by students. In other words, until the formal complaint was filed and the College acted upon it, Plaintiff did not react to similar complaints made by students, suggesting that Plaintiffs reaction in this case was simply in response to his discontent with the College’s discipline. However, even assuming that Plaintiff was motivated by personal animus in circulating the Apology, the fact remains that in doing so, he addressed a matter occurring at the college which was of public concern. In Perry v. McGinnis, this Court recently rejected the argument that because the plaintiff brought his race discrimination complaint in the context of an internal grievance with his employer, the complaint did not address a matter of public concern. See 209 F.3d at 608. The Perry Court noted that in Chappel we clarified that “[t]he fundamental distinction recognized in Connick is the distinction between matters of public concern and matters only of personal interest, not civic-minded motives and self-serving motives.” Id. (citing Chappel, 131 F.3d at 575) (citing Azzaro v. County of Allegheny, 110 F.3d 968, 979 n. 5 (3d Cir.1997) (en banc)). Accordingly, the Perry Court went on to conclude that “whether Perry’s racial discrimination complaint was borne out of civic-minded motives or of an individual employment concern is irrelevant. What is relevant is that the subject of Perry’s complaint was racial discrimination — a matter inherently of public concern, according to the Supreme Court.” 209 F.3d at 608-09 (citing Connick, 461 U.S. at 148 n. 8, 103 S.Ct. 1684). And so it goes that in the case at hand, although Plaintiff may have circulated the Apology in the context of a self-serving motive, it nonetheless remains that the subject of the Apology — classroom language by a college professor which led to the filing of a sexual harassment complaint by one of his students for which he was disciplined, all in relation to the First Amendment — inherently touches upon a matter of public concern. We are further persuaded in this regard by the Fourth Circuit’s opinion in Seemuller v. Fairfax County Sch. Bd., 878 F.2d 1578 (4th Cir.1989). There, a high school physical education teacher alleged that his First Amendment rights were violated when he did not receive his wage step increase because he wrote a satirical letter to the school newspaper commenting on allegations of sex discrimination against female students by teachers in the physical education department. See id. at 1579. Specifically, the teacher was responding to a letter in the school newspaper which complained about “a few male chauvinistic P.E. teachers.” Id. Before the teacher’s satirical response was published in the school newspaper, both the paper’s faculty advisor as well as the school’s principal read the letter and did not object to it. Id. In addition to being published in the school paper and distributed to the students at the high school, the letter was mailed to approximately 3,600 families in the school’s community. Id. at 1580. After distribution, the principal informed the teacher that he had received complaints from the community, faculty members, and others. See id. The principal also stated that the teacher may receive a “needs improvement” rating in “Professional Responsibility” on his evaluation, and suggested that the teacher meet with the human relations committee and write a letter of apology to the newspaper. Id. The teacher complied on both measures. Id. However, in his performance evaluation, the teacher received the “needs improvement” rating, despite his letter of apology, and did not receive his wage step increase. Id. at 1580-81. The teacher filed suit alleging violation of his First Amendment rights. Id. The district court held for the school on the basis that the speech did not involve a matter of public concern, but the Fourth Circuit reversed. Id. at 1582. The Fourth Circuit found that the teacher’s letter involved a matter of public concern because it addressed the issue of sex discrimination in the physical education department, or the treatment of females in school programs. Id. at 1583. Accordingly, it follows that Plaintiffs Apology, which addressed an allegation of sexual harassment, and therefore the treatment of females at the College, similarly addressed a matter of public concern. Moreover, in the case at hand, the Apology went one step further and addressed issues of public concern such as the sanctity of the First Amendment. iii. “Classroom Language” Finally, we turn to Plaintiffs classroom language which gave rise to the sexual harassment complaint and the disciplinary measures. The content of Plaintiffs language at issue is what the College terms profanity not “germane to course content.” See, e.g., March 4, 1998 Memorandum from MacQueen to Plaintiff entitled “Obscene and vulgar speech” (cautioning Plaintiff that “[ujnless germane to discussion of appropriate course materials and thus a constitutionally protected act of academic freedom, your utterance in the classroom of such words as ‘fuck,’ cunt,’ and ‘pussy’ may serve as a reasonable basis for concluding as a matter of law that you are fostering a learning environment hostile to women, a form of sexual harassment”). In other words, it was not the content of Plaintiffs speech itself which led to the disciplinary action; rather, it was the context and form in which Plaintiff used the speech — i.e., in the course of his teaching where the language was not germane to the course content — that the College found to be in violation of its sexual harassment policy. The context in which a message is delivered is often the pivotal factor when determining whether the speech will be protected. As the Supreme Court recently opined: [Tjhe protection afforded to offensive messages does not always embrace offensive speech that is so intrusive that the unwilling audience cannot avoid it. Indeed, it may not be the content of the speech, as much as the deliberate verbal or visual assault, that justifies proscription. Even in a public forum, one of the reasons we tolerate a protestor’s right to wear a jacket expressing his opposition to government policy in vulgar language is because offended viewers can effectively avoid further bombardment of their sensibilities simply by averting their eyes. Hill v. Colo., 530 U.S. 703, 120 S.Ct. 2480, 2489, 147 L.Ed.2d 597 (2000) (citations and internal quotation marks omitted). Nearly a century before Hill was decided, Justice Holmes likewise opined that “the character of every act depends upon the circumstances in which it was done. The most stringent protection of free speech would not protect a man in falsely shouting fire in a theatre and ca