Full opinion text
GIBBONS, J., delivered the opinion of the court, in which BELL, Chief D.J., joined. ROGERS, J. (pp. 444-456), delivered a separate dissenting opinion. OPINION GIBBONS, Circuit Judge. This appeal represents the third trip to this court for the parties to this litigation. The case has also been before the United States Supreme Court, which made a notable ruling that defendant-appellant Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Association (“TSSAA”) was a state actor. The parties’ dispute began when the TSSAA imposed a number of penalties on plaintiff-appellee Brentwood Academy (“Brentwood”) as a result of asserted violations by Brentwood of the TSSAA’s rule governing recruiting of student athletes. Brentwood sued the TSSAA and its executive director, defendant-appellant Ronnie Carter, alleging violations of the First and Fourteenth Amendments, federal antitrust laws, and Tennessee law. After the United States Supreme Court determined that the TSSAA is a state actor, this court on remand held that the recruiting rule was content-neutral and subject to intermediate scrutiny. We remanded to the district court with instructions about the proper analysis in the case on the First Amendment issue. The district court conducted a ten-day nonjury trial. The district court found for Brentwood on the First Amendment issue, holding that the application of the rule to Brentwood was not narrowly tailored to further the TSSAA’s legitimate, substantial interests. The district court also found for Brentwood on its substantive and procedural due process claims against the TSSAA, as well as on its procedural due process claim against Carter in his individual capacity. The district court enjoined the TSSAA’s penalties against Brentwood. The district court also held that the TSSAA was entitled to immunity from Brentwood’s antitrust claims. The parties cross-appealed to this court on these issues. For the reasons set forth below, we affirm in part, reverse in part, and remand for further proceedings. I. A. Factual Overview We begin with a description of the most pertinent facts and supply additional facts as necessary in our discussion of the various issues. The TSSAA is a voluntary association of 290 public schools and 55 independent and parochial schools from across the state of Tennessee. The TSSAA is organized as a non-profit corporation under Tennessee law, with the purpose of stimulating and regulating interscholastic athletic competition among its member schools. Its governing entity is the Board of Control. As noted in the Supreme Court’s decision in this case, the Tennessee State Board of Education, beginning in 1925, explicitly acknowledged the TSSAA’s functions “in providing standards, rules and regulations for interscholastic competition in the public schools of Tennessee.” Brentwood Acad. v. Tenn. Secondary Sch. Athletic Ass’n, 531 U.S. 288, 292, 121 S.Ct. 924, 148 L.Ed.2d 807 (2001). In 1972, the Board designated the TSSAA as “the organization to supervise and regulate” interscholastic athletics and specifically approved the TSSAA’s rules and regulations, including the recruiting rule. Id. In 1996, the Board dropped the rule expressly designating the TSSAA as regulator but did not change its relationship with the organization. Id. at 292-93, 121 S.Ct. 924. At all times relevant to the present case, Ronnie Carter served as executive director of the TSSAA. Brentwood Academy is an independent school in Brentwood, Tennessee, and a member of the TSSAA. In 1998, the school had about 520 students in grades six through twelve. Brentwood’s athletic teams, especially its football team, have been very successful in interscholastic competitions, even though its enrollment is smaller than many of its competitors. At the time of the events in question, Brent-wood’s Headmaster was Bill Brown; the Athletic Director and Head Football Coach was Carlton Flatt; and the Director of Admissions was Nancy Brasher. Brent-wood paid a fee to the TSSAA to renew its membership on an annual basis. The TSSAA has promulgated a “recruiting rule” in order to regulate the attempts of secondary schools to recruit middle school student athletes for athletic programs. The rule, found in the TSSAA’s Bylaws, reads: The use of undue influence on a student (with or without an athletic record), his or her parents or guardians of a student by any person connected, or not connected, with the school to secure or to retain a student for athletic purposes shall be a violation of the recruiting rule. The bylaws also include a number of questions and answers and other guidelines that are known as interpretive commentary. While these are meant to aid in the interpretation of the recruiting rule, they are not binding on the TSSAA Board of Control. Carter agreed that the recruiting rule itself is “all that really counts, everything else underneath it, the interpretative commentary is discretionary and it depends on the totality of the circumstances.” Excerpts from the interpretive commentary include the following: 1. Q. How is undue influence interpreted in the recruiting rule? A. A person or persons exceeding what is appropriate or normal and offering an incentive or inducement to a student with or without an athletic record. 3. Q. Is it permissible for a coach to contact a student or his or her parents prior to his enrollment in the school? A. No, a coach may not contact a student or his or her parents prior to his enrollment in the school. This shall apply to all students whether or not they have an athletic record. 4. Q. What are some of the guides [sic] used in determining whether there has been undue influence used which would result in a violation of the recruiting rule? A. Some examples are, but not limited to: 3. Any initial contact or prearranged contact by a member of the coaching staff or representative of the school and a prospective student/athlete enrolled in any member school except where there is a definite feeder pattern. 4. Any initial contact or prearranged contact by a member of the coaching staff or representative of the school and a prospective student/athlete in the seventh grade and above at any non-member school except where there is a definite feeder pattern involving the schools. Private... schools may not contact students enrolled at the public schools. Public schools may not contact students enrolled at the private schools. 7. Admitting students to athletic contests free of charge when there is an admission being charged at the contest except where there is a definite feeder pattern involved with the school. The “definite feeder pattern” exception does not apply to Brentwood, except with regard to those students who are enrolled at Brentwood Academy itself in the sixth grade or higher. In some form, the recruiting rule has been in effect at least since the early 1950s and probably earlier. It has undergone various changes; the auxiliary questions and answers and guidelines were added during the 1980s and 90s. In 1997, a number of coaches at public high schools that were TSSAA members reported various alleged recruiting violations by Brentwood to the TSSAA. On behalf of the TSSAA, Carter and other TSSAA officials began an investigation into the allegations. During the investigation, Brentwood supplied Carter with a copy of a letter Flatt sent to various eighth grade boys in April 1997 as well as information regarding phone calls Flatt made to the families of the boys to whom the letter was sent. The letter read, in part: Having officially enrolled at Brentwood Academy, the TSSAA allows you to participate in spring football practice. If you are not currently involved in a sport at your school, we would like to invite you to practice with your new team.... Due to the inconvenience to your parents, please do not feel that you must attend every practice. However, I do feel that getting involved as soon as possible would definitely be to your advantage .... We are certainly glad that you decided to become an Eagle. The letter was signed, ‘Tour Coach, Carlton Flatt.” This letter was sent to all incoming ninth grade male students who had applied, been tested and admitted, and signed enrollment contracts with Brent-wood. Flatt testified that after the letter was mailed, he received “a couple of phone calls” from parents of boys who received the letter with questions about the letter and the necessity of the boys attending practice. As a result of these calls, Flatt decided to call each of the families of the boys who received the letter to clarify that the spring practice was not mandatory and should not trump any other academic or athletic responsibility the boys might have. All twelve boys who received the letter ended up attending spring practice. The TSSAA also investigated allegations that tickets for a Brentwood football game provided by Flatt to a middle school coach were used by some of the coach’s student athletes to attend the game for free. As the TSSAA put it, these tickets were “made available to uncontrolled individuals” in a way that facilitated “the possibility for abuse.” Flatt later testified that he had told the coach that the tickets were not to be used to provide free admission to middle school students. The middle school coach nonetheless allowed two of the free tickets to be used by two of his students. Carter notified Brentwood by letter dated July 29, 1997, that the TSSAA had found Brentwood guilty of multiple violations of TSSAA rules. The letter informed Brentwood of various penalties that would be assessed as a result of the rules violations. Brentwood requested a hearing with Carter and members of the TSSAA Board of Control; a hearing was held on August 13, 1997, at which Headmaster Brown and representatives of Brentwood made a presentation regarding the allegations and determinations in the July 29 letter. Following the hearing, Carter again sent a letter to Brown providing more specific information about the violations and penalties to be assessed against Brentwood. Pursuant to the TSSAA Bylaws, Brentwood appealed the penalties to the full Board of Control, which is charged with enforcing the TSSAA Bylaws. Another hearing was held on August 23,1997. In an August 23, 1997, letter that represented the final TSSAA decision on the matter, the Board notified Brentwood that it had found that Brentwood, and specifically Flatt, violated the recruiting rule in two ways: (1) by granting free admission to a Brentwood football game to two eighth grade athletes from another school; and (2) by sending letters and making phone calls to eighth grade boys at other schools regarding spring football practice at Brentwood. The Board also cited Brentwood for conducting impermissible off-season practice with certain Brentwood student-athletes, but this alleged rule violation is not an issue in this appeal. As a result of these violations, the Board imposed numerous penalties, including a four-year probation for Brentwood’s entire athletic program, suspension of playoff eligibility for the Brentwood football and boys’ basketball teams, and a $3,000 fíne. B. Procedural History Brentwood sued the TSSAA and Carter (in his official and individual capacities) on December 12, 1997, alleging that the TSSAA violated the First and Fourteenth Amendments; the Sherman Act, 15 U.S.C. §§ 1-2; and Tennessee law. On July 29, 1998, the district court found that the TSSAA and Carter were state actors and granted summary judgment to Brentwood on its First Amendment claim brought under 42 U.S.C. § 1983. See Brentwood Acad. v. Tenn. Secondary Sch. Athletic Ass’n, 13 F.Supp.2d 670 (M.D.Tenn.1998). The TSSAA appealed that decision, and the Sixth Circuit reversed, on the basis that the TSSAA is not a state actor and thus not subject to suit under § 1983. See Brentwood Acad. v. Tenn. Secondary Sch. Athletic Ass’n, 180 F.3d 758 (6th Cir.1999). The United States Supreme Court granted certiorari and reversed the Sixth Circuit, holding that “the association’s regulatory activity may and should be treated as state action owing to the pervasive entwinement of state school officials in the structure of the association.” Brentwood Acad., 531 U.S. at 291, 121 S.Ct. 924. On remand from the Supreme Court, this court considered the merits of the TSSAA’s appeal. This court reversed the decision of the district court granting summary judgment to Brentwood and remanded the case to the district court, holding that: (1) Brentwood did not waive its right to challenge the recruiting rule by voluntarily joining the TSSAA; (2) the recruiting rule is not facially overbroad; and (3) the district court erred by subjecting the recruiting rule to strict scrutiny, because it is content-neutral. See Brentwood Acad. v. Tenn. Secondary Sch. Athletic Ass’n, 262 F.3d 543 (6th Cir.2001). This court remanded to the district court with instructions to: (1) determine whether the TSSAA’s asserted substantial state interests for the recruiting rule were legitimate; (2) determine whether the application of the rule to Brentwood was narrowly tailored to further the TSSAA’s legitimate state interests; and (3) address Brent-wood’s claims against Carter in his official and individual capacities. Id. at 558. After remand and prior to trial, on October 25, 2002, the district court granted partial summary judgment to defendants on Brentwood’s antitrust claims, reasoning that since TSSAA is an organization “pervasively entwined” with the state, it is entitled to antitrust immunity under Parker v. Brown, 317 U.S. 341, 63 S.Ct. 307, 87 L.Ed. 315 (1943). In December 2002, the district court held a bench trial and considered the issues addressed by this court in its 2001 opinion, as well as Brentwood’s substantive due process, procedural due process, equal protection, and Tennessee state law claims. The court issued a memorandum opinion and order on January 13, 2003, finding: (1) for Brentwood on its First Amendment, substantive due process, and procedural due process claims against the TSSAA; (2) for Brentwood on its procedural due process claim against Carter in his individual capacity; and (3) for Carter with regard to Brentwood’s First Amendment and substantive due process claims against Carter in his individual capacity. See Brentwood Acad. v. Tenn. Secondary Sch. Athletic Ass’n, 304 F.Supp.2d 981 (M.D.Tenn.2003). The court held that Carter was not entitled to qualified immunity on Brentwood’s procedural due process claim but that he would be entitled to qualified immunity on Brentwood’s First Amendment claim. The court declined to reach the equal protection or state law claims, and it refused to award damages to Brentwood. As relief for Brentwood, the court enjoined the penalties imposed by the TSSAA against Brentwood in 1997. On February 10, 2003, the TSSAA and Carter appealed the January 13, 2003, order to this court. On February 24, 2003, Brentwood cross-appealed, talcing issue with: (1) the district court’s October 2002 order granting partial summary judgment to defendants on the antitrust claims; and (2) the relief provisions of the January 13, 2003, order. II. Analysis of the Issues This court reviews a district court’s findings of fact for clear error. See Waxman v. Luna, 881 F.2d 237, 240 (6th Cir.1989). However, conclusions of law, questions of mixed law and fact, and “findings of ultimate facts which result from the application of legal principles to subsidiary factual determinations” are all subject to de novo review. Id. (citation and quotation marks omitted); see Cordrey v. Euckert, 917 F.2d 1460, 1465 (6th Cir.1990). A. The TSSAA’s Reliance on Its Contractual Relationship with Its Members Permeating the TSSAA’s arguments on both the First Amendment and due process issues is its contention that rulings by the district court “ignored the constitutionally critical fact that the relationship between TSSAA and [Brentwood] arose entirely from a membership contract that [Brentwood] renewed each year.” In other words, according to the TSSAA, “[e]very argument of [Brentwood] and every ruling by the District Court relies [sic] on the false premise that TSSAA is the sovereign State exercising police power rather than a state actor that asks its members to honor its voluntary contractual obligations.” Prior to undertaking analysis of the First Amendment claim, we must address this argument as it relates to that claim. There is a short answer to the TSSAA’s argument with regard to the First Amendment claim. The answer is that it is inconsistent with the law of the case and this court’s 2001 opinion. In the 2001 opinion this court outlined the First Amendment analysis to be employed by the district court on remand. See Brentwood Acad., 262 F.3d at 557-58. The underpinning of that analysis is that the TSSAA’s role in this case is that of a governmental entity exercising regulatory authority and that the recruiting rule must be considered a content-neutral rule subject to intermediate scrutiny. The court noted with particularity that the recruiting rule was analogous to zoning ordinances and limitations on noise, posting of signs, and distribution of religious literature that have been upheld as reasonable time, place, and manner restrictions. Id. at 553-54. The panel in the 2001 decision instructed the district court on remand to determine whether the recruiting rule is narrowly tailored to meet TSSAA’s substantial interests. Id. at 558. It noted that this question could not be decided in the abstract as a matter of law and contemplated that TSSAA would present evidence to justify the need for its regulations. Id. The panel was quite clear in outlining the district court’s task on remand. The TSSAA’s reasoning invites us to stray from the 2001 panel’s road map and follow another analytical route it deems more favorable to its position. In making its argument, it suggests that two lines of First Amendment cases — unconstitutional conditions cases represented by cases such as Board of County Commissioners v. Umbehr, 518 U.S. 668, 116 S.Ct. 2342, 135 L.Ed.2d 843 (1996), and government employee speech cases such as Pickering v. Board of Education, 391 U.S. 563, 88 S.Ct. 1731, 20 L.Ed.2d 811 (1968) — provide the correct analytical framework. Both lines of cases were mentioned by the panel in its 2001 opinion but in a context different from that in which the TSSAA now urges that they apply. One argument made by the TSSAA in 2001, bearing substantial resemblance to its present position, was that Brentwood “waived its right to question the constitutionality of the recruiting rule because, by voluntarily choosing to be a member of TSSAA, it has agreed to abide by the rules of the organization.” Brentwood Acad., 262 F.3d at 549. This court rejected that argument, reasoning that “the Supreme Court’s rulings that parties do not give up First Amendment rights by contracting with, or being employed by, a public agency forecloses [sic] TSSAA’s argument that Brentwood gave up its right to challenge the constitutionality of the recruiting rule because it voluntarily joined TSSAA.” Id. at 550-51 (citing Umbehr and Pickering). While Umbehr and Pickering may have given guidance in disposing of the waiver argument, the 2001 opinion in no way indicates that they govern the analysis on remand as to whether the TSSAA’s application of the recruiting rule to Brentwood violated its First Amendment rights. Our agreement or disagreement with the 2001 panel decision is not at issue here. We have no authority to overturn a prior published decision of this court, see Darrah v. City of Oak Park, 255 F.3d 301, 309 (6th Cir.2001), and, moreover, that decision is the law of the case, see Scott v. Churchill, 377 F.3d 565, 569-70 (6th Cir.2004). While courts have some discretion in following the law of the case doctrine, see id. at 570, this protracted and contentious litigation presents a compelling situation for its application. In order to maintain the integrity of the judicial process, an appellate court cannot change its mind as to the proper analysis after it has remanded a case for trial and the district court has tried it, giving its best effort to adhere faithfully to the appellate court instructions. We should properly review the district court’s decision, but we cannot change the rules after the fact. See United States v. Campbell, 168 F.3d 263, 265 (6th Cir.1999) (“Determinations of the court of appeals of issues of law are binding on both the district court on remand and the court of appeals upon subsequent appeal.”). This stance properly defers to the precedent set by the prior panel and recognizes that the parties and the district court must be able to rely on this court’s prior rulings in trying the case. While this court’s 2001 ruling provides the definitive answer to the First Amendment argument based on the TSSAA’s contractual relationship with its members, we note also that clear problems exist with the manner in which the TSSAA seeks to apply the “unconstitutional conditions” doctrine. The TSSAA relies on Umbehr to argue that the “unconstitutional conditions doctrine specifically allows a state agency to impose conditions, even on fundamental rights like free speech, when those conditions are reasonably necessary to accomplish the objectives of the contract.” This is not an accurate reading of Umbehr, which held that the First Amendment limits the government’s ability to terminate relationships with independent contractors because of their speech. See 518 U.S. at 673-74, 116 S.Ct. 2342. Moreover, Umbehr, in which the Court addressed only the narrow issue of “whether, and to what extent, independent contractors [with the government] are protected by the First Amendment,” id. at 673, 116 S.Ct. 2342, is not a precisely apposite precedent anyway. See also id. at 685, 116 S.Ct. 2342 (emphasizing the “limited nature of our decision today”). The present case does not involve the government as a party in a contractual relationship with an independent contractor, cf. id. at 678-79, 116 S.Ct. 2342. Similarly, there are obvious differences between the TSSAA’s role in this case and the government’s role as employer, cf. Pickering, 391 U.S. at 574, 88 S.Ct. 1731. The TSSAA’s reliance on the argument that Brentwood’s speech is not a matter of public concern is thus misplaced. The requirement that speech relate to a matter of public concern in order to be protected emanates from the government employee cases in which employee speech is limited in many respects by virtue of the employer-employee relationship. See id. at 568, 88 S.Ct. 1731 (“The problem in any case is to arrive at a balance between the interests of the teacher, as a citizen, in commenting upon matters of public concern and the interest of the State, as an employer, in promoting the efficiency of the public services it performs through its employees.”). The public concern requirement is not a part of the intermediate scrutiny given to a content-neutral restriction on speech. The 2001 decision of this court, in discussing the waiver issue, described the way in which public interests were to be taken into account on remand. In that decision, this court observed that substantial government interests, which the TSSAA would have to establish, were of necessity matters of public concern. Brentwood Acad., 262 F.3d at 551. In making this observation, it placed the public interests concept in its proper place in the framework adopted later in the opinion — on the governmental interest in promulgating the rule, not on the question of whether Brentwood’s speech related to a matter of public concern. See id. at 557-58. A couple of nuances in the TSSAA’s argument deserve mention. The TSSAA urges the applicability of its preferred analysis by differentiating between the government’s “sovereign power” and its “contractual power.” In doing so, it makes much of the dicta in Umbehr discussing the difference between the government’s “sovereign power” and its “contractual power.” See 518 U.S. at 678, 116 S.Ct. 2342. Reading Umbehr too broadly, it asserts that Umbehr extended the Pickering “public concern” framework to “any case where the government is exercising contractual power as opposed to sovereign power.” Again, the applicability of the First Amendment to the TSSAA’s regulatory conduct does not hinge on whether there was a contract or not. Even if such a distinction between contractual and sovereign power were applicable in any meaningful way to the present case, the Court’s conclusion in Umbehr — that some scrutiny more deferential than strict scrutiny should apply when the government exercises contractual power — does not suggest that the First Amendment does not apply to the TSSAA’s enforcement of its recruiting rule. See id. In fact, Umbehr suggests that the approach this court took in its previous opinion was the right one: that the First Amendment does apply to the rule, and intermediate scrutiny is the standard to which the rule should be subjected. See Brentwood Acad., 262 F.3d at 551-54; see also Umbehr, 518 U.S. at 678, 116 S.Ct. 2342 (“The tests that we have established in our government employment cases must be judicially administered with sensitivity to governmental needs, but First Amendment rights must not be neglected.”). A second nuance relates to the TSSAA’s efforts to cast the present case as a “subsidy” case, where the government has considerable autonomy over how a government program is administered. This characterization is similarly futile. The defendants state in their brief that “TSSAA membership is a subsidy” and that under Rust v. Sullivan, 500 U.S. 173, 111 S.Ct. 1759, 114 L.Ed.2d 233 (1991), the government acting as a contractor in a subsidy context “must be able to require the contracting party to limit its speech when reasonably necessary to effectuate the purposes of the contract.” Tellingly, the defendants cite to no page in the Rust opinion that supports this reading of the case; there is none. Rust involved a government funding program involving disbursements to doctors to advise patients on family planning topics. One condition of the program was that no funds could be used in programs where abortion was presented as a method of family planning. The Court upheld the program, reasoning that Congress had “merely chosen to fund one activity to the exclusion of the other.” Id. at 193, 111 S.Ct. 1759. In later First Amendment jurisprudence, the Court “explained Rust on th[e] understanding” that the government in that case was itself engaging in speech and could thus make viewpoint-based funding decisions. See Legal Servs. Corp. v. Velazquez, 531 U.S. 533, 541, 121 S.Ct. 1043, 149 L.Ed.2d 63 (2001); see also United States v. Am. Library Ass’n, 539 U.S. 194, 211-12, 123 S.Ct. 2297, 156 L.Ed.2d 221 (2003) (plurality opinion) (citing Rust in upholding the government’s requirement that libraries receiving federal subsidies utilize filtering software). Clearly, the TSSAA’s enforcement of the recruiting rule is not a funding program. Nor does it represent government speech. Cases like Rust do not govern the present case. Thus, as the 2001 panel determined, the appropriate characterization of the TSSAA’s role is as a government regulator, a context to which the First Amendment surely applies. See, e.g., Rosenber- ger v. Rector & Visitors of the Univ. of Va., 515 U.S. 819, 834-35, 115 S.Ct. 2510, 132 L.Ed.2d 700 (1995); Forsyth County v. Nationalist Movement, 505 U.S. 123, 130-31, 112 S.Ct. 2395, 120 L.Ed.2d 101 (1992); see also Brentwood Acad., 531 U.S. at 291, 121 S.Ct. 924 (holding that the association’s “regulatory activity” is state action, even though “[n]o school is forced to join” the TSSAA) (emphasis added); id. at 292-93, 121 S.Ct. 924 (noting that the Tennessee State Board of Education designated the TSSAA as “the organization to supervise and regulate [interscholastic] athletic activities” in Tennessee, and that the present case was triggered by a “regulatory enforcement proceeding”) (emphasis added). The applicability of the First Amendment to regulation of speech by the government in this context does not vary depending on whether the speech relates to a matter of public concern or whether the relationship between the government and the speaker is voluntary or contractual. For example, when the government regulates how and when citizens can enter into voluntary contractual relationships with the government that regulate certain speech by those citizens, the government’s licensing or regulatory scheme must meet constitutional standards, regardless of whether the speech at issue involves a matter of public concern. See Forsyth County, 505 U.S. at 129-31, 112 S.Ct. 2395; Southeastern Promotions, Ltd. v. Conrad, 420 U.S. 546, 552-53, 95 S.Ct. 1239, 43 L.Ed.2d 448 (1975). The same goes for the TSSAA’s application of its recruiting rule. We thus reject the defendants’ attempt to reshape the framework through which we view this case — a framework set out by this court previously and utilized by the district court in trying the case. The TSSAA, in administering its rules and regulations and imposing penalties against member schools, acts as a regulator, not as an employer, contractor, or disburser of funds. Therefore, as this court has previously concluded, Brentwood’s First Amendment rights are at issue in this case, and intermediate scrutiny applies to the TSSAA’s application and enforcement of the recruiting rule. The dissenting opinion accepts the TSSAA’s invitation to revisit previously rejected arguments and to recharacterize them as new ones. In fact, it even goes beyond the TSSAA’s arguments and suggests that no First Amendment rights are implicated here. The opening sentences of the dissenting opinion are conceptually attractive when first read. They are: “High school football is a game. Games have rules.” Of course, games have rules. And so do cases. Here, the rule is called “law of the case.” The dissent correctly notes that this dispute hardly evokes our notions of the core values of the First Amendment; the same could doubtless be said of other examples of First Amendment jurisprudence. But, in this case, the time for appellate court observation of any lack of a First Amendment issue was long ago. In recycling the TSSAA’s waiver argument, the dissent characterizes the 2001 panel decision as dealing with a broad issue of whether Brentwood had waived its right to sue entirely. The problem with this interpretation is that in 2001 Brent-wood had sued and had challenged the same rule at issue in this appeal. The panel was discussing waiver in this context, and the clear import of its decision is that Brentwood had not waived or given up its right to challenge the rule at issue here by entering into a contract with the TSSAA. Another difficulty with the dissent’s waiver theory is that it is implicitly based on the content of the contract. Yet the contract here contains no provision that assists in the analysis. Brentwood does agree to be bound by the rules. If the TSSAA were not a state actor, that would be the end of the story. Since the TSSAA is a state actor, the contract gives no guidance as to whether Brentwood waived a right to challenge a rule it considered unconstitutional. The contract’s silence thus becomes evidence of an absence of waiver of constitutional rights. The silence provides no basis for differentiating between a waiver of some rights and not others. B. Application of the Recruiting Rule to Brentwood Turning to the analysis of the First Amendment issue, we consider whether the TSSAA’s application of the recruiting rule to Brentwood violates the First Amendment. In the 2001 opinion, the court laid out the intermediate scrutiny analysis that applies to content-neutral regulations: [A] regulation of the time, place, or manner of protected speech must be narrowly tailored to serve the government’s legitimate, content-neutral interests but ... it need not be the least restrictive or least intrusive means of doing so. Rather, the requirement of narrow tailoring is satisfied so long as the regulation promotes a substantial government interest that would be achieved less effectively absent the regulation .... The validity of time, place, or manner regulations does not turn on a judge’s agreement with the responsible decisionmaker concerning the most appropriate method for promoting significant government interests or the degree to which those interests should be promoted. Brentwood Acad., 262 F.3d at 557 (quoting Ward v. Rock Against Racism, 491 U.S. 781, 798-800, 109 S.Ct. 2746, 105 L.Ed.2d 661 (1989) (internal quotations, citations, footnotes, and alterations omitted)). The TSSAA has asserted three interests as justification for the recruiting rule: (1) to keep high school athletics in their proper place subordinate to academics; (2) to protect student athletes from exploitation; and (3) to foster a level playing field among the various member schools. See id. In its previous opinion, this court recognized the first interest as legitimate and substantial. See id. at 557-58 (citing Crocker v. Tenn. Secondary Sch. Athletic Ass’n, 980 F.2d 382, 386-87 (6th Cir.1992)). This court remanded to the district court to determine whether the TSSAA’s other two asserted substantial state interests for the recruiting rule were legitimate. Id. at 558. The district court held that the TSSAA has a substantial governmental interest in protecting student athletes from exploitation. While it also held that the TSSAA’s interest in fostering a “level playing field” was a legitimate governmental interest, it found that this interest was not substantial, especially considering that “[t]he substantial governmental interest in informed school choice trumps any governmental interest in controlling which schools or teams win athletic contests.” Unlike rational basis review, intermediate scrutiny does not allow a court to supplant the particular interests put forward by the state with other suppositions. See Edenfield v. Fane, 507 U.S. 761, 768, 113 S.Ct. 1792, 123 L.Ed.2d 543 (1993). In determining whether an interest is substantial, a court must look beyond “hypothesized justifications,” Thompson v. W. States Med. Ctr., 535 U.S. 357, 373-74, 122 S.Ct. 1497, 152 L.Ed.2d 563 (2002), and focus instead on the “actual interests served by the restriction.” Edenfield, 507 U.S. at 768, 113 S.Ct. 1792. The district court’s conclusions regarding the TSSAA’s interests, which we review de novo, were not erroneous. With regard to the asserted interest of protecting student athletes against exploitation, the TSSAA presented voluminous evidence at trial, primarily via expert witness testimony, in support of its argument that this interest is a substantial one. Carter testified that the “fundamental” reason for the recruiting rule was preventing exploitation. One of Brentwood’s expert witnesses even testified that preventing the exploitation of student athletes, defined as the “selfish, unjust utilization of students for a school’s benefit rather than for the benefit of the individual student,” was a compelling state interest. At one point in its brief, Brentwood seems to suggest that evidence such as written legislative history or testimony from the initial drafters of the recruiting rule is necessary to prove that preventing exploitation of students was one of TSSAA’s “actual” interests in applying the rule to Brentwood. For the purposes of the first prong of the intermediate scrutiny test, it is only necessary to establish that the actual interest exists and is substantial, and this can be done without resort to such primary sources. While there is no known written legislative history for the recruiting rule and all of the initial drafters of the rule are dead, the evidence, especially Carter’s testimony under oath, suggests that preventing the exploitation of middle school student athletes is a substantial state interest and was one of the TSSAA’s “actual” interests in applying the rule to Brentwood. See City of Erie v. Pap’s A.M., 529 U.S. 277, 312, 120 S.Ct. 1382, 146 L.Ed.2d 265 (2000) (Souter, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part) (quoting Turner Broad. Sys. v. FCC, 512 U.S. 622, 664, 114 S.Ct. 2445, 129 L.Ed.2d 497 (1994) (plurality opinion)) (noting that the state can regulate speech to further an interest in preventing reasonably “anticipated harm,” as long as the harm is real); see also Knight Foundation Commission on Intercollegiate Athletics, A Call to Action: Reconnecting College Sports and Higher Education 20-21 (2001) (noting that “[h]igh school sports today can reflect the worst of their collegiate counterparts” in terms of exploitative commercial influences, pervasive recruiting efforts, and academic compromises for student athletes focused only on a professional athletic career); cf. Ohralik v. Ohio State Bar Ass’n, 436 U.S. 447, 462, 98 S.Ct. 1912, 56 L.Ed.2d 444 (1978) (holding that the state has an important interest in preventing solicitation by lawyers that involves undue influence, intimidation, overreaching, and other forms of “vexatious conduct”). The TSSAA also introduced evidence that supports its contention that fostering a level playing field among member schools is a legitimate state interest. Specifically, its experts and Brentwood’s own Headmaster Brown testified that the recruiting prohibition helps level the playing field among schools, especially as between private schools with significant resources and public schools with more limited resources and access to potential students. Carter testified at length about how the recruiting rule preserves competitive equity among schools, explaining that without the rule, “the rich would get rich real quick, and the poor would get poor real quick.” There is very little, if any, evidence, however, explaining ivhy competitive equity is an important value in the first place. It may be true, as defendants claim in their brief, that “maintenance of fair competition among [the TSSAA’s] members lies at the core of [the TSSAA’s] reason for being,” but simply saying this is so does nothing to demonstrate why such a “reason for being” is a substantial state interest. State actors may act out of a variety of interests, but only some are substantial. The defendants can cite to no evidence to support the notion that ensuring that high schools compete in interscholastic sports in an equitable manner is a substantial state interest, especially when coupled with the admittedly substantial interest of ensuring that athletics do not become more important than academics at the high school level. The district court was right that this interest, while legitimate, is not-substantial. Having established that the TSSAA has substantial state interests in keeping athletics subordinate to academics and preventing the exploitation of student athletes, the next question in the analysis, as set out in this court’s previous opinion on the matter, is whether the recruiting rule, “as applied to Brentwood,” is narrowly tailored to further those interests. See Brentwood Acad., 262 F.3d at 557; see also Turner Broad. Sys., 512 U.S. at 664, 114 S.Ct. 2445 (plurality opinion) (“That the Government’s asserted interests are important in the abstract does not mean... that the [speech regulation] will in fact advance those interests.”). Specifically, the district court’s task was to decide if the punishment exacted for these alleged violations relating to the free game tickets, spring football-practice letters, and the followup telephone calls was appropriate regulatory action narrowly tailored to further TSSAA’s legitimate interests as a state actor .... In proceeding with this case on remand, we caution both the parties and the district court to stay focused on the two alleged recruiting rule violations in question, rather than engage in a wide-ranging attack or defense of the recruiting rule as a whole. Brentwood Acad., 262 F.3d at 558. This court also noted in its previous opinion that the application of the recruiting rule must not “ ‘unreasonably limit alternative avenues of communication.’ ” Id. at 554 (quoting City of Renton v. Playtime The-atres, Inc., 475 U.S. 41, 47, 106 S.Ct. 925, 89 L.Ed.2d 29 (1986)). On remand, the district court held that the recruiting rule “is not narrowly tailored to further any of the three governmental interests of the TSSAA as applied to Brentwood Academy.” Reviewing de novo, we affirm this conclusion. The defendants import a definition of “enrolled” from a separate provision in the TSSAA Bylaws to support their argument that the students contacted by the letters and calls were not truly enrolled at Brentwood and that Brentwood therefore violated the recruiting rule by contacting them. Putting aside the fact that the Bylaw provision upon which defendants rely seems to apply not to practices or recruiting but rather only to eligibility to participate in athletic contests, the defendants’ contention that the students at issue were not enrolled misses the point. Considering that the interpretive commentary to the recruiting rule is not binding and serves only as a guideline, the TSSAA’s use of its discretion to punish Brentwood for the letters and calls was not a narrowly tailored way to keep athletics subordinate to academics at Brentwood or ensure that the student athletes being contacted were not being exploited. First, surely, however one defines “exploitation,” this interest was not furthered by punishing Brentwood. As the district court pointed out, the students contacted by the letter and calls had already signed enrollment contracts with Brentwood Academy, and the letter and calls were directed to all male students who had done so. In fact, Brentwood did not send the letter to one male student who had been accepted by Brentwood but had not yet signed an enrollment contract. Indeed, the students contacted had all agreed, and by all accounts were excited, to attend Brentwood the following year. Additionally, it is clear that the followup phone calls were made to clarify for the students involved that the practice was optional and should not preclude any other commitments they might have. The district court was right that “[n]either students nor parents were exploited in theory or in fact.” With regard to the former interest (keeping athletics subordinate to academics), it is a closer call, but the TSSAA’s use of the regulation to punish Brentwood seems to “burden substantially more speech than is necessary to farther the government’s legitimate interest[ ]” in keeping athletics subordinate to academics. See Ward, 491 U.S. at 799, 109 S.Ct. 2746; see also United States v. O’Brien, 391 U.S. 367, 377, 88 S.Ct. 1673, 20 L.Ed.2d 672 (1968) (holding that content-neutral regulations will be sustained only “if the incidental restriction on alleged First Amendment freedoms is no greater than is essential to the furtherance of that interest”). The TSSAA must demonstrate that in this situation “the recited harms [were] real, not merely conjectual, and that the regulation [would have] in fact alleviate[d] these harms in a direct and material way.” Turner Broad. Sys., 512 U.S. at 664, 114 S.Ct. 2445. They did not demonstrate this at trial. The district court obviously found the testimony of the parents of the boys in question to be more significant and persuasive than evidence from experts indicating that the letters and calls might — in theory — signal an emphasis on athletics over academics. The parents indicated they were glad to get the letter, and they did not at all think the implication of the letter was that Brent-wood subordinated athletics to academics. If the letters and calls were the first or only pieces of information the students or their families had ever received about Brentwood or would receive before arriving at the school, then an argument could be made that the school was unduly emphasizing athletics over academics. This was not the case. Each of the families of the children in question had already signed enrollment contracts with Brentwood. The information about spring football practice was simply information being provided to incoming students about an extracurricular activity available to them — an activity in which incoming students were allowed to participate under TSSAA rules. Incoming students at Brentwood received a variety of information about a multitude of topics and activities, including academics at the school, and the letters and calls should be seen in this context. Even if the students could (and sometimes did) “wiggle out” of their contracts with Brentwood, this did not mean that Brentwood should be punished for disseminating information about an optional activity for incoming Brentwood students. In fact, defendants’ argument that the students in question were not technically enrolled and could have still decided to attend another school might even weigh in Brentwood’s favor, in that the letters and calls could be seen as part of an ongoing attempt to make sure the incoming students were informed about what Brent-wood had to offer. That these particular communications emphasized athletics does not mean that punishing Brentwood for the communications served the TSSAA’s interest in keeping athletics subordinate to academics. In this context, the harm the TSSAA sought to prevent was “conjectual,” not “real,” or at least not based on the evidence in the record. See id. Put another way, it is not clear that the TSSAA’s substantial interest in subordinating athletics to academics was achieved any more effectively by punishing Brentwood for Flatt’s letters and calls than it would have been had no punishment been handed down. Cf. Ward, 491 U.S. at 798-801, 800, 109 S.Ct. 2746 n. 7 (holding that a sound-amplification guideline that eliminated the evils the city sought to eradicate without restricting a substantial quantity of speech represented “the essence of narrow tailoring,” because it was not “substantially broader than necessary to achieve the interests justifying it”); Members of the City Council v. Taxpayers for Vincent, 466 U.S. 789, 810, 104 S.Ct. 2118, 80 L.Ed.2d 772 (1984) (upholding a time/place/manner regulation because it “responded] precisely to the substantive problem which legitimately concerns the City”). To justify its regulation on Brentwood’s speech, the TSSAA cannot rely on “shoddy data or reasoning”; rather, its evidence must “fairly support [its] rationale” for the application of the recruiting rule to the letters and calls. See City of L.A. v. Alameda Books, Inc., 535 U.S. 425, 438, 122 S.Ct. 1728, 152 L.Ed.2d 670 (2002). Carter himself seemed to doubt that one could actually measure whether such letters and calls would emphasize athletics over academics or exploit the children: Well, I think, first of all, you can’t measure — you can’t measure it on the effect that it had on those kids or any other circumstance that would occur. If [exploitation] occurs, then it’s very difficult to imagine what impact it has on or to figure out what impact — I very seldom have seen kids in those situations that think it’s had any impact on them. But it’s very hard to turn around and determine that. Carter’s instinct was accurate, since despite evidence by numerous parents, school officials, and experts at trial, there was no evidence to show that the punishment of Brentwood was justified due to the effect of Brentwood’s actions on the children or the relative standing of academics and athletics at the school. In sum, the TSSAA did not show that the application of the recruiting rule to Brentwood was narrowly tailored to serve the TSSAA’s substantial interests. Reviewing de novo, we affirm the holding by the district court on this issue. C. Free Tickets as a Substantive Due Process Violation The district court also held that the application of the recruiting rule to Brentwood violated the school’s substantive due process rights with regard to the free tickets used by two students to attend a Brentwood football game. After citing authority indicating that the doctrine of substantive due process means that “governmental deprivations of life, liberty or property are subject to limitations regardless of the adequacy of the procedures employed,” see Pearson v. City of Grand Blanc, 961 F.2d 1211, 1216 (6th Cir.1992) (internal quotation marks and citation omitted), the district court centered its substantive due process analysis on the notion that [a]s applied, the Recruiting Rule did not give Brentwood Academy constitutionally adequate notice that providing tickets to another coach, who secretly disregards express instructions to use the tickets only for adults, will constitute a violation. The Recruiting Rule is unconstitutionally vague as applied to Brent-wood Academy on the facts of this case. The court went on to explain that “the Recruiting Rule did not give... Brentwood Academy[] a reasonable opportunity to know what was prohibited with regard to complimentary tickets so that it could act accordingly.” When the vagueness argument was formulated as a First Amendment challenge, this court repudiated it. See Brentwood Acad., 262 F.3d at 557 (“As a whole, the [recruiting] rule gives reasonable notice of what is prohibited, especially as applied to Brentwood.”). Essentially, the district court has now recast its previous holding striking down the recruiting rule as over-broad and vague (a holding that was reversed) as a determination that Brent-wood’s substantive due process rights were violated. See Brentwood Acad., 13 F.Supp.2d at 693. Yet, if the substantive due process claim is characterized as a vagueness challenge, then for the reasons set out in this court’s previous opinion, the claim fails. See Brentwood Acad., 262 F.3d at 555-57; see also Grayned v. City of Rockford, 408 U.S. 104, 112, 92 S.Ct. 2294, 33 L.Ed.2d 222 (1972) (upholding an anti-noise ordinance against a vagueness challenge because it clearly “delineates its reach in words of common understanding”) (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). If the substantive due process claim instead rests on an argument that the TSSAA’s application of the recruiting rule infringed some fundamental constitutional right, the claim fails because no such right is implicated here, and the TSSAA’s action was thus subject only to rational basis scrutiny. See Williamson v. Lee Optical of Okla., Inc., 348 U.S. 483, 488, 75 S.Ct. 461, 99 L.Ed. 563 (1955). Lastly, if the substantive due process claim rests, as the district court seems to intimate at one point, on an allegation that the TSSAA acted arbitrarily or capriciously to deprive Brentwood of a property or liberty interest, it still fails, at least as a substantive due process claim. Brentwood could not reasonably allege that the defendants perpetrated an “egregious abuse of governmental power” sufficient to give rise to a substantive due process claim, because there is no evidence to suggest that the defendants “maliciously and intentionally abused [their] state authority in order to injure” Brentwood. See Vinson v. Campbell County Fiscal Court, 820 F.2d 194, 201 (6th Cir.1987). Indeed, such a claim of a deprivation of a property or liberty interest, at least outside of the zoning context, see Pearson, 961 F.2d at 1217, is more appropriately characterized as a procedural due process claim, which is considered infra. For all of these reasons, the district court erred in concluding that the application of the recruiting rule to penalize Brentwood for the free game tickets episode violated Brentwood’s substantive due process rights. We reverse the district court on this issue. D. Procedural Due Process Claim The district court also found that Brentwood’s procedural due process rights were violated. The Fourteenth Amendment provides, in part, that “[n]o State shall ... deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law.” U.S. Const. amend. XIV, § 1. Procedural due process generally requires that the state provide a person with notice and an opportunity to be heard before depriving that person of a property or liberty interest. See, e.g., Thompson v. Ashe, 250 F.3d 399, 407 (6th Cir.2001) (“Courts have long recognized that the Fourteenth Amendment requires that an individual who is deprived of an interest in liberty or property be given notice and a hearing.”). Only after a plaintiff has met the burden of demonstrating that he possessed a protected property or liberty interest and was deprived of that interest will the court consider whether the process provided the plaintiff in conjunction with the deprivation, or lack thereof, violated his rights to due process. Hamilton v. Myers, 281 F.3d 520, 529 (6th Cir.2002). The first issue is whether Brent-wood was deprived of a property interest. Clearly, at a minimum, fining Brentwood $3,000 deprived Brentwood of a property interest. See Herrada v. City of Detroit, 275 F.3d 553, 556 (6th Cir.2001). The panel need not decide whether potential lost revenues due to the ban from playoff participation also qualify as a property interest. The second step in the procedural due process analysis is determining whether the TSSAA’s deprivation of Brentwood’s property interest contravened notions of due process. Under circuit precedent, a § 1983 plaintiff can prevail on a procedural due process claim by demonstrating that the property deprivation resulted from either: (1) an “established state procedure that itself violates due process rights,” or (2) a “random and unauthorized act” causing a loss for which available state remedies would not adequately compensate the plaintiff. Macene v. MJW, Inc., 951 F.2d 700, 706 (6th Cir.1991). A plaintiff alleging the first element of this test would not need to demonstrate the inadequacy of state remedies. Moore v. Bd. of Educ. of Johnson City Sch., 134 F.3d 781, 785 (6th Cir.1998). If the plaintiff pursues the second line of argument, he must navigate the rule of Parratt v. Taylor, 451 U.S. 527, 539, 101 S.Ct. 1908, 68 L.Ed.2d 420 (1981), which holds that a state may satisfy procedural due process with only an adequate postdeprivation procedure when the state action was “random and unauthorized.” See Macene, 951 F.2d at 706. In Zinermon v. Burch, 494 U.S. 113, 128-29, 110 S.Ct. 975, 108 L.Ed.2d 100 (1990), the Supreme Court narrowed the Parratt rule to apply only to those situations where predeprivation process would have been impossible or impractical. In this context, an “unauthorized” state action means that the official in question did not have the power or authority to effect the deprivation, not that the act was contrary to law. See id. at 138, 110 S.Ct. 975. Whether seen as an attack on an established state procedure or as an attack on a “random and unauthorized” act, Brent-wood’s claim is not subject to the Parratt rule, as it clearly was not “impossible” for the TSSAA to grant a predeprivation hearing to Brentwood on these facts. See id. at 128, 110 S.Ct. 975. It seems clear that Carter and the Board had the authority to impose the penalties against Brentwood; their acts were not “random and unauthorized.” If, as is more likely, the TSSAA’s action was the result of an “established state procedure,” then the question becomes whether that procedure violated Brentwood’s due process rights. Brentwood first argues that it was deprived of the right to a “neutral, impartial decisionmaker.” Brentwood points out that Carter acted as investigator, trial judge, initial appellate judge, and participant in the final appeal. This court, however, has rejected arguments that due process is violated when the same official plays multiple roles in the process, such as when he acts as investigator, witness, presiding officer at hearing, and final decision-maker. See Moore, 134 F.3d at 786; Du-chesne v. Williams, 849 F.2d 1004, 1005 (6th Cir.1988) (en banc); Newsome v. Ba-tavia Local Sch. Dist., 842 F.2d 920, 926-27 (6th Cir.1988). This line of argument thus fails. In finding a violation of Brentwood’s procedural due process rights, the district court focused on Brentwood’s alternative procedural due process argument: that during the TSSAA Board of Control’s private deliberations after the August 23, 1997, hearing, the Board heard ex parte evidence regarding contacts with middle school students allegedly made on behalf of Brentwood, and that this evidence affected the Board’s final decision and penalty. Brentwood claims that it should have had the chance to rebut this evidence by cross-examining the TSSAA investigators who discussed these contacts with the Board during the private deliberations. See Goldberg v. Kelly, 397 U.S. 254, 269, 90 S.Ct. 1011, 25 L.Ed.2d 287 (1970) (“In almost every setting where important decisions turn on questions of fact, due process requires an opportunity to confront and cross-examine adverse witnesses.”); see also Loudermill, 470 U.S. at 546, 105 S.Ct. 1487 (“The opportunity to present reasons, either in person or in writing, why proposed action should not be taken is a fundamental due process requirement.”). In evaluating Brentwood’s argument, it is necessary to recount in some detail the evidence about the subject of the ex parte discussion. There had been reports made to the TSSAA alleging that an Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) basketball coach named Bart King urged particular middle school student athletes to attend Brent-wood, had provided transportation to Brentwood for those students, and promised scholarships to those students. Brentwood alleged in its initial complaint that King was in no way affiliated with the school and that Brentwood never represented to King or others that King had authority to act on its behalf. After the TSSAA received reports containing the allegations involving King, two TSSAA officials, Gene Meness and Bernard Childress, investigated the matter. Meness and Chil-dress met with Brentwood Headmaster Brown in early June 1997 and asked Brown about King. Brown suggested that they put questions regarding King and other issues in writing and send them to him. Through an exchange of letters during July 1997, the TSSAA informed Brent-wood that it was investigating the allegations relating to King, and Brentwood stressed to the TSSAA that King was in no way associated with Brentwood Academy. Meness and Childress did not speak to King during the investigation. As the district court found, there was no indication from the TSSAA before the final hearing that it was still considering the Bart King allegation. In fact, the district court determined that “the TSSAA and Carter misled Brentwood Academy about a person and allegation which ultimately mattered to the decision.” See Brentwood Acad., 304 F.Supp.2d at 1004 n. 29. Despite this lack of indication that King’s conduct was at issue, at the final hearing on August 23, Brentwood’s counsel Tom Nebel offered to call King as a witness, saying, “We have Bart King here to answer any questions. And it was our intention to put him on, but I don’t know if you all are interested in extending for five minutes to hear Bart King or not. He’s here if you want him.” Carter answered, “No.” Evidently this was the only discussion of King at the healing. Carter later testified that “if Brentwood Academy wanted [to call King], they could have easily done it... .The school can put on anything they want to.” Nebel later testified that he was not cut off from presenting any information he wanted to present at the hearing. Meness and Childress were present during the Board of Control’s private deliberations following the August 23 hearing. While Childress recalled answering some questions posed by Board members, neither Meness nor Carter recalled answering any questions about Bart King. Boatd of Control President Mike Reed and Board member