Full opinion text
MICHEL, Chief Judge. Plaintiff-Appellant Gilbert P. Hyatt appeals from the grant of summary judgment in favor of Jon Dudas, in his official capacity as the Director of the United States Patent and Trademark Office (“PTO”), sustaining the decision of the Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences (“Board”) to uphold the examiner’s rejection of 79 of the 117 claims of Hyatt’s U.S. Patent Application Serial No. 08/471,702 (“the '702 application”) as not supported by adequate written description. The appeal was argued on April 7, 2008. It is clear from the record that under our case-law Hyatt had an affirmative and specific duty to disclose to the PTO the evidence excluded by the district court, and was so notified by the PTO, but willfully refused to cooperate in the examination process. On the facts of this case, we uphold the district court’s exclusion of Hyatt’s evidence. We therefore hold that the district court correctly granted summary judgment sustaining the Board decision because Hyatt offered no other evidence and the Board’s decision was based on findings of fact and factual conclusions, all of which are supported by substantial evidence, and thus we affirm. I. A. Proceedings Before the Examiner Hyatt is the sole listed inventor on the '702 application. Hyatt has been registered as a patent agent since 1975 and prosecuted the application wholly on his own. The '702 application relates to computer and software technology and is entitled “Improved Memory Architecture Having a Multiple Buffer Output Arrangement.” Hyatt filed the '702 application on June 6, 1995. J.A. 10001. The '702 application is a continuation or continuation-in-part of several earlier applications, some of which were themselves continuations or continuations-in-part. J.A. 10004. When first filed, the '702 application claimed priority back to 1984; Hyatt later amended the application to claim priority back to 1975. J.A. 10756-57. The '702 application as originally filed had 15 claims, a 238-page specification, and 40 pages of drawings. J.A. 10000-293. It also incorporated by reference multiple publications (such as the “Texas Instruments, ALS/AS Logic Circuits Data Book, 1983”), J.A. 10173-74, and a “disclosure document ha[ving] copies of many of’ a list of referenced documents; on the list were manuals and specification sheets of products such as the “Viewpoint/3A Plus” and the “Siemens OEM Floppy Disk Drive FDD 100-8”. J.A. 10239^0. After several rounds of amendments to the specification and the claims, Hyatt ultimately can-celled all 15 original claims and added 117 new claims. J.A. 4. New claim 107 is not atypical: A process of operating a memory system comprising the acts of: generating input image information; storing a two dimensional array of blocks of pixel image information by a two dimensional pixel block memory, the two dimensional array of blocks of pixel image information arranged in a two dimensional array of rows and columns of blocks of pixel image information, wherein the blocks of pixel image information have boundaries there between; generating write addresses and generating read addresses; writing the two dimensional array of blocks of pixel image information into the two dimensional pixel block memory in response to the input image information and in response to the write addresses; generating a first clock signal having a first clock rate; accessing blocks of pixel image information in response to the read addresses, wherein the accessing of blocks of pixel image information from the two dimensional pixel block memory is at a first information rate in response to the first clock signal; generating block boundary smoothing information to smooth the pixel image information at boundaries between blocks of pixel image information; storing weight information by a weight memory; generating accessed weight information by accessing the weight information stored by the weight memory; generating smoothed weighted image information by weighting the pixel image information contained in the accessed blocks of pixel image information in response to the accessed weight information and in response to the block boundary smoothing information; generating a second clock signal having a second clock rate that is different than the first clock rate of the first clock signal; and generating output smoothed weighted image information in response to the smoothed weighted image information, wherein the generation of the output smoothed weighted image information is at a different information rate than the first information rate in response to the second clock signal. J.A. 10472-73. In a January 7, 1997 office action, the examiner described Hyatt’s final amendment as incomplete, stating: Applicant also has failed to point out where in the specification support may be found for the amended and added claims. MPEP 714.02 states “Applicant should also specifically point out the support for any amendments made to the disclosure.” The disclosure includes the claims. Since the response appears to be bona fide, but through an apparent oversight or inadvertence failed to provide a complete response, applicant is required to complete the response within a TIME LIMIT of ONE MONTH from the date of this letter or within the time remaining in the response period of the last Office action, whichever is longer. J.A. 10493. Hyatt responded a month later with further amendments to the specification and drawings J.A. 10498-503. and the following indication of where support for the 117 new claims and amendments to the specification could be found: Representative antecedent basis includes page 23:2-19 for data compression; page 50:6-9 for the frame buffer; the section entitled “LOGIC BOARD” “Address Generators” at pages 117-127 for the address generator; the section entitled “MEMORY ARCHITECTURE” at pages 25-62 and the section entitled “MEMORY BOARDS” at pages 128-135 for the block memory having accessing, writing, and processing circuits; the section entitled “GRAPHICS PROCESSOR” at pages 9-14, the program listing at pages 214-30, and pages 29-31, 41, 42, 45, and 50 for the vector generator and processor; the section entitled “SPATIAL FILTERING” at pages 15-24 and the program listing at pages 231-236 for the spatial processor; and pages 33:15-24:11 for the transform processor. The Examiner is further referred to the Table of Contents (see the Preliminary Amendments) for additional antecedent basis. J.A. 10504-05. In October 1997, the examiner issued a final office action rejecting all 117 of Hyatt’s claims for lack of adequate written description, lack of enablement, double patenting, anticipation, or obviousness. J.A. 10634-64. The examiner rejected groups of claims for lack of written description and enablement based on the following thirteen limitations and groups of limitations: • “a data decompressed video image input circuit generating data decompressed image information” • “a writing circuit and an accessing circuit for writing and reading a block of video pixel image data into the block memory” and “the process of writing and reading a block of video pixel image data into the block memory” • “a vector processor responsive to an accessed block of video pixel image information and to vector information” • “a processor responsive to an accessed block of video pixel image information” • “a spatial processor responsive to an accessed block of video pixel image information and to vector information and generating data compressed video” • “a frequency domain processor,” “generating frequency domain image information,” and “frequency domain information” • “a block processor responsive to an accessed block of pixel image information and to vector information” • “[a]n input weight circuit generating input weight information,” “an address generator which will generate weight addresses,” “an address generator which will apply the weight addresses to the inputs of RAMS U5E and U6E at the same time the intensity bits are being applied to RAMS U3E and U4E,” and “an address generator which will generate weight addresses for selecting weight values from the weight table to perform the desired weighting function at the spatial filter” (collectively, “the ‘weight’ limitations”) • “block boundary smoothing” • “that the memory system is a video image data compression system” • “a quantization weighting processor” • “generating data compressed video image information” • “the act of making a product in response to image information” J.A. 10638-56. In some of his written description rejections, the examiner indicated the closest match he could find between the claim language and the disclosure of the specification. For example, the examiner stated “Claims 1-14, 17-20, 22-25, 34-37, 42-45, 49-52, 81-85, 95-112, 117, and 188 claim a writing circuit and an accessing circuit for writing and reading a block of video pixel image data into the block memory. These claims cover simultaneous writing and reading of a block of graphic image data.... The specification describes a sequential write to and read from the block memory.” J.A. 10641. For the majority of the written description rejections, however, the examiner merely stated a claim limitation — such as “a quantization weighting processor,” “a video image data compression system,” and “a spatial processor responsive to an accessed block of video pixel image information and to vector information and generating data compressed video” — was “not enabled” or “not described in the specification.” See, e.g., A10645,10652-53. B. Proceedings Before the Board In September 1998, Hyatt — continuing to represent himself — appealed the examiner’s final rejection to the Board. J.A. 10936. Hyatt’s brief presented such arguments as “The '112-1 rejections are prima facie erroneous because the disclosure is presumptively valid and correct,” J.A. 10824, “The disclosure is significant ..., comprising over 200 pages of description with detailed schematic diagrams showing actual commercially available electrical components in well known schematic symbol form and even showing component pin designations and wire connections,” J.A. 10827, and “With the extensive memory disclosure (e.g., Spec, at 99-135) and processor disclosure (e.g., Spec, at 87-98, 214-36) in the instant application, it is unbelievable that the Examiner would object to the disclosure of memory and processor features,” J.A. 10831. In addition, he included a document entitled “Table-1” (reproduced below), which he had not provided to the examiner, purporting to give examples of support: TABLE-1 REPRESENTATIVE TERMINOLOGY NOTES OCCURRENCES REPRESENTATIVE CITES PAGE(S) access A >100 25-83,128-164 address A >500 25-83,128-164 block A >80 25-83,128-164 boundary =3 14, 41 compress =4 23 data compressed =1 23 decompressed =1 23 frequency (FFT) C =7 33-34 graphic D >20 9-14, 214-230 image >50 50-55 information >100 THROUGHOUT input >200 THROUGHOUT memory >400 25-83,128-164 pixel >300 THROUGHOUT processor >50 85-98 quantization E >100 231-236 read A >50 25-83, 128-164 simultaneous >8 36,' 45, 46, 50 smoothing =1 232 spatial B >20 15-24, 231-236 vector D >50 9-14, 214-230 video =8 77,166,168-171 weight F >100 162-164 write A >100 25-83,128-164 J.A. 10832-34. In accompanying notes, Hyatt asserted that certain broad categories of “terminology” were disclosed in certain textual sections of the specification and in raw source code appearing in the specification. J.A. 10833-34. For example, in note “A” (associated with the terms “access,” “address,” “block,” “memory,” “read,” and “write”), Hyatt stated that Memory terminology; including memory access, memory read, memory write, and memory block terminology; is disclosed, for example, in two whole sections entitled “MEMORY ARCHITECTURE” and “MEMORY BOARDS” (Spec, at 25-62 and 128-35 and Figs. 6E-6N) and in two additional whole sections entitled “BUFFER MEMORY” and “BUFFER BOARD” (Spec, at 63-83 and 136-58 and Figs. 6W-6AF). J.A. 10833. Although Hyatt presented thirty-six pages of general argument that the written description and enablement rejections should be reversed, J.A. 10823-58, Hyatt did not separately address — and did not indicate where in the specification support could be found for — any of the claim limitations the examiner determined lacked support, except for the limitation “making a product,” J.A. 10836^40, and the group of “weight” limitations. J.A. 10835. Hyatt made general statements that Table-1 and the table of contents of his specification indicated that support for the relevant limitations existed in his specification. J.A. 10827, 10831. Hyatt also argued that lists of twenty-nine publications had been incorporated by reference into the specification and provided enabling disclosure. J.A. 10848-51. Aside from the “making a product” and the “weight” limitations, Hyatt did not correlate Table-1, his table of contents, or any of the incorporated-by-reference publications with particular limitations. Although reversing some of the examiner’s written description and enablement rejections, the Board sustained the written description and enablement rejections for seventy-nine claims in a July 2002 decision. J.A. 11638. The Board addressed each of the claim limitations relied on by the examiner. The Board rejected Table-1 as unhelpful in identifying written description support: We agree with the examiner that merely pointing to isolated words scattered throughout the specification does not describe the invention claimed as a combination of elements, functions, and interconnections, anymore than a dictionary provides written description support for a book where words are used in combination to provide a certain meaning. J.A. 11594. The Board even considered Table-1 “misleading” in that it indicated that the word “quantization” appeared in the specification, while the specification actually contained the symbol and the arithmetic functions “FlX(exp)” and “INT(exp).” J.A. 11617. The Board nevertheless reversed the examiner’s rejections of thirty-eight of the claims. J.A. 11638. The Board reviewed the entire specification, looking for support for each of the claim limitations at issue and found support for three of the limitations (such as one for “a data decompressed video image input circuit generating data decompressed video image information”). See, e.g., J.A. 11599-601. The Board also reversed one rejection because it was based on language not appearing in the claims (the “weight” limitations). J.A. 11602-03. For the other eight groups of claim limitations at issue, however, the Board agreed with the examiner that these limitations (such as “generating two dimensional processed image information in response to the accessed blocks of pixel image information and in response to the two dimensional vector information”) were not supported by adequate written description, and explained its reasoning in detail. See, e.g., J.A. 11604-06. The Board also reversed the rejections on the grounds of obviousness, anticipation, and double patenting, which are not at issue in this appeal. J.A. 11638. Hyatt filed a request for rehearing with the Board on September 30, 2002. J.A. 11642. In the brief supporting his request, he provided extensive new arguments and citations to the specification purportedly detailing where disputed limitations of each still-rejected claim derive written description support and are enabled. J.A. 11642-792. The Board denied his request for rehearing, holding that these new arguments and citations could and should have been presented during the original appeal briefing. J.A. 11805-07. C. The § 145 Action On April 16, 2003, Hyatt, now acting through counsel, filed a district court action under 35 U.S.C. § 145 against the Director. The Director filed a motion for summary judgment, arguing principally that the Board’s decision to reject all of the relevant claims of the '702 application for lack of written description and enablement was supported by substantial evidence. Hyatt opposed the motion, proffering his own declaration as well as his briefing from his request for rehearing before the Board (collectively, “Hyatt declaration”) as purported evidence supporting his opposition and precluding summary judgment in favor of the Director. The Director objected to the Hyatt declaration on the ground that Hyatt failed to timely submit it before the Board. Hyatt v. Dudas, 2005 WL 5569663, at **4, 6 n. 11 (D.D.C. Sept. 30, 2005) (“Hyatt II”). Hyatt submitted no other evidence. The district court excluded the Hyatt declaration because it found Hyatt had been “negligent” in failing to submit it to the PTO during examination or in a timely manner to the Board on appeal. Id. at *4-7. The district court then proceeded to analyze the record before the Board and concluded that the Board’s decision to uphold the written description rejections was supported by substantial evidence. Id. at *7-10. As the court found that no genuine issues of material fact had been raised, it granted summary judgment to the Director that Hyatt’s claims were invalid for failure to meet the written description requirement (and considered the enablement issue moot). Id. at *10. The district court denied Hyatt’s subsequent motion for reconsideration. Hyatt v. Dudas, 2006 WL 4606037 (D.D.C. Sept.30, 2006). Hyatt then timely appealed the district court’s judgment to this court. We stayed this appeal pending the decision in a related appeal, Hyatt v. Dudas, 492 F.3d 1365 (Fed.Cir.2007) (“Hyatt I”). We have jurisdiction under 28 U.S.C. § 1295(a)(4)(C). II. The central issue in this appeal is whether the district court properly excluded the Hyatt declaration. The parties argue whether, in light of over a century of precedent and practice involving trial court actions to overturn Patent Office decisions, the district court properly excluded Hyatt’s declaration. The parties are correct that this court has never squarely addressed the issue of exactly what standard governs district courts in ruling on the admissibility of evidence withheld during examination in the PTO. Hyatt argues that a plaintiff in a § 145 action is “ ‘entitled’ to submit additional evidence” subject to no limitations other than those imposed by the Federal Rules of Evidence. [Blue br. at 11-12]. The Director counters that Congress could not have intended district courts in § 145 actions to disregard the proceedings before the PTO altogether. The Director urges that § 145 actions are at least partly a form of appeal of PTO decisions, and that evidence not submitted to the PTO through the negligence, or at least the gross negligence, of the applicant is properly excluded in a § 145 action. Section 145 is silent regarding what evidence — or whether any new evidence — can be admitted in such an action. Nor does the statute expressly indicate what, if any, deference the district court must give to the findings of the Board, or our court to the rulings of the district court. As background, we will trace the origins of § 145 and summarize the historical practice of excluding certain evidence an applicant did not present to the Patent Office. We will also discuss one issue the parties did not, the Administrative Procedure Act (“APA”). A. 1. Shortly after the founding of the United States, Congress, pursuant to its constitutional power to “promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts,” U.S. Const, art. I, § 8, cl. 8, passed its first patent act. Act of Apr. 10, 1790, ch. 7, 1 Stat. 109-12. Under this statute, a majority of “the Secretary of State, the Secretary for the department of war, and the Attorney General” had the power to allow a patent application. Id. § 1. Congress did not provide for judicial review of the decision to reject a patent application. Three years later, Congress abolished the examination of patents, and for the next three decades, the United States operated under a regime of patent registration. See Act of Feb. 21, 1793, ch. 1, § 1, 1 Stat. 318; P.J. Federico, Evolution of Patent Office Appeals (pts. 1 & 2), 22 J. Pat. Off. Soc’y 838 (1940), 22 J. Pat. Off. Soc’y 920 (1940), at 838. In 1836, Congress created the Patent Office and the post of Commissioner of Patents. Act of July 4, 1836, ch. 357, § 1, 5 Stat. 117. The Commissioner and his staff of seven were responsible for determining if patent applications disclosed sufficiently useful, important, and novel alleged inventions to warrant a patent. See id. §§ 2, 7. An applicant dissatisfied with the Commissioner’s decision could appeal to a “board of examiners” appointed by the Secretary of State; at least one board member was “to be selected, if practicable and convenient, for his knowledge and skill in the particular art, manufacture, or branch of science to which the alleged invention appertains.” Id. § 7. Congress also created a process whereby an applicant could challenge the decision of the board of examiners in court, although this was limited to situations involving overlap between patents or between a patent and a patent application: [WJhenever there shall be two interfering patents, or whenever a patent on application shall have been refused on an adverse decision of a board of examiners, on the ground that the patent applied for would interfere with an unexpired patent previously granted, any person interested in any such patent, either by assignment or otherwise, in the one case, and any such applicant in the other case, may have remedy by bill in equity; and the court having cognizance thereof, on notice to adverse parties and other due proceedings had, may adjudge and declare either the patents void in the whole or in part, or inoperative and invalid in any particular part or portion of the United States, according to the interest which the parties to such suit may possess in the patent or the inventions patented, and may also adjudge that such applicant is entitled, according to the principles and provisions of this act, to have and receive a patent for his invention, as specified in his claim, or for any part thereof, as the fact of priority of right or invention shall in any such case be made to appear. And such adjudication, if it be in favor of the right of such applicant, shall authorize the Commissioner to issue such patent, on his filing a copy of the adjudication, and otherwise complying with the requisitions of this act. Provided, however, That no such judgment or adjudication shall affect the rights of any person except the parties to the action and those deriving title from or under them subsequent to the rendition of such judgment. Id. § 17 (emphasis added and removed). Congress additionally provided for federal jurisdiction over such actions with no restrictions on venue: “[A]ll actions, suits, controversies, and cases arising under any law of the United States, granting or confirming to inventors the exclusive right to their inventions or discoveries, shall be originally cognizable, as well in equity as at law, by the circuit courts of the United States, or any district court having the powers and jurisdiction of a circuit court.” Id. § 18. Over the next several decades, minor changes were made to the process of contesting an adverse decision of the Commissioner. In 1839, Congress specified that instead of to a board of examiners, appeals from a decision of the Commissioner would be taken “to the chief justice of the district court of the United States for the District of Columbia.” Act of Mar. 3, 1839, ch. 88, § 11, 5 Stat 355. Several years later, Congress instead directed appeals to any one of the judges of “the Circuit Court of the District of Columbia.” Act of Aug. 30, 1852, ch. 107, § 1, 10 Stat. 75. During the Civil War, Congress abolished the District of Columbia district and circuit courts and assigned all their functions to the newly-created “supreme court for the District of Columbia.” Act of Mar. 3, 1863, ch. 91, §§ 1, 3, 12 Stat 762-63. None of these changes affected the procedure of the 1836 act for a bill in equity, which remained available after some court of the District of Columbia had reviewed the Commissioner’s decision. See Potter v. Dixon, 19 F. Cas. 1145, 1146 (C.C.S.D.N.Y.1863) (No. 11,325). Congress substantially revised the patent laws in 1870. See Act of July 8, 1870, ch. 230,16 Stat. 198-217. Primary responsibility for examining an application was vested in a “primary examiner;” Congress also authorized a single “examiner in charge of interferences.” Id. §§ 4, 46. The decision of either could be appealed “to the board of examiners-in-chief,” and from there to the Commissioner. Id. §§ 46-47. Further appeal could be taken “to the supreme court of the District of Columbia, sitting in banc;” the appeal was to be decided “on the evidence produced before the commissioner.” Id. §§ 48-50. The decision of the District of Columbia supreme court could be challenged via a bill in equity: [WJhenever a patent on application is refused, for any reason whatever, either by the commissioner or by the supreme court of the District of Columbia upon appeal from the commissioner, the applicant may have remedy by bill in equity; and the court having cognizance thereof, on notice to adverse parties and other due proceedings had, may adjudge that such applicant is entitled, according to law, to receive a patent for his invention, as specified in his claim, or for any part thereof, as the facts in the case may appear. And such adjudication, if it be in favor of the right of the applicant, shall authorize the commissioner to issue such patent, on the applicant filing in the patent office a copy of the adjudication, and otherwise complying with the requisitions of law. And in all cases where there is no opposing party a copy of the bill shall be served on the commissioner, and all the expenses of the proceeding shall be paid by the applicant, whether the final decision is in his favor or not. Id. § 52 (later codified as R.S. § 4915) (emphasis added). Unlike the procedure under the 1836 act, the 1870 act allowed a bill in equity for any refusal to allow a patent application, not just a refusal based on an interfering patent. In 1893, Congress created “the court of appeals of the District of Columbia,” which had general appellate supervision of the supreme court of the District of Columbia. Act of Feb. 9, 1893, ch. 74, §§ 1, 7, 27 Stat. 434-35. To this new court were also assigned appeals from decisions of the Commissioner. Id. § 9. While appeals from “final judgments” of the court of appeals of the District of Columbia could be taken to the Supreme Court, id. § 8, the Supreme Court held that it lacked jurisdiction to review a decision of the Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia affirming the Commissioner’s rejection of an application because “the decision of that court may be challenged generally and a refusal of patent may be reviewed and contested by bill as provided” for by Revised Statutes § 4915. Frasch v. Moore, 211 U.S. 1, 9, 29 S.Ct. 6, 53 L.Ed. 65 (1908). Although this created an appellate path from the Patent Office that may seem highly unusual to us today, such a path was used. See Uihlein v. Gen. Elec. Co., 47 F.2d 997, 998 (7th Cir.1931) (appeal from examiner of interferences, to board of examiners-in-chief, to Commissioner, to D.C.Cir., to E.D. Wis., to 7th Cir.); Courson v. O’Connor, 227 F. 890, 890, 892 (7th Cir.1915) (appeal from examiner of interferences, to board of examiners-in-chief, to Commissioner, to D.C.Cir., to N.D. 111., to 7th Cir.). It also seemed unusual to many at the time; in Congressional hearings and reports leading up to the 1927 amendments to the Patent Act, the fact that in no other area of law were “five appeals” possible was often mentioned. See, e.g., Procedure in the Patent Office: Hearing on H.R. 7563 and H.R. 13487 before the H. Comm, on Pats. (“H.R. 7563 Hearing”), 69th Cong. 8 (Dec. 10, 1926) (statement of A.C. Paul, Chairman of Legislation Comm., Pat. Section, of the Am. Bar Ass’n); Procedure in the Patent Office: Hearing on S. 4812 before the S. Comm, on Pats. (“S. 4812 Hearing ”), 69th Cong. 8 (Dec. 20, 1926) (statement of Thomas E. Robertson, Comm’r of Pats.); H.R.Rep. No. 69-1889, at 1, 2, 7 (Jan. 28, 1927). In 1927, Congress significantly altered the process of reviewing rejections. A substantial motivation for doing so was the unusual and lengthy process involving “five appeals” for patent applicants. See id. To streamline the appeal process, various groups suggested eliminating the bill in equity or the direct appeal from the Patent Office; Congress settled on retaining both procedures but forcing applicants to elect one or the other. Hoover Co. v. Coe, 325 U.S. 79, 83, 65 S.Ct. 955, 89 L.Ed. 1488 (1945); S. 4812 Hearing at 10 (Paul). Defenders of the bill in equity primarily argued for it by pointing out that it was the only method for supporting a patent application with live testimony. See, e.g., H.R. 7563 Hearing at 11, 15 (Robertson); S. 4812 Hearing at 15 (statement of Edward S. Rogers). Congress additionally simplified the appeal process by combining the two appeals within the Patent Office (to the board of examiners-in-chief and then to the Commissioner) into one (to a three-member “board of appeals” constituted from “the Commissioner of Patents, the first assistant commissioner, the assistant commissioner, and the examiners in chief’). Act of Mar. 2, 1927, ch. 273, §§ 3-9, 44 Stat. 1335-36. Because of a backlog in the Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia, in 1929, Congress renamed the “Court of Customs Appeals” the “Court of Customs and Patent Appeals,” and redirected appeals from the Patent Office to the renamed court. Act of Mar. 2, 1929, ch. 488, 23 Stat. 1475-76; S. 4812 Hearing at 25-27 (statement of Karl Fenning, Chairman, Comm, on Laws & Rules of the Am. Pat. Law Ass’n). Congress significantly reworked the Patent Act in 1952. Revised Statutes § 4915 was bifurcated into separate provisions: 35 U.S.C. § 145 for ex parte proceedings, and 35 U.S.C. § 146 for interference proceedings. Congress made clear that this was not meant to change the substantive application of Revised Statutes § 4915. See S.Rep. No. 82-1979 (1952), as reprinted in 1952 U.S.C.C.A.N. 2394, 2400. (“This group of sections makes no fundamental change in the various appeals and other review of Patent Office action, but has made a few changes in the procedure in various instances to correct some of the problems which have arisen, particularly in section 146. These details are mainly procedural.”). Subsequent changes to § 145 have been mainly cosmetic; § 145 currently reads (much as it did in 1952): An applicant dissatisfied with the decision of the Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences in an appeal under [35 U.S.C. § 134(a)] may, unless appeal has been taken to the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit [under 35 U.S.C. § 141], have remedy by civil action against the Director in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia if commenced within such time after such decision, not less than sixty days, as the Director appoints. The court may adjudge that such applicant is entitled to receive a patent for his invention, as specified in any of his claims involved in the decision of the Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences, as the facts in the case may appear and such adjudication shall authorize the Director to issue such patent on compliance with the requirements of law. All the expenses of the proceedings shall be paid by the applicant. 2. Under Revised Statutes § 4915 as it existed from 1927 to 1952, differences existed between the procedure for bills in equity based on ex parte proceedings and those based on interferences; as enacted in 1927, the last three sentences read: In all eases where there is no opposing party a copy of the bill shall be served on the commissioner; and all the expenses of the proceedings shall be paid by the applicant, whether the final decision is in his favor or not. In all suits brought hereunder where there are adverse parties the record in the Patent Office shall be admitted in whole or in part, on motion of either party, subject to such terms and conditions as to costs, expenses, and further cross-examination of the witnesses as the court may impose, without prejudice, however, to the right of the parties to take further testimony. The testimony and exhibits, or parts thereof, of the record in the Patent Office when admitted shall have the same force and effect as if originally taken and produced in the suit. (emphasis added). The first of these sentences is the basis for the last sentence of the current version of § 145: “All the expenses of the proceedings shall be paid by the applicant.” The last two sentences of Revised Statutes § 4915 appear in revised form in the current version of § 146: In such suits the record in the Patent and Trademark Office shall be admitted on motion of either party upon the terms and conditions as to costs, expenses, and the further cross-examination of the witnesses as the court imposes, without prejudice to the right of the parties to take further testimony. The testimony and exhibits of the record in the Patent and Trademark Office when admitted shall have the same effect as if originally taken and produced in the suit. (emphasis added). Congress added these last two sentences to Revised Statutes § 4915 in 1927 to eliminate an inefficient practice that had previously been required in interferences. As the Third Circuit explained, under Revised States § 4915 prior to the 1927 amendment, the evidence given in the interference proceedings could be introduced only as secondary evidence, after proper foundation laid. The competency of such evidence had to be determined according to the principles of equity jurisprudence. In other words, the witnesses who had testified in the interference proceedings had to testify anew in the suit in the district court. If they did not so testify their absence had to be accounted for in the usual way if the testimony taken in the interference was to be received as secondary evidence. The [1927] amendment was passed to avoid this arduous and expensive means of reproducing the evidence of the interference proceedings in the suit. Gen. Talking Pictures Corp. v. Am. Tri-Ergon Corp., 96 F.2d 800, 812 (3d Cir.1938). To the extent that pre-1927 interferences cases could be read to support a de novo review standard, these cases are based on the prior practice of affording the Patent Office record little weight. For example, in Ex parte Squire (which was cited in Hoe, 112 U.S. at 61, 5 S.Ct. 25) the court explained that “[t]he evidence before the commissioner is not evidence here, except by consent of parties. It is taken, generally, without much regard to formality, and is ex parte, and, even if permitted to be used here, not entitled to the credit of proof taken in the usual way.” 22 F.Cas. at 1016-17. In amending Revised Statutes § 4915 in 1927, Congress clearly rejected this approach. Because both § 145 and § 146 are derived from Revised Statutes § 4915, and we have previously described them as “parallel provisions,” Winner Int’l Royalty Corp. v. Wang, 202 F.3d 1340, 1345 (Fed.Cir.2000), our precedent from § 146 cases can be used for guidance in interpreting § 145. We have noted that while § 146 prescribes a method for introducing the PTO record in a § 146 action, “section 145 is completely silent about evidence.” Winner, 202 F.3d at 1345. However, as explained in General Talking Pictures, Congress provided in § 146 this method of admitting the Patent Office record and required that it “shall have the same effect as if originally taken and produced in the suit” to overcome a specific problem that existed only in bills in equity based on interferences, not those based on ex parte prosecution. The absence of similar language in § 145 does not suggest that the PTO record should be given less weight in a § 145 action. But see Fregeau v. Mossinghojf, 776 F.2d 1034, 1041-42 (Fed.Cir.1985) (Newman, J., concurring in part) (asserting § 145’s silence about evidence means that § 145 proceedings should be conducted without regard to PTO record). Indeed, as we discuss below, it was well established by the Supreme Court that review of agency decisions was generally on the agency record. It should also be kept in mind that there are differences between ex parte prosecution and interference practice before the PTO, such as that live testimony may in certain circumstances be taken in interferences but not ex parte prosecution, see Trial Division of the Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences Standing Order at 1, http://www.uspto.gov/go/dcom/bpai/ Standing-Order.pdf; Ginter v. Benson, 81 U.S.P.Q.2d 1342, 1349 (B.P.A.I.2005). 3. While the Federal Circuit has not delineated a standard under which evidence may be excluded in § 145 actions, various other courts have. Issues specific to § 145 actions are a matter of Federal Circuit, rather than regional circuit, law. Titanium Metals Corp. of Am. v. Banner, 778 F.2d 775, 779 (Fed.Cir.1985). So far, we have left open the extent to which we should adopt the § 145 precedents from other circuits. Id. We thus undertake a review of past decisions of other courts. Under the pre-1927 version of the statute, the Supreme Court made clear that a bill in equity under Revised Statutes § 4915 was not independent of proceedings in the Patent Office. Instead, the Court described this bill in equity as something more than a mere appeal. It is an application to the court to set aside the action of one of the executive departments of the government. The one charged with the administration of the patent system had finished its investigations and made its determination with respect to the question of priority of invention. That determination gave to the defendant the exclusive rights of a patentee. A new proceedings is instituted in the courts, — a proceeding to set aside the conclusions reached by the administrative department, and to give to the plaintiff the rights there awarded to the defendant. It is something in the nature of a suit to set aside a judgment, and, as such, is not to be sustained by a mere preponderance of evidence. Morgan v. Daniels, 153 U.S. 120, 124, 14 S.Ct. 772, 38 L.Ed. 657 (1894) (emphasis added). Although dealing with the burden of proof and not admissibility of evidence, Morgan makes clear that the proceedings before the Patent Office could not be disregarded in court proceedings. The Supreme Court had also explained that under Revised Statutes § 4915, an applicant could file a bill in equity. This mean[t] a proceeding in a court of the United States having original equity jurisdiction under the patent laws, according to the ordinary course of equity practice and procedure. It [wa]s not a technical appeal from the patent-office, like that authorized in section 4911, confined to the case as made in the record of that office, but [wa]s prepared and heard upon all competent evidence adduced, and upon the whole merits. Butterworth v. United States ex rel Hoe, 112 U.S. 50, 61, 5 S.Ct. 25, 28 L.Ed. 656 (1884); see also Hoover Co. v. Coe, 325 U.S. 79, 83, 65 S.Ct. 955, 89 L.Ed. 1488 (1945) (Under R.S. § 4915, “a formal trial is afforded on proof which may include evidence not presented in the Patent Office.”); In re Hien, 166 U.S. 432, 439, 17 S.Ct. 624, 41 L.Ed. 1066 (1897) (“The bill in equity provided for by section 4915 is wholly different from the proceeding by appeal from the decision of the commissioner .... The one is in the exercise of original, the other of appellate, jurisdiction.”). More recently, the Court has also, “in passing, noted the settled law that in a section 145 action a disappointed applicant may present evidence that it did not present to the Board, and that the ‘presence of such new or different evidence makes a factfinder of the district judge.’ ” Winner, 202 F.3d at 1345-46 (quoting Dickinson v. Zurko, 527 U.S. 150, 164, 119 S.Ct. 1816, 144 L.Ed.2d 143 (1999)) (emphasis added in Winner). The dissent states that our holding is “in conflict with Supreme Court jurisprudence on this point.” Dissent at 1282. In fact, the Supreme Court has never decided the issue of what kind of evidence or when evidence could be introduced in § 145 or Revised Statutes § 4915 actions, and there is no clear guidance to be gleaned from Supreme Court jurisprudence. The dissent fails to recognize that Hoe involved not a bill in equity under Revised Statutes § 4915 but rather a writ of mandamus; the issue was “whether the secretary of the interior had power by law to revise and reverse the action of the commissioner of patents” in an interference. 112 U.S. at 54, 5 S.Ct. 25. As quoted above, the Court in Hoe noted that a suit under Revised Statutes § 4915 was “prepared and heard upon all competent evidence adduced,” but remained silent as to what was “competent evidence” under Revised Statutes § 4915. The dissent erroneously presents these phrases from Hoe as a holding. Dissent at 9. The dissent’s reading of Hoe, however, is contrary to the Supreme Court’s: Although, as was said by this court in [Hoe ], the proceeding by bill in equity, under section 4915, on the refusal to grant an application for a patent, intends a suit according to the ordinary course of equity practice and procedure, and is not a technical appeal from the patent-office, nor confined to the case as made in the record of that office, but is prepared and heard upon all competent evidence adduced, and upon the whole merits, yet the proceeding is, in fact and necessarily, apart of the application for the patent. Gandy v. Marble, 122 U.S. 432, 439, 7 S.Ct. 1290, 30 L.Ed. 1223 (1887) (emphasis added; citations omitted); see also Hien, 166 U.S. at 434, 17 S.Ct. at 626 (in explaining Gandy, noting that “the bill in equity was sub modo a branch of the application for the patent”). None of the other Supreme Court cases the dissent relies upon addressed -this question either, or even involved suits under § 145 or Revised Statutes § 4915. The issue in Zurko (which involved an appeal under § 141 rather than an action under § 145) was whether the standard of review set forth in the APA “applies when the Federal Circuit reviews findings of fact made by the Patent and Trademark Office.” 527 U.S. at 152, 119 S.Ct. 1816. In Hien, which involved an appeal under Revised Statutes § 4911 rather than a bill in equity under Revised Statutes § 4915, the Court decided whether the two-year time limit for an applicant to respond to actions of the Patent Office required that an applicant be allowed two years to file a notice of appeal with the court of appeals for the District of Columbia. 166 U.S. at 436,17 S.Ct. 624. To be sure, the Supreme ■ Court cases establish that in some circumstances new evidence may be submitted. But merely because new evidence may be submitted does not necessarily mean this right is unfettered; there still may be situations in which new evidence may be excluded. Over the last century, lower federal courts have found circumstances in which the actions of a party before the Patent Office justify excluding evidence offered by that party from a suit to obtain a patent. In an opinion from 1896, the Sixth Circuit, although not excluding evidence outright, stated “that its evidential weight is much impaired from the fact that, though accessible, it was not introduced during the interference proceedings.” Standard Cartridge Co. v. Peters Cartridge Co., 77 F. 630, 638 (6th Cir.1896). In Western Electric Co. v. Fowler, a party to an interference, Fowler, argued for and submitted evidence supporting a June 1901 date of reduction to practice, and, after the examiner of interferences awarded priority to his opponent in the interference, Fowler attempted to submit new evidence supporting a March 1901 reduction to practice. 177 F. 224, 226 (7th Cir.1910). This new evidence was admitted, but the examiner of interferences held Fowler to his original argument. Id. Fowler appealed successively to the examiner in chief, the Commissioner, and the Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia, but the decision of the examiner of interferences was. affirmed each time. Id. Fowler filed a bill in equity to obtain a patent, and the Circuit Court for the Northern District of Illinois found for Fowler. Id. at 224. On appeal, the Seventh Circuit discounted the evidence Fowler produced tardily in the Patent Office, and on that basis, reversed the district court. Id. at 228-29; see also Courson v. O’Connor, 227 F. 890, 892-93 (7th Cir. 1915) (allowing new testimony in the circumstance of that case). The court in General Electric Co. v. Steinberger took a limited view of what new evidence could be disregarded: In some instances the new testimony is offered as to matters which were not thought relevant or necessary for presentation to the Patent Office in the previous hearing. In general it must be held that all such testimony is competent and must be considered by the court in the action under section 4915, but in so far as the conclusions of the Patent Office, as sustained on appeal, are treated as a fair determination, upon similar testimony, and hence as being valid unless plainly erroneous, and in so far as the parties to the interference proceeding may have been estopped from asserting things inconsistent with their claims before the Patent Office, this court will not use the additional proofs in reaching a conclusion on the right to the patent, until it has determined whether the defeated party is in a position to contest further, or to give additional testimony about, the matters thus previously determined. 208 F. 699, 701 (E.D.N.Y.1913). After the 1927 amendments to the Patent Act, no circuit court allowed a de novo trial in an action under Revised Statutes § 4915. One of the more influential cases on the admissibility of evidence is Barrett Co. v. Koppers Co., 22 F.2d 395 (3d Cir.1927). There, during interference proceedings in the Patent Office, the Barrett Company instructed its employees not to answer questions about certain of its “commercial practices.” Id. at 396. The Barrett Company lost the interference, and then filed a bill in equity under Revised Statutes § 4915 and sought to introduce before the district court the exact testimony it had instructed its employees not to provide during the interference. Id. The Third Circuit found that the district court properly excluded this evidence, saying: The law gave the plaintiffs a day in coui’t on the issue of priority. That was the day the interference was heard and if they chose not to avail themselves of their full rights but to gamble on the decision by giving only a part, and the weaker part, of the evidence they had in hand, they did it at their'own risk. After losing on such evidence in what otherwise would be a train of futile appeals in the patent tribunals and Court of Appeals of the District’ of Columbia they cannot come into a District Court and say, now for the first time we shall tell the true story of reduction to practice and demand a patent. .... When, as in this case, a party has refused to produce evidence for consideration by the Court of Appeals of the District of produces that very evidence to overcome the effect of that court’s decision, he comes very close to trifling with the courts’ processes. If in this case the Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia was wrong it was because the plaintiffs purposely kept it in the dark. If now this court were in effect to reverse the decision of that court on evidence brought to light for the first time, we should be assisting the plaintiffs to profit by their own technical wrong doing. .... Particularly are we anxious that no one should think that we hold that any evidence not before the Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia is inadmissible in an action under section 4915, R.S. Such a notion would destroy the action given by section 4915, R.S. and throw overboard the whole doctrine of Morgan v. Daniels. Specifically our decision is that the plaintiffs in this action under section 4915, R.S., are es-topped to offer evidence which was wholly within their possession and control at the interference proceeding and which they withheld from that proceeding and, therefore, withheld from the other patent tribunals and the Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia, and thereby made it impossible for those tribunals and that court to render what they, the plaintiffs, now maintain is the right decision. Id. at 397 (formatting altered; emphasis added); see also Standard Oil Co. v. Montedison, S.p.A., 540 F.2d 611, 616 (3d Cir.1976) (“An action brought under § 146” is “limited to the review of a decision of the Board of Patent Interferences.”). While the Third Circuit gave Barrett a fairly limited reading in a subsequent case, other courts have interpreted Barrett more broadly. The Eighth Circuit cited Barrett when affirming a district court’s exclusion of evidence that could have been presented to the Patent Office but was not. Kirschke v. Lamar, 426 F.2d 870, 872-75 (8th Cir.1970). The District of Massachusetts followed Barrett in O’Donnell v. United Shoe Machinery Corp., 2 F.Supp. 178, 181 (1933). There, the plaintiff presented witnesses to the Patent Office, but they did not testify about an experiment the plaintiff had allegedly performed. Id. After losing the interference, the plaintiff instituted a suit under Revised Statutes § 4915, and sought to have the same witnesses testify about the alleged experiment. Id. The defendant objected to this new evidence, and the court disallowed it, saying: All of the additional testimony was available when the question of priority was before the Patent Office.... I am not inclined to sanction the practice of submitting issues of fact to an administrative department, competent to decide the issue, upon a partial presentation of the available evidence, reserving the full presentation for a trial in the courts to set aside the order of the administrative authority. This practice was justly condemned in Barrett Co. v. Koppers Co. ... Id. The Eastern District of New York promulgated a novel formulation of the rule of Barrett, namely that evidence available to but not presented by the party who lost before the Patent Office would be given “no weight” because the losing party gave “no sufficient reason” why the evidence was not presented to the Patent Office. Perkins v. Lawrence Sperry Aircraft Co., 57 F.2d 719, 720-21 (E.D.N.Y.1932). Conversely, the court also ruled that the party successful before the patent office was “not bound by” this rule. Id. However, Judge Learned Hand, writing for the Second Circuit, hinted his disapproval of such a stringent exclusion standard the following year: In Barrett Co. v. Koppers, the Third Circuit refused to consider evidence which the inventor had deliberately suppressed in the interference, and used broader language than the exact situation required, which we quoted with approval in Greene v. Beidler, 58 F.2d 207, 209-10 (2d Cir.1932). However, it does not follow that it would have extended the doctrine to evidence not suppressed, but merely neglected through the plaintiffs slackness in preparation. Perkins v. Lawrence Sperry Aircraft Co. did so extend it, but we need not approve. The question is doubtful and we prefer to leave it open, for it is not necessary to answer it here. Dowling v. Jones, 67 F.2d 537, 538 (2d Cir.1933) (citations altered and omitted; formatting altered; emphasis added). The Seventh Circuit likewise accepted that evidence could be excluded from a case brought under Revised Statutes § 4915 because of the actions of a patent applicant: In the Bamtt case, the additional evidence was at all times “wholly within (the) possession and control” of plaintiff, but he had “withheld” the evidence from the Patent Office. Under such circumstances, it is reasonable that the withholding person be estopped to present that evidence later. Such a principle of estoppel works properly in many instances, e.g., when evidence has been deliberately withheld or secreted, and when a story is completely changed on coming to court. We do not dispute the soundness of the proposition that all pertinent evidence, actually available, should be submitted in the first instance. To permit partial presentation before the Patent Office is to sanction the destruction of administrative justice. But we are satisfied that the estoppel principle has its limitations. It should not be used to penalize an innocent party. Nor should it exclude the presentation of evidence, which previously had not been procurable or which had become known after the interference proceedings. Coming now to the instant case, we find that Stoekle did not intentionally withhold the evidence which he later produced in court.... It seems undisputable that evidence may be available and existent at a given time, and yet not be within the knowledge or “possession and control” of the person desiring to make use of it. We are not prepared to say that Stoekle did not exercise due diligence in procuring the evidence sooner than he did. Globe-Union v. Chicago Tel. Supply Co., 103 F.2d 722, 728 (7th Cir.1939) (formatting altered; emphasis added). By the time of Velsicol Chemical Corp. v. Monsanto Co., at least in the Seventh Circuit, the rule based on Barrett had developed into the following: that it makes no difference whether the failure to produce the evidence was “attended by reprehensible motives or not (or) whether it be for tactical or other reasons.” 426 F.2d at 874. Moreover, we find that in terms of the policy of encouraging full disclosure it is not necessary that there have been an affirmative action or decision to suppress the evidence; it is enough that a reasonably diligent preparation of the proponent’s case before the Board would have led to the discovery of the existence of the evidence and its production. Nor is it necessary that the evidence have been in the exclusive control and possession of the proponent, as long as it was procurable by him. Conversely, a litigant who has been reasonably diligent in identifying and procuring evidence for the interference proceeding will not be precluded from strengthening his presentation in the district court if new evidence should become available to him in the interim. [Ajbsent special circumstances, the proper question for the district court was whether the failure of the proponent of the additional evidence to uncover its existence earlier or to procure it for the interference proceeding occurred in spite of the proponent’s diligence in preparing his case before the Board. We agree with the court in Kirschke Velsicol, 579 F.2d 1038, 1046 & n. 10 (7th Cir.1978) (footnote renumbered; emphasis added). The D.C. Circuit has stated that “the plaintiff may not submit for the first time evidence which he was negligent in failing to submit to the Patent Office.” Cal. Research Corp. v. Ladd, 356 F.2d 813, 820 n. 18 (D.C.Cir.1966). The D.C. Circuit has also prohibited an applicant from raising new issues in a § 145 action, and justified that rule as a necessary extension of the requirement that one exhaust administrative remedies before resorting to court, DeSeversky v. Brenner, 424 F.2d 857, 859-60 (D.C.Cir.1970) (per curiam), or, as the D.C. Circuit has also explained it, a § 145 action “may not be conducted in disregard of the general policy of encouraging full disclosure to administrative tribunals,” Cal. Research, 356 F.2d at 820 n. 18; see also Knutson v. Gallsworthy, 164 F.2d 497, 508-09 (D.C.Cir.1947). The D.C. Circuit has noted that “surprise should not materially affect the result in” § 145 cases. Cal. Research, 356 F.2d at 821. Under § 145, the District of Columbia district court is the exclusive forum for actions under that statute. Since 2002, there appear to have been approximately thirty § 145 actions filed in the District of Columbia district court. Many are terminated before the district court must rule on the admissibility of evidence not before the PTO. See, e.g., Novo Nordisk A/S v. Dudas, No. 06-cv-01896, slip op. at 2-3 (July 3, 2007) (dismissing case by consent of parties). There is no uniform practice in the District of Columbia district court regarding the standard governing exclusion from § 145 actions of evidence that was not submitted during PTO proceedings. See Hyatt II, 2005 WL 5569663, at *4-7 (after Director’s objection, excluding evidence because failure to submit it to PTO was “negligent”); Hitachi Koki Co. v. Dudas, 556 F.Supp.2d 41, 47 (D.D.C.2008) (flatly rejecting negligence standard of Hyatt II and admitting evidence over Director’s objection because failure to present it was not due to “fraud, bad faith, or gross negligence ” (emphasis added)); Takeda Pharm. Co. v. Dudas, 511 F.Supp.2d 81, 87 (D.D.C.2007) (admitting new evidence over Director’s objection because failure to submit it to PTO was “mt 'negligent ” (emphasis added)); Killian v. Watson, 121 U.S.P.Q. 507, 509 (D.D.C.1958) (after Commissioner’s objection, excluding new evidence on alternate grounds that failure to submit it to Patent Office was “grossly negligent ” and that applicant gave no explanation for the failure (emphasis added)); see also Shell Dev. Co. v. Pure Oil Co., 111 F.Supp. 197, 199 (D.D.C.1953) (in § 146 case, admitting evidence over objection because failure to submit it during interference was not due to “any bad faith, suppression, or gross negligence ” (emphasis added)). However, as the preceding cases show, the District of Columbia district court will always exclude evidence that was not presented to the PTO due to bad faith or gross negligence and sometimes if the failure to present it was negligent. In sum, it has been the general practice of federal courts for over eighty years in certain circumstances to exclude evidence which a party could and should have introduced before the Patent Office but did not despite an obligation to do so. Our own cases likewise have not adopted a de novo standard for trial. We have said that “[cjlearly, the applicant does not start over to prosecute his application before the district court unfettered by what happened in the PTO.” Fregeau, 776 F.2d at 1038. On the other hand, it is beyond question that in appropriate circumstances new evidence may be submitted to the district court in a § 145 action (subject, at least, to the Federal Rules of Evidence). See Gould v. Quigg, 822 F.2d 1074, 1079 (Fed.Cir.1987) (“[Ajdditional evidence is permitted in a civil action under section 145, allowing the district court to make de novo fact findings.”); Newman v. Quigg, 877 F.2d 1575, 1579 (Fed.Cir.1989) (“A district court action under 35 U.S.C. § 145 is a de novo determination of patentability. It is not limited to the record before the PTO.”); Emerson Stringham, Patent Interference Equity Suits 5 (1930) (“The equity suit offers distinctive advantages in way of a fresh hearing and the presentation of testimony direct to the tribunal.”). B. As the Supreme Court has noted, “[o]ne purpose” of Congress in enacting the APA “was to introduce greater uniformity of procedure and standardization of administrative practice among the diverse agencies whose customs had departed widely from each other.” Wong Yang Sung v. McGrath, 339 U.S. 33, 41, 70 S.Ct. 445, 94 L.Ed. 616 (1950), superseded by statute, Supplemental Appropriation Act of 1951, 64 Stat. 1048, as recognized in Marcello v. Bonds 349 U.S. 302, 311, 75 S.Ct. 757, 99 L.Ed. 1107 (1955). The Court explained that lightly finding exceptions to the APA would defeat its purpose. Id. Court review (whether by a district court or a court of appeals) of an administrative agency decision is presumptively deferential un