Full opinion text
ROVNER, Circuit Judge. Eighteen years after Deborah Kenseth underwent vertical gastric banding to treat her morbid obesity, her physician advised her to undergo a second surgical procedure to resolve the severe acid reflux and related maladies she was experiencing as complications of the original surgery. Before having the corrective surgery, Kenseth telephoned her health maintenance organization’s customer service line to determine whether the surgery would be covered by her insurance. She was advised that it would be, subject to a $300 copayment. But the day after she had the surgery, her HMO denied coverage, relying on provisions in the insurance plan deeming surgery and hospitalization for morbid obesity to be non-covered, along with any services or supplies related to such non-covered treatment. Kenseth’s internal grievance was unsuccessful, leaving her responsible for medical bills totaling more than $77,000. Kenseth filed suit against her HMO, Dean Health Plan, pursuant to the Employment Retirement Income Security Act of 1974, 29 U.S.C. §§ 1001, et seq. (“ERISA”), seeking relief under theories of equitable estoppel and breach of fiduciary duty as well as state law. The district court granted summary judgment to Dean. Kenseth v. Dean Health Plan, Inc., 568 F.Supp.2d 1013 (W.D.Wis.2008). We vacate in part and remand. The facts support a finding that Dean breached its fiduciary duty to Kenseth by providing her with a summary of her insurance benefits that was less than clear as to coverage for her surgery, by inviting her to call its customer service representative with questions about coverage but failing to inform her that whatever the customer service representative told her did not bind Dean, and by failing to advise her what alternative channel she could pursue in order to obtain a definitive determination of coverage in advance of her surgery. However, ERISA authorizes only equitable relief in cases where an individual is seeking relief on her own behalf for a breach of fiduciary duty. It remains to be seen whether any relief that Kenseth is seeking falls within the realm of equitable relief that ERISA authorizes. I. Kenseth is insured through her employer. She was hired by Highsmith, Inc., headquartered in Ft. Atkinson, Wisconsin, in May of 1996. The company is a distributor of furniture, equipment, and supplies to libraries throughout the United States and abroad. It has more than 200 employees. Highsmith sponsored a group health insurance plan for its eligible employees, and it contracted with Dean to provide the insurance. Kenseth elected to participate in Highsmith’s insurance plan, and her coverage under Dean’s group policy began on August 1,1996. Dean Health System is headquartered in Madison, Wisconsin, and bills itself as one of the largest integrated healthcare delivery systems in the United States. It operates an extensive network of clinics, the first of which was established more than 100 years ago, throughout Dane, Rock, and Walworth Counties in southern Wisconsin. Dean Health Plan/Dean Health Insurance, Inc., is the insurance services subsidiary of Dean Health System and provides insurance to Highsmith’s employees. Dean Health Plan, which we shall refer to simply as Dean, is one of the largest HMOs in the Midwest. In 1987, years before she was employed with Highsmith and enrolled in the Dean Health Plan, Kenseth had opted to undergo a surgical procedure known as vertical banded gastroplasty (“VBG”) in order to help her lose weight. VBG, often colloquially referred to as “stomach-stapling,” employs surgical staples to divide the stomach into two parts, creating a small pouch or neo-stomach at the entrance to the stomach which is connected to the remainder of the stomach by a narrow outlet; a polypropylene band is placed around the outlet to keep it from enlarging over time. Food fills the neo-stomach quickly, and proceeds through the outlet into the remainder of the stomach slowly, thus causing the patient to both feel full sooner and to continue to feel full for a longer period of time. The procedure achieved its intended effect with Kenseth, helping her to both lose more than 120 pounds and keep that weight off. The procedure was paid for by her employer’s health plan. Eventually, however, Kenseth experienced complications from the VBG. The outlet connecting the neo-stomach with the remainder of the stomach began to shrink and harden, a condition known as gastric stenosis. The stenosis in turn caused Kenseth to experience a variety of ailments beginning in 2001. These included severe acid reflux, which kept her awake at night and caused her to vomit repeatedly during the day, erosion of the esophagus, several bouts of pneumonia, and severe hair loss. By 2001, of course, Kenseth was working for Highsmith and was insured under the Dean group health insurance policy. The benefits available to Highsmith employees under that policy were set forth in a document entitled the Group Member Certifieate and Benefit Summary (the “Certificate”). The Certificate is revised annually to reflect the benefits available in each calendar year, and among other things it describes both covered and non-covered services. The Certificate identifies Dean itself as the “claims administrator” with “the discretionary authority to determine eligibility for benefits and to construe the terms of this Certificate.” R. 34-6 at 29 (2005). “Any such determination or construction shall be final and binding on all parties unless arbitrary and capricious.” R. 34-6 at 29 (2005). Among the non-covered services set forth in the Certificates for the 2004 and 2005 calendar years were “[a]ny surgical treatment or hospitalization for the treatment of morbid obesity.” R. 42 ¶ 8; see R. 34-6 at 13, 20 (2005). In both years, the Certificate’s list of “[gjeneral [ejxclusions and limitations” also included “[sjervices and/or supplies related to a non-covered benefit or service, denied referral or prior authorization, or denied admission.” R. 42 ¶ 9; see R. 34-6 at 22 (2005). In 2006, the language of this exclusion was revised to read “[sjervices or supplies for, or in connection with, a non-covered procedure or service, including complications; a denied referral or prior authorization; or a denied admission.” 42 ¶ 10; see R. 34-6 at 77 (2006) (emphasis ours). The Certificate encourages plan participants with questions about its provisions to call Dean’s customer service department. On the third page of the 2005 Certificate, under the heading “Important Information,” the reader is advised to make such a call “[fjor detailed information about the Dean Health Plan.” R. 34-6 at 3. Eight pages later, at the outset of the Certificate’s summary of “Specific Benefit Provisions,” a text box in bold lettering states, “If you are unsure if a service will be covered, please call the Customer Service Department at 1-608-828-1301 or 1-800-279-1301 prior to having the service performed.” R. 34-6 at 11. No other means of ascertaining coverage is identified for services rendered by an in-plan provider. Such a procedure is identified for services sought on a non-emergency basis from a provider who is not part of the Dean network: a plan member’s primary care physician must submit a written referral request to Dean’s managed care division in advance of service being provided, and after the request, the member is notified as to whether the out-of-plan referral has been approved. R. 34-6 at 7-8. In September 2004, Kenseth underwent an endoscopic procedure during which a balloon was used to dilate the outlet from her neo-stomach, which had become obstructed. The paperwork generated in connection with this procedure noted the connection between the obstruction of the outlet and Kenseth’s VBG. The gastroenterologist who performed the procedure, Dr. Abigail Christiansen, observed in her post-operative notes that Kenseth had undergone a VBG some seventeen and one-half years earlier and identified “[g]astric outlet obstruction from the vertical banded gastroplasty” as her medical “impression.” R. 34 ¶ 5; R. 34-5 at 32. The hospital’s “Outpatient Coding Clinical Summary” for the procedure also listed “acquired hypertrophic pyloric stenosis” as one of the doctor’s secondary diagnoses, R. 34-5 at 29, and stenosis of the gastric outlet is a known complication of VBG. Interestingly, however, Dean paid for the procedure, notwithstanding the fact that surgical treatment for morbid obesity was a non-covered service and “services ... related to a non-covered service” were also excluded from coverage by the terms of the 2004 Certificate. The 2004 procedure evidently resolved the obstruction of Kenseth’s gastric outlet for a period of time, but eventually the problem recurred. Ultimately, Kenseth was referred to a bariatric surgeon, Dr. Paul E. Huepenbecker, to assess longer-term solutions to the problem. Kenseth consulted with Dr. Huepenbecker on November 9, 2005. Dr. Huenpenbecker works at a Dean-owned clinic. Dr. Huepenbecker advised Kenseth to undergo what is known as a Roux-en-Y gastric bypass procedure as a longer-term solution to the complications she was experiencing. The doctor’s notes reflect the advice that he gave to her: I told her that basically she has an expected problem after vertical banded gastroplasty that has been more apparent after many years have passed following this procedure. That problem specifically is stricture at the site of the Marlex [polypropylene] band placed to regulate the size of the outlet of the “neo-stomach” created with the VBG. I told her that I certainly felt that this was amenable to revision and would simply require conversion to a roux-Y gastrojejunostomy. I further told her that I felt that this was a procedure which was widely done 20 years ago and was a covered benefit even by the Dean Health Plan until very recently. To that end I believe that this would be considered revision surgery and not bariatric surgery as the patient does not need surgery for weight loss. She simply needs a procedure to correct the situation which will continue to create increasing complications for her. I told her that in my opinion she should strongly consider conversion of vertical banded gastroplasty to roux-Y gastrojejunostomy. She is amenable to this and we will go ahead and arrange this at this point in time. R. 42 ¶ 14; see R. 26 at 6. The Roux-en-Y procedure obviates problems stemming from stenosis of the gastric outlet by connecting the small gastric pouch created by the VBG directly to the small intestine, thus bypassing the outlet and the remainder of the stomach. The procedure was scheduled for December 6, 2005 at St. Mary’s Hospital in Madison. St. Mary’s is a Dean-affiliated hospital. In anticipation of the Roux-en-Y procedure, Dr. Huepenbecker’s office provided Kenseth with a written form that included a standard set of pre-printed instructions along with certain details about the surgery (including the date and nature of the surgery, as well as the names of her primary physician and surgeon) that his staff filled in. Dr. Huepenbecker uses this form routinely, and to his knowledge it is commonly used throughout the Dean Clinic. The completed form described the surgery as a “Roux revision of proximal gastric stenosis.” R. 42 ¶ 15; see R. 26 at 7. The standard instructions included the following (somewhat awkward) admonishment to Kenseth regarding her insurance: 7. It is the patient’s responsibility to check on coverage whether prior authorization or pre-certification is needed prior to your surgery. It is also the patient’s responsibility to check on coverage. Please call your insurance company and let them know the date and type of surgery you are having. If they need further information you may give them your nurse’s phone number and they can call with questions. R. 42 ¶ 15; see R. 26 at 7 (emphasis in original). Later that same day, consistent with the instructions on the form provided to her, Kenseth called Dean’s customer service number and spoke with Maureen Detmer, a customer service representative who had been employed in that capacity for about one year. Kenseth avers that she told Detmer she would be having “a reconstruction of a Roux-en-Y stenosis [sic],” R. 42 ¶ 17, see R. 21 at 9, Kenseth Dep. 30, and when Detmer asked her to explain the nature of the surgery, Kenseth told her “it had to deal with the bottom of the esophagus because of all the acid reflux I was having,” R. 42 ¶ 17; see R. 21 at 9, Kenseth Dep. 30. Kenseth did not advise Detmer that her condition was a result of the VBG she had undergone in 1987, although Kenseth by her own account was aware of the connection; she represents that her omission of that information was not intentional. Detmer put Kenseth on hold for a moment. When she returned to the line, Detmer advised Kenseth that the procedure would be covered by her insurance, subject to a $300 copayment. The conversation between Kenseth and Detmer was not recorded, and although Detmer’s practice was to make handwritten notes of such conversations, those were destroyed after thirty days. Detmer did memorialize the call in Dean’s TRACS software system, noting that Kenseth had indicated she was having reconstructive surgery on her esophagus with Dr. Huepenbecker and that Detmer had verified insurance coverage subject to a $300 copayment. By the time she was deposed in this lawsuit, Detmer had no independent recollection of her conversation with Kenseth. Detmer was not trained to tell, and does not tell, participants in Dean’s health plans who call with questions about coverage that they cannot rely on her interpretation of the schedule of benefits. “I don’t believe I’ve ever said that, no,” Detmer testified. R. 28 at 10, Detmer Dep. 35. One may therefore infer that Detmer did not give such a warning to Kenseth. If callers ask for information beyond what she or a supervisor have told them, she typically refers them back to the Certificate. We should note that Kenseth, although she had looked at the Certifícate on prior occasions, did not consult the Certificate in advance of her surgery in order to see what light it might shed on the question of coverage for that procedure. Nor did she ask Dean to provide written confirmation of coverage, which is a step Dean’s counsel suggests that she could have taken. Dean Br. 9. She instead relied on Detmer’s oral representation that the surgery would be covered by Dean’s group health insurance plan. Kenseth’s surgery proceeded as scheduled on December 6, 2005. Dr. Huepenbecker created a small pouch in the lesser curvature of the stomach, beneath the esophagus, in order to ensure an adequate blood supply to the gastric pouch or neostomach created in the 1987 surgery. He then connected the gastric pouch directly to Kenseth’s small intestine by means of a “Roux loop,” thus bypassing the remainder of her banded stomach. The gastric band inserted in 1987 remained in place. On the following day, Dean made an initial decision to deny coverage for Kenseth’s surgery and all associated services. Based on the information provided to Dean by St. Mary’s regarding the surgery, Dean’s utilization reviewer and its assistant medical director determined that the Roux-en-Y procedure was designed to address stenosis resulting from Kenseth’s 1987 VBG. In their view, because the VBG constituted a non-covered service under Dean’s insurance policy, any treatment aimed at resolving complications from that surgery was itself non-covered. By notice dated December 8, 2005, Dean formally advised Kenseth that it was denying her claim for the surgery and hospitalization: Dean Health Plan has received information regarding your admission to St. Mary’s Hospital for a surgical procedure that is related to a non covered benefit. Based on the information provided, your admission is denied at this time. As outlined in your Group Member Certificate and Benefit Summary, please refer to the section Inpatient Hospital: non covered services, number 5. Surgical services, non covered services number 4 as well as the General Exclusions and Limitations section, number 28. Please be aware that complications related to a non covered benefit are excluded from coverage. Alternatives to consider include paying privately for these services or discussing other options with your physician. R. 42 ¶ 33; see R. 26 at 3. Kenseth was discharged from St. Mary’s on December 10, 2005. She subsequently suffered complications from the surgery, including a persistent infection, that required her readmission to the hospital from January 14 to January 30, 2006. Dean denied coverage for her second hospital stay as well. The costs of Kenseth’s surgery and two hospital stays came to approximately $77,974.00. Exercising her rights under the insurance policy, Kenseth pursued an internal grievance asking Dean to reconsider its decision to deny coverage for her Roux-en-Y surgery and hospitalization. Dean again asserted that these services were related to a non-covered procedure and therefore excluded from coverage. Kenseth then pursued a complaint resolution and formal written grievance, but Dean did not change its position. Kenseth subsequently filed suit asserting two claims under ERISA and one under Wisconsin law. She asserted first that Dean breached its fiduciary obligation to her in two senses: (1) the Certificate setting forth her insurance benefits was unclear as to coverage for her 2005 surgery and misleading as to the process she should follow in order to determine whether that surgery would be covered, and (2) Dean failed to provide her with a procedure (other than contacting customer service) through which she could obtain authoritative preapproval of her surgery. She analogized her situation to that of the plaintiff in Bowerman v. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., 226 F.3d 574, 590-91 (7th Cir.2000), where we held that it was a breach of fiduciary duty for the insurer to provide an insured with ambiguous plan documents and then to fail to clear up the ambiguity in conversations between the insured and the insurer’s representative. Kenseth asserted second that Dean is equitably es-topped from denying benefits because Dean’s customer service representative orally advised her that the surgery would be covered, and she relied on that representation. Finally, Kenseth asserted that Dean’s reliance on the non-covered nature of her 1987 VBG to deny coverage for subsequent medical treatment addressing complications from that surgery ran afoul of a Wisconsin statute precluding an insurer from excluding coverage for preexisting conditions for a period of longer than twelve months. The district court granted summary judgment to Dean on each of these claims. 568 F.Supp.2d 1013. The court found no support in Bowennan for the notion that Dean had a fiduciary duty to identify a procedure through which Kenseth could confirm that her 2005 surgery was covered by her group health insurance. The court reasoned that only if the average person could not read the plan documents and determine for herself whether a particular medical condition or service is covered does the insurer have a duty to provide another means for the insured to ascertain coverage. Here, “no reasonable person reading the plan would have difficulty determining that the plan would not cover plaintiffs 2005 surgery.” Id. at 1017. It was clear that the 2005 surgery was related to the non-covered VBG and thus fell within the Certificate’s general exclusion for services and supplies related to non-covered procedures. Id. The fact that the exclusion was modified in 2006 to include the term “complications” did not alter the court’s view that the language as it stood in 2005 was clear: “the phrase ‘related to’ is not a term of art that only a technical winter can understand,” and it is broad enough to include complications from a non-covered service. Id. Nor was the court persuaded that various other provisions of ERISA and its implementing regulations gave rise to a duty to provide a confirmation mechanism. Id. at 1018. The court found the estoppel claim flawed for two principal reasons. First, in soliciting coverage information from Dean’s customer service representative, Kenseth had failed to disclose that the purpose of her 2005 surgery was to remediate a complication resulting from her 1987 surgery. Id. at 1018-19. In light of that omission, the customer service worker’s representation that Kenseth’s upcoming surgery would be covered was “not necessarily inaccurate.” Id. at 1019. Second, oral representations will not support an ERISA estoppel claim for benefits that are different from those unambiguously set forth in a written plan. As the court had already observed with respect to the fiduciary claim, Dean’s certificate unambiguously excluded coverage for any services related to a non-covered service. Id. Finally, the court rejected the notion that Dean was obliged to pay for the 2005 surgery in view of Wisconsin’s twelvemonth limit on exclusions for preexisting conditions. Wis. Stat. § 632.746(l)(b). As the court saw it, Kenseth was not challenging an exclusion for preexisting conditions. “Under defendant’s plan, it is irrelevant when plaintiff had the gastric bands inserted; why she did so is the only thing that matters. Defendant would have ... denied coverage for the 2005 surgery whether she had inserted the bands before or after she joined the plan in 1996.” 568 F.Supp.2d at 1019 (emphasis in original). II. We review the district court’s decision to enter summary judgment against Kenseth de novo, and we are obliged in the course of our review to consider the facts in the light most favorable to Kenseth. E.g., Coffman v. Indianapolis Fire Dep’t, 578 F.3d 559, 563 (7th Cir.2009). Although we conclude that summary judgment was warranted as to Kenseth’s estoppel and state-law claims, we believe that the facts would support a finding that Dean breached the fiduciary duty it owed to her as an insurer with the discretionary authority to grant or deny her claim for benefits. We therefore vacate the grant of summary to Dean on that claim. Whether further proceedings are warranted on that claim depends on whether Kenseth is seeking a form of equitable relief that ERISA authorizes for that type of claim. A. Equitable Estoppel We need not linger long over the equitable estoppel and state law claims. Equitable estoppel typically requires that the party being estopped — here, Dean— knows the relevant facts. E.g., United States v. Fitzgerald, 938 F.2d 792, 797 (7th Cir.1991) (quoting Portmann v. United States, 674 F.2d 1155, 1167 (7th Cir.1982)). A relevant fact here was that the acid reflux and other maladies that Kenseth was experiencing, and that the Roux-en-Y procedure was intended to resolve, were caused by her 1987 VBG surgery. Insurance coverage for particular types of health care often depends on the origin of the underlying medical condition. To cite the most obvious example, many policies exclude coverage, at least for some period of time, for treatment of any medical condition that predated the insured’s enrollment with the insurer — so called preexisting conditions. In this case, the policy excluded coverage for both the surgical treatment of morbid obesity and any services “related to” such a non-covered treatment. The connection between Kenseth’s condition in 2005 and her 1987 VBG was thus a fact relevant to coverage under the Dean policy. It is undisputed, however, that Kenseth did not advise Dean’s customer service agent of that connection notwithstanding her own awareness of the relationship. By Kenseth’s own account, she informed Detmer only that the Roux-en-Y procedure “had to deal with the bottom of the esophagus because of all the acid reflux I was having.” R. 21 at 9, Kenseth Dep. 30. Only after the Roux-en-Y surgery took place did Dean learn that the procedure was necessitated by complications resulting from the 1987 VBG. We do not mean to imply that Kenseth deliberately withheld that information; there is no evidence suggesting that she was attempting to deceive Dean or that she even fully appreciated, at that time, the significance of the 1987 surgery vis-á-vis the terms of the Certificate. But given that Dean did not know a fact that was highly material to coverage under its policy, we do not think that it can be equitably estopped on the basis of an oral representation that its agent made on the basis of limited and incomplete facts. Dean can be faulted, as we discuss below, for soliciting telephonic inquiries concerning coverage and not having appropriate cautions and safeguards in place to prevent its participants and beneficiaries from relying on the mistaken advice they are given by its customer service agents. But that, we believe, is a problem more appropriately dealt with as a breach of fiduciary duty. B. Wisconsin Statutory Limit on Exclusions for Preexisting Conditions We also agree that summary judgment was properly granted as to Kenseth’s state-law claim. A Wisconsin statute precludes a group health insurer from excluding coverage for a preexisting condition for a period of longer than twelve months. Wis. Stat. § 632.746(l)(b). Kenseth reasons that her gastric band constituted a preexisting condition and that, consequently, Dean could not exclude coverage for treatment related to the band for more than twelve months after she joined the Dean Plan in 1996. However, Wisconsin law also makes clear that the statutory limit on exclusions for preexisting conditions does not “[pjrevent a group health benefit plan from establishing limitations or restrictions on the amount, level, extent or nature of benefits or coverage for similarly situated individuals enrolled under the plan.” Wis. Stat. § 632.748(3). The exclusion that Dean relied on here is properly understood as a restriction on the nature of benefits provided rather than one based on a preexisting condition. See Wynn v. Washington Nat’l Ins. Co., 122 F.3d 266, 269 (5th Cir.1997) (Louisiana law) (exclusion for particular disease or injury is “qualitatively different” from exclusion for preexisting condition). Although it is true that Kenseth’s VBG surgery took place before she joined the Dean plan, and her banded stomach thus could be understood as a preexisting condition, that was not the basis on which Dean denied coverage for conditions associated with the band. Dean instead relied on the exclusions in the policy for surgeries designed to deal with morbid obesity and for any conditions related to such non-covered services. As the district court pointed out, the timing of Kenseth’s VBG procedure was irrelevant to Dean’s decision; the exclusions would have applied regardless of whether Kenseth had had the gastric band inserted before or after she joined the Dean plan. 568 F.Supp.2d at 1019. We therefore agree with the district court that Dean’s decision to deny coverage for the 2005 remediation surgery did not run afoul of the Wisconsin statute. See Wynn, 122 F.3d at 269 (reaching similar conclusion under Louisiana law); accord Aul v. Golden Rule Ins. Co., 304 Wis.2d 227, 737 N.W.2d 24, 31 (Ct.App.2007); Usick v. Am. Fam. Mut. Ins. Co., 131 P.3d 1195, 1201 (Colo.Ct.App.2006). C. Breach of Fiduciary Duty We turn, then, to Kenseth’s claim for breach of fiduciary duty. As we detail below, the facts would permit the factfinder to conclude that Dean breached the obligation of loyalty it owed to Kenseth by providing her with plan documentation that was unclear as to coverage for her surgery, by inviting her and other participants to call its customer service representatives with questions about coverage but omitting to warn callers that they cannot rely on the answers they are given, and by failing to inform participants how they might obtain answers from Dean that they could rely upon. Such a finding would permit an award of appropriate equitable relief, but not legal relief, to Kenseth. A claim for breach of fiduciary duty under ERISA requires the plaintiff to prove: (1) that the defendant is a plan fiduciary; (2) that the defendant breached its fiduciary duty; and (3) that the breach resulted in harm to the plaintiff. Kannapien v. Quaker Oats Co., 507 F.3d 629, 639 (7th Cir.2007). Moreover, ERISA authorizes an award of equitable relief alone to a plan participant suing on her own behalf for breach of fiduciary duty. See Great-West Life & Annuity Ins. Co. v. Knudson, 534 U.S. 204, 210, 122 S.Ct. 708, 712-13, 151 L.Ed.2d 635 (2002). Where it is clear that the plaintiff is seeking legal rather than equitable relief, dismissal of the claim may be appropriate. See Health Cost Controls v. Skinner, 44 F.3d 535, 537-38 (7th Cir.1995). We take each of these points in turn. 1. Dean is a plan fiduciary Apropos of the first element, Kenseth’s claim focuses on the actions and omissions of Dean rather than Detmer. Of course, it was Detmer who advised Kenseth that her Roux-en-Y procedure would be covered by Dean. But ERISA provides that “a person is a fiduciary to the extent (i) he exercises any discretionary authority or discretionary control respecting management of such plan or exercises any authority or control respecting management or disposition of assets, (ii) he renders investment advice for a fee or other compensation, direct or indirect, with respect to any moneys or other property of such plan, or has any authority or responsibility to do so, or (iii) he has any discretionary authority or discretionary responsibility in the administration of such plan.” 29 U.S.C. § 1002(21)(A). Detmer fits none of these categories: she had no authority or discretion in terms of managing the Dean plan, she did not render investment advice or exercise any control over the assets of the plan, nor did she possess any discretionary authority or responsibility in the administration of the plan. Her role as a customer service representative was ministerial in nature. See 29 C.F.R. § 2509.75-8, D-2 (“a person who performs purely ministerial functions ... for an employee benefit plan within a framework of policies, interpretations, rules, practices and procedures made by other persons is not a fiduciary ... ”); see also, e.g., Kannapien, 507 F.3d at 639 (neither plant manager nor human resources manager acted as plan fiduciary in discussing early retirement plan benefits with employees); Tegtmeier v. Midwest Operating Eng’rs Pension Trust Fund, 390 F.3d 1040, 1047-48 (7th Cir.2004) (administrative manager of pension fund did not act as fiduciary in communicating with employee regarding ability to put pension application on hold); Schmidt v. Sheet Metal Workers’ Nat’l Pension Fund, 128 F.3d 541, 547 (7th Cir.1997) (benefits analyst did not act as plan fiduciary in advising pension plan participant how to designate beneficiary). And although Detmer was Dean’s employee, and'Dean, as we are about to explain, does qualify as an ERISA fiduciary, Dean cannot be held liable on the basis of respondeat superior. As we observed in Kannapien, “Finding that [p]lan administrators may breach a fiduciary duty vicariously through the actions of a non-fiduciary would vitiate our requirement that an ERISA claim for breach of a fiduciary duty must be asserted against plan fiduciaries.” 507 F.3d at 640 (citing Jenkins v. Yager, 444 F.3d 916, 924 (7th Cir.2006), and Bowerman v. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., supra, 226 F.3d at 590-91). Dean is another matter, however. As an HMO and a claims administrator possessed of discretion in construing and applying the provisions of its group health plan and assessing a participant’s entitlement to benefits, Dean is an ERISA fiduciary. See § 1002(21)(A)(i) and (iii); Aetna Health Inc. v. Davila, 542 U.S. 200, 220, 124 S.Ct. 2488, 2502, 159 L.Ed.2d 312 (2004); Mondry v. Am. Fam. Mut. Ins. Co., 557 F.3d 781, 803 (7th Cir.), cert. denied, — U.S.-, 130 S.Ct. 200, 175 L.Ed.2d 241 (2009). As a fiduciary, Dean is obliged to carry out its duties with respect to the plan “solely in the interest of the participants and beneficiaries and' — -(A) for the exclusive purpose of: (i) providing benefits to participants and their beneficiaries; ... [and] (B) with the care, skill, prudence, and diligence under the circumstances then prevailing that a prudent man acting in a like capacity and familiar with such matters would use in the conduct of an enterprise of a like character and with like aims....” 29 U.S.C. § 1104(a)(1). Dean thus owes the participants in its plan and their beneficiaries a duty of loyalty like that borne by a trustee under common law, § 1104(a)(1)(A), and it must exercise reasonable care in executing that duty, § 1104(a)(1)(B). Mondry, 557 F.3d at 807. 2. The factfinder could conclude that Dean breached its fiduciary obligations to Kenseth a. “The duty to disclose material information is the core of a fiduciary’s responsibility, animating the common law of trusts long before the enactment of ERISA.” Eddy v. Colonial Life Ins. Co. of Am., 919 F.2d 747, 750 (D.C.Cir.1990). This duty of course includes an obligation not to mislead a plan participant or to misrepresent the terms or administration of an employee benefit plan, including an insurance plan. Mondry, 557 F.3d at 807; Bowerman, 226 F.3d at 590; Anweiler v. Am. Elec. Power Serv. Corp., 3 F.3d 986, 991 (7th Cir.1993). But the duty is not limited to that negative command. It includes an affirmative obligation to communicate material facts affecting the interests of beneficiaries. Id. “This duty exists when a beneficiary asks fiduciaries for information, and even when he or she does not.” Id. (citing Eddy, 919 F.2d at 750); Solis v. Current Dev. Corp., 557 F.3d 772, 777-78 (7th Cir.2009); see Restatement (Second) of Trusts § 173, comment d (1959) (the trustee “is under a duty to communicate to the beneficiary material facts affecting the interest of the beneficiary which he knows the beneficiary does not know and which the beneficiary needs to know for his protection in dealing with a third person”) (cited in Eddy). Accord Kalda v. Sioux Valley Physician Partners, Inc., 481 F.3d 639, 644 (8th Cir.2007) (“a fiduciary has a duty to inform when it knows that silence may be harmful and cannot remain silent if it knows or should know that the beneficiary is laboring under a material misunderstanding of plan benefits,” and “[t]he duty of loyalty requires a fiduciary to disclose any material information that could adversely affect a participant’s interests”) (citations omitted); Gregg v. Transp. Workers of Am. Int’l, 343 F.3d 833, 845-46 (6th Cir.2003) (“ ‘once an ERISA [beneficiary] has requested information from an ERISA fiduciary who is aware of the beneficiary’s status and situation, the fiduciary has an obligation to convey complete and accurate information material to the beneficiary’s circumstance, even if that requires conveying information about which the beneficiary did not specifically inquire ’ ”) (quoting Krohn v. Huron Mem. Hosp., 173 F.3d 542, 547 (6th Cir.1999)) (emphasis in Gregg); Bixler v. Cent. Pa. Teamsters Health & Welfare Fund, 12 F.3d 1292, 1300 (3d Cir.1993) (“Th[e] duty to inform is a constant thread in the relationship between beneficiary and trustee; it entails not only a negative duty not to misinform but also an affirmative duty to inform when the trustee knows that silence might be harmful. In addition, the duty recognizes the disparity of training and knowledge that potentially exists between a lay beneficiary and a trained fiduciary. Thus, while the beneficiary may, at times, bear a burden of informing the fiduciary of her material circumstance, the fiduciary’s obligations will not be excused merely because she failed to comprehend or ask about a technical aspect of the plan.”); see also Griggs v. E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., 237 F.3d 371, 380-81 (4th Cir.2001); Estate of Becker v. Eastman Kodak Co., 120 F.3d 5, 8-10 (2d Cir.1997); but see Varity Corp. v. Howe, 516 U.S. 489, 506, 116 S.Ct. 1065, 1074-75, 134 L.Ed.2d 130 (1996) (reserving question whether fiduciary has duty to disclose truthful information either on its own initiative or in response to employee inquiries). Eddy is the lead opinion in this line of cases. Eddy, the plaintiff, learned that his employer was cancelling its group health insurance coverage just days before he was scheduled to have exploratory surgery. Eddy contacted the insurer, Colonial Life/Chubb, to determine whether he had the option of converting his group, employment-based coverage to an individual policy. According to Eddy’s testimony (supported by his coworkers), he was informed that he had no right to make such a conversion. (Colonial Life/Chubb had no record of the call and no witness who could verify or deny Eddy’s account.) Left without insurance coverage, Eddy postponed the surgery. But contrary to what Eddy said he was told, he in fact did have the right to convert his group coverage into individual coverage. He later sued Colonial Life/Chubb under ERISA contending that the insurer’s failure to correctly advise him on this point constituted a breach of the insurer’s fiduciary duty. The district court rejected the claim after trial, finding as a matter of fact that Eddy had asked Colonial Life/Chubb not whether he could convert his group coverage to individual coverage but rather whether he could continue his group coverage. As there was no ability to continue the group coverage given his employer’s decision to terminate the plan, the court reasoned that Colonial Life/Chubb had correctly advised Eddy and consequently, in the district court’s view, had not misled him in a way that might establish a breach of fiduciary duty. The District of Columbia Circuit reversed, concluding that the district court had too narrowly understood an insurer’s fiduciary duty to a beneficiary. 919 F.2d at 751. [RJefraining from imparting misinformation is only part of the fiduciary’s duty. Once Eddy presented his predicament, Colonial Life was required to do more than simply not misinform^] Colonial Life also had an affirmative obligation to inform — to provide complete and correct material information on Eddy’s status and options. Thus, although the trial court found that “[t]he issue in this case ... is whether plaintiff ... used the term ‘convert’ as opposed to ‘continue,’ ” Mem. Op. at 12, J.A. at 23, such a constricted standard of fiduciary duty is counter to both the letter and the spirit of the common law of trusts. Regardless of the precision of his questions, once a beneficiary makes known his predicament, the fiduciary “is under a duty to communicate ... all material facts in connection with the transaction which the trustee knows or should know.” Restatement (Second) of Trusts § 173, comment d (1959). Eddy should not be penalized because he failed to comprehend the technical difference between “conversion” and “continuation.” The same ignorance that precipitates the need for answers often limits the ability to ask precisely the right questions. This duty to communicate complete and correct material information about a beneficiary’s status and options is not a novel one. Chubb expressly invited telephone inquires from beneficiaries. According to the testimony of Chubb’s counsel and assistant secretary, Chubb maintained a separate unit charged in part with “taking phone calls” and “handling] questions” about the conversion of insurance coverage. Tr. at 120. Chubb also maintained several toll-free telephone lines — including one dedicated to questions about the conversion of coverage. Trial Exhibit C. Finally, and perhaps most significantly, Chubb provided insured persons with a description of conversion options in a document that expressly directed beneficiaries: “if you have any questions, please contact the Group Insurance Department.” 919 F.2d at 751 (emphasis in Eddy). Finally, the court rejected the trial court’s additional observation that Eddy had failed to write a letter or to pursue any additional contacts with Colonial Life/ Chubb regarding the termination of his health benefits. “Eddy did not have a duty to try and try again until he received correct and complete information. Once Eddy had made clear his situation, Colonial Life had a duty to provide the material information.” Id. at 752 (emphasis in Eddy). Our own decision in Anweiler embraced the affirmative duty that our sister circuit had laid out in Eddy. Fiduciaries must not only refrain from misleading plan participants, we explained, but they “must also communicate material facts affecting the interests of beneficiaries.” 3 F.3d at 991 (citing Rosen v. Hotel & Rest. Employees & Bartenders Union of Phila., Bucks, Montgomery & Del. Counties, Pa., 637 F.2d 592, 599-600 (3d Cir.1981)). “This duty exists when a beneficiary asks fiduciaries for information, and even when he or she does not.” Id. (citing Eddy, 919 F.2d at 750). In Anweiler, a disability insurer had asked its insured to sign an agreement making the insurer the beneficiary of his life insurance policy. The insurer made the request in order to ensure that it was compensated for any excess disability payments that the insured might receive, and the insured complied. The insurer’s desire for security was well founded: the insured later died owing the insurer more than $46,000 in overpayments. But when the insurer solicited the insured’s signature, it failed to advise him that he was not obligated to sign the agreement in order to receive disability benefits or that he had a right to revoke the beneficiary designation at any time. Following his death, his widow, who received none of the insurance proceeds, sued the insurer. We held that the insurer’s failure to apprise its insured of his options constituted a breach of fiduciary duty: [W]e agree with the district court that defendants breached their fiduciary duties by not giving Mr. Anweiler full and complete material information concerning the reimbursement agreement when he was asked to sign it. Reimbursements pursuant to agreements like Aetna’s have previously been upheld. But Mr. Anweiler was not informed of material facts concerning this agreement in violation of the protection provided by ERISA and its fiduciary duty requirement. Furthermore, Aetna may have manipulated its position as insurer of the disability plan and life insurance policy to its own benefit rather than Mr. Anweiler’s when it provided for reimbursement of one policy by way of another. 3 F.3d at 991-92 (citations omitted). In Bowerman, too, we emphasized the affirmative obligation that an insurer has to provide accurate and complete information when a beneficiary inquires about her insurance coverage. 226 F.3d at 590. In that case, agents of both the plaintiffs employer and her insurer failed to advise her of the need to obtain COBRA insurance coverage for a one-month break in her service with the employer. During that brief hiatus, the employee had learned she was pregnant. In reliance on assurances that her employer-sponsored coverage resumed immediately upon her return to work, the employee declined COBRA coverage. But because her pregnancy had been confirmed during the break, the insurer subsequently deemed it to be a preexisting condition and refused payment for any services related to the pregnancy. We held that the insurer had breached its fiduciary duty to the employee in two senses. First, the written documents supplied to the employee regarding her insurance plan and COBRA rights did not adequately explain the connection between COBRA coverage for a break in service and the insurer’s exclusion for preexisting conditions. Id. Second, shortly after the employee’s return to work, an administrative assistant responsible for benefits enrollment had assured her that she did not need COBRA coverage because her insurance coverage had resumed immediately upon her return. Soon thereafter, when the insurer first began to reject the submitted bills for pregnancy-related services, the employee telephoned the insurer’s toll-free number as instructed in her plan summary and was assured by a customer service agent that the agent would “get this fixed” for the employee. Even at that time, the employee still could have paid for COBRA coverage retroactively and solved the problem, but neither her employer’s administrative assistant nor the insurer’s agent said anything about that possibility. Only after time ran out on the employee’s COBRA option did the insurer finally make clear to her that her break in service, coupled with her failure to obtain coverage under COBRA for that break, rendered her pregnancy a preexisting condition excluded from coverage. We deemed this too to be a breach of the insurer’s fiduciary duty to the insured. “Both Spencer [the administrative assistant] and the service representative failed to provide accurate and forthright answers to Ms. Bowerman’s queries about her coverage in general and about her need to obtain COBRA coverage.” 226 F.3d at 591. As we explain in greater detail below, the affirmative duty of disclosure described in these cases comes into play here, given that Dean not only permitted but encouraged participants to call its customer service line with questions about whether particular medical services were covered by the Dean plan. One can readily infer that Dean understood that callers like Kenseth were seeking to determine in advance whether forthcoming medical treatments would or would not be paid for by Dean, and to plan accordingly. Yet callers were not warned that they could not rely on the advice that they were given by Dean’s customer service representatives and that Dean might later deny claims for services that callers had been told would be covered. Nor were callers advised of a process by which they could obtain a binding determination as to whether forthcoming services would be covered. The factfinder could conclude that Dean had a duty to make these disclosures so that participants could make appropriate decisions about their medical treatment. b. Before proceeding further, it behooves us to address an apparent tension between cases like Anweiler, which require the fiduciary to disclose material facts and circumstances to the insured, and a second line of cases beginning with our opinion in Frahm v. Equitable Life Assur. Soc. of U.S., 137 F.3d 955, 958-60 (7th Cir.1998), which hold that negligence in the course of advising an insured as to her rights and obligations under a plan is not in and of itself actionable as a breach of fiduciary duty. We read Frahm and its progeny to absolve a fiduciary of liability for negligent misrepresentations made by an agent of the plan to a plan participant or beneficiary so long as the plan documents themselves are clear and the fiduciary has taken reasonable steps to avoid such errors. Kenseth’s claim, which is premised on the ambiguity of the Certificate and on Dean’s lack of care in training the customer service representatives from whom it has encouraged plan participants to seek coverage information, describes a type of fiduciary negligence that these cases recognize as actionable. Section 1104(a)(1) is not a guarantee of accuracy in all communications with the insured. Frahm, 137 F.3d at 958-60. As we recognized in Frahm, mistakes in any organization are inevitable, and on occasion participants and beneficiaries will be given inaccurate advice by plan representatives, be they ministerial employees or corporate managers. Id. at 959-60. Deliberate misrepresentations do, of course, constitute a breach of the fiduciary’s duty of loyalty. Id. at 959; see also Tegtmeier v. Midwest Operating Eng’rs Pension Fund, supra, 390 F.3d at 1047 (citing Anweiler, 3 F.3d at 991); § 1104(a)(1)(A). We have said, on the other hand, that notwithstanding the fiduciary’s duty to provide complete and accurate information to the insured, mistakes in the advice given to an insured which are attributable to the negligence of the individual supplying that advice are not actionable as a breach of fiduciary duty. Frahm, 137 F.3d at 960; see also Kannapien v. Quaker Oats Co., supra, 507 F.3d at 639-40; Brosted v. Unum Life Ins. Co. of Am., 421 F.3d 459, 466 (7th Cir.2005); Beach v. Commonwealth Edison Co., 382 F.3d 656, 658 (7th Cir.2004); Vallone v. CNA Fin. Corp., 375 F.3d 623, 640-42 (7th Cir.2004); but see Beach, 382 F.3d at 668-69 (Ripple, J., dissenting) (observing that this court has not specifically considered when a plan representative’s state of mind is relevant to the duty to provide the insured with complete and accurate information, and noting that those courts that have addressed this question have rejected a requirement that misstatements be deliberate); contra Pfahler v. Nat’l Latex Prods. Co., 517 F.3d 816, 830 (6th Cir.2007) (“ ‘A fiduciary breaches his duties by providing plan participants with materially misleading information,’ even when he does so negligently, rather than intentionally.”) (quoting James v. Pirelli Armstrong Tire Corp., 305 F.3d 439, 449 (6th Cir.2002)); Mathews v. Chevron Corp., 362 F.3d 1172, 1183 (9th Cir.2004) (“We fail to see the logic in transplanting the element of scienter from the tort of deceit into a statutory ERISA claim with roots in the law of fiduciaries and trusts.”); Griggs v. E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., supra, 237 F.3d at 380 (“a fiduciary’s responsibility when communicating with the beneficiary encompasses more than merely a duty to refrain from intentionally misleading a beneficiary,” and also includes a duty “ ‘not to misinform employees through material misrepresentations and incomplete, inconsistent, or contradictory disclosures’ ”) (quoting Harte v. Bethlehem Steel Corp., 214 F.3d 446, 452 (3d Cir.2000)). But this does not mean that the duty to convey complete and accurate information is toothless. Frahm recognizes that the duty of care imposed by section 1104(a)(1)(B) entails a duty to take reasonable steps in furtherance of an insured’s right to accurate and complete information. 137 F.3d at 960 (“A plan administrator satisfies § 1104(a)(1)(B) by taking appropriate precautions — such as training the benefits staff and providing accurate written explanations — even if the precautions sometimes prove to be insufficient.”). And other decisions from this court, both before and after Frahm, have recognized that the failure to take such actions can render a fiduciary liable for a breach of fiduciary duty. See Tegtmeier, 390 F.3d at 1048 (where ministerial employee who imparted erroneous advice to participant was not a fiduciary, fiduciary “might still be liable for breach of fiduciary duties if ... [the] ministerial employee[] misrepresented the terms of the ... [p]lan and the ... [p]lan documents were not clear”); Bowerman, 226 F.3d at 590-91 (plan administrator breached fiduciary duty to participant where plan documents were unclear and ambiguity was exacerbated by incorrect and misleading answers representatives of plan and employer gave in response to participant’s questions); Schmidt v. Sheet Metal Workers’ Nat’l Pension Fund, supra, 128 F.3d at 547-48 (noting that plan trustees may breach their fiduciary obligation to provide complete and correct material information to participants both by failing to exercise care in hiring, training, or retaining employees who answer participant inquiries and by failing to supply adequate written materials to participants). Thus, broad statements to the effect that “while there is a duty to provide accurate information under ERISA, negligence in fulfilling that duty is not actionable,” Vallone, 375 F.3d at 642, must not be read too broadly; although negligent misrepresentations are not themselves actionable, the failure to take reasonable steps to head off such misrepresentations can be actionable. The most important way in which the fiduciary complies with its duty of care is to provide accurate and complete written explanations of the benefits available to plan participants and beneficiaries. Our decision in Frahm emphasized the primacy that ERISA bestows on the written over the spoken word: “ERISA requires firms to establish their plans in writing, to provide participants with written summary plan descriptions, and to furnish the full text of the plans on request. All of these provisions suppose that the written terms are the effective terms.” 137 F.3d at 960. Thus, “providing accurate written explanations” of a participant’s benefits is one of the key ways that a fiduciary complies with its duty to provide the insured with complete and accurate information and thereby satisfies its duty of care under section 1104(a)(1)(B). Id.-, see also Tegtmeier, 390 F.3d at 1048; Bowerman, 226 F.3d at 590-91; Schmidt, 128 F.3d at 548; cf. Kamler v. H/N Telecomm. Servs., Inc., 305 F.3d 672, 682 (7th Cir.2002) (plan fiduciary had no obligation to admonish a participant of a requirement that the plan document itself made “abundantly clear”). A plan document need not address every contingency, Tegtmeier, 390 F.3d at 1048, but rather may be regarded as sufficient when it address scenarios which are common enough to occur repeatedly and will affect not just the plaintiff but other plan participants and beneficiaries as well, id. (citing Bowerman, 226 F.3d at 591). It must also explain the terms of the plan in language that may be understood by the ordinary reader. 29 U.S.C. § 1022(a) (summary plan description must be “written in a manner calculated to be understood by the average plan participant”). Notwithstanding the primacy of the plan documents, because it is foreseeable if not inevitable that participants and beneficiaries will have questions for plan representatives about their benefits, our cases also recognize an obligation on the part of plan fiduciaries to anticipate such inquiries and to select and train personnel accordingly. The fiduciary satisfies that aspect of its duty of care by exercising appropriate caution in hiring, training, and supervising the types of employees (e.g., benefits staff) whose job it is to field questions from plan participants and beneficiaries about their benefits. Frahm, 137 F.3d at 960; see also Brosted, 421 F.3d at 466; Schmidt, 128 F.3d at 547-48. In sum, when the plan documents are clear and the fiduciary has exercised appropriate oversight over what its agents advise plan participants and beneficiaries as to their rights under those documents, the fiduciary will not be held liable simply because a ministerial, non-fiduciary agent has given incomplete or mistaken advice to an insured. E.g., Brosted, 421 F.3d at 466; Frahm, 137 F.3d at 960; Schmidt, 128 F.3d at 547-48. In that situation, the fiduciary has done what it can reasonably be expected to do to ensure that the insured receives accurate and complete information; that mistakes may nonetheless occur is an unfortunate fact of life that does not bespeak actionable negligence on the part of the fiduciary. Frahm, 137 F.3d at 960. But by supplying participants and beneficiaries with plan documents that are silent or ambiguous on a recurring topic, the fiduciary exposes itself to liability for the mistakes that plan representatives might make in answering questions on that subject. Bowerman, 226 F.3d at 591 (“ ‘[i]f the written materials [are] inadequate, then the fiduciaries themselves must be held responsible for the failure to provide complete and accurate information in the event that a nonfiduciary agent provides misleading information’ ”) (quoting Schmidt, 128 F.3d at 548). This is especially true when the fiduciary has not taken appropriate steps to make sure that ministerial employees will provide an insured with the complete and accurate information that is missing from the plan documents themselves. See Frahm, 137 F.3d at 960; Schmidt, 128 F.3d at 547-48. Kenseth’s claim, as we shall see, fits within these parameters. Her claim is not based on the simple premise that Detmer gave her inaccurate advice as to the coverage for her Roux-en-Y procedure. It is based instead upon Dean’s failure, both in writing the Certificate and in training Detmer and its other customer service agents, to ensure that plan participants received complete and accurate information. In particular, Kenseth alleges that Dean failed to take reasonable steps to ensure that participants like herself understood that they could not rely upon the coverage advice of its customer service agents and knew where and how they could seek advice that they could rely on. Her claim is thus consistent both with Anweiler’s recognition that fiduciaries have a duty to disclose material information to plan participants and with Frahm’s admonition that fiduciaries may not be held liable solely for the mistaken representations of non-fiduciary, ministerial employees. c. One additional point regarding the nature of Dean’s duty as a fiduciary demands to be made before we proceed with our analysis. We are not called upon to decide in this case whether a health insurer like Dean has a duty to give its insured binding advice before a medical service is rendered as to whether the policy will cover that service. Our decisions have observed generally that an insurer bears no duty to provide an advisory opinion to every beneficiary based on his or her unique circumstances. E.g., Chojnacki v. Georgia-Pacific Corp., 108 F.3d 810, 817-18 (7th Cir. 1997). On the other hand, where one is seeking medical treatment on a non-emergency basis, there is a logical need to know in advance whether his or her insurer will cover that treatment and to plan accordingly. Upon learning that his or her insurer will not cover a particular treatment, one may elect to pursue an alternative treatment which will be covered, to obtain different coverage (e.g., through one’s spouse) which will cover the treatment, or, if there is no coverage available, forego or delay treatment or seek treatment in a less costly setting. See Panaras v. Liquid Carbonic Indus. Corp., 74 F.3d 786, 793-94 (7th Cir.1996); Willett v. Blue Cross & Blue Shield of Ala., 953 F.2d 1335, 1343 (11th Cir.1992); Walecia Konrad, Going Abroad to Find Affordable Healthcare, N.Y. Times, March 21, 2009, at B6. Thus, at least two courts have concluded, albeit without extended analysis, that a health insurer does have a good faith duty to advise its insured in advance of treatment whether it deems a particular treatment to be medically necessary, such that it will be covered by the insurance plan. See State Farm Mut. Auto. Ins. Co. v. Gueimunde, 823 So.2d 141, 144 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.2002); Eggiman v. Mid-Century Ins. Co., 134 Or.App. 381, 895 P.2d 333, 335-37 (1995) (citing McKenzie v. Pacific Health & Life Ins. Co., 118 Or.App. 377, 847 P.2d 879, 881 (1993)). But the existence or not of a duty to advise the insured in advance of treatment whether the insurer will cover it has not been briefed here, and for two reasons, we need not decide whether the insurer bears such a duty. First, Dean has not denied that Kenseth could have obtained a definitive decision in advance of her Roux-en-Y surgery as to whether the procedure was covered by the policy. Although it faults Kenseth for relying on what she was told by its customer service representative, Dean suggests that Kenseth might have written a letter or pursued some other, unspecified course in order to obtain binding advice from Dean as to the policy’s coverage. Dean Br. 9. Indeed, Dean’s response below to Kenseth’s proposed facts also disputed her assertion that there was no such procedure; Dean cited testimony suggesting that medical personnel, at least, could obtain authoritative determinations regarding coverage in advance of treatment. R. 42 ¶¶ 11, 30; see R. 27 (Breheny Dep.) at 44, 48-49 (noting that doctors occasionally call Dean’s customer service line seeking coverage information, but adding that there is no official procedure f