Full opinion text
Opinion LUCAS, C.J. —Wilbur Jennings was convicted in 1986 of the first degree murders of Linda Johnson, Olga Cannon, and Jacqueline Frazier, and the second degree murder of Karen Robinson. He was also convicted of numerous other felonies against these and three other victims, including a variety of forcible sexual assaults, robberies, arsons, and kidnapping for robbery. In addition, the jury sustained eight special circumstance allegations, finding that Johnson, Cannon, and Frazier were killed in the course of a robbery (Pen. Code, § 190.2, subd. (a)(17)(i); all further statutory references are to this code unless otherwise indicated), that Johnson and Cannon were killed in the course of a rape (§ 190.2, subd. (a)(17)(iii)), and that defendant had “been convicted of more than one offense of murder in the first or second degree.” (§ 190.2, subd. (a)(3).) A Fresno County jury set the penalty at death. The trial court also sentenced defendant to life imprisonment for kidnapping for the purpose of robbery, a consecutive term of 15 years to life for second degree murder, and a total unstayed determinate term of 49 years, 8 months on the remaining felony convictions. This appeal is automatic. (§ 1239, subd. (b).) Facts Guilt Phase 1. Linda Johnson Defendant lived in Selma, California, with his half brother, A.C. Harris, and their mother, Artis Williams. Linda Johnson had lived next door with her mother but moved to Long Beach to be with her boyfriend, Melvin Cooper. Defendant was acquainted with Johnson’s brother, Flenard Johnson. On several occasions while Linda Johnson was gone, defendant asked Flenard Johnson about Linda’s whereabouts. On one of these occasions, defendant remarked, “That little liar told me she was coming back this weekend. This [y/c] already been two weeks.” Flenard was unaware of any intimate relationship defendant may have had with his sister. Linda Johnson returned from Long Beach on September 12, 1984, driving Cooper’s blue Cadillac. After going to the hospital to see her ailing mother, she went home. A fire broke out and destroyed the Johnson home around 5 a.m. on September 13th. Neither Linda Johnson nor the Cadillac was there. An arson expert determined that the fire was started by lighting a flammable liquid placed in three separate locations in the house. When Flenard went to defendant’s house that morning, he noticed the tire tracks in the driveway were identical to those left by Cooper’s blue Cadillac in Johnson’s mother’s driveway. Later that day, police found the seminude body of Linda Johnson in a canal outside Fresno. Detective Martinez found two Budweiser beer cans about thirty-five feet from the body. An autopsy revealed the victim died from 18 separate blows to the head by a blunt instrument with a sharply angled edge. The blows caused numerous fractures and extensive hemorrhaging. Material taken from the victim’s vagina tested positive for prostatic acid phosphatase, an enzyme found in semen. A black adhesive substance found on the body was similar to weather stripping found in the trunk of Cooper’s Cadillac. About 10 o’clock that night, a passerby observed a blue Cadillac on fire. The smell of gasoline was apparent. An expert investigating the car fire concluded that it was Cooper’s Cadillac and that a flammable liquid was used to intentionally ignite the blaze. Police found a matchbook cover marked “Royal Guest” near the burning car, and also found a beer can about 100 yards away. Police interviewed defendant the next day. There was a scratch on his face that appeared to be between 12 and 48 hours old. Police found another matchbook marked “Royal Guest” on the floorboard of defendant’s red Cadillac. A.C. Harris told police that defendant described the crime in detail to him. According to Harris, defendant asked the victim to become a prostitute but she refused. Defendant then raped her and killed her by hitting her on the side of the head. He and a friend, Leonard Hutchinson, then placed the body in Cooper’s Cadillac and dumped the body in an irrigation ditch. Returning to Johnson’s house, defendant poured gasoline on it and started the fire to cover the evidence. When defendant came home shortly after the fire, he smelled like gasoline. Harris also stated defendant kept a sawed-off baseball bat, a knife, and a 30- to 36-inch piece of galvanized pipe in his car. Harris further said that when police came to arrest defendant, he told Harris, “I’m so nervous,” and admitted he killed Linda Johnson and raped another woman. Police found another “Royal Guest” matchbook in Hutchinson’s living room. Melvin Cooper, the victim’s boyfriend, testified that although he had a sexual relationship with the victim, they had not had relations in the three or four weeks prior to the victim’s death. Several witnesses testified to statements defendant made evidencing his intent to kill Linda Johnson. For example, Matt Miller said he saw defendant arguing with the victim two weeks before her death. After she left, defendant told Miller he was going to have sex with her “and then finish her, and dispose of her, done, over, no more.” Later, he told Miller about a woman and said he had “caved her . . . head in,” and she would not be troubling him anymore. Albert Aranda testified that defendant told him that he was living with Flenard Johnson’s younger sister and that “if she don’t behave right, [I’m] gonna kill her like the rest of them.” Two weeks later, Aranda heard Linda Johnson had been killed. Defendant frequently told Aranda that all prostitutes should be killed because they did not “treat him right.” Jessie Thomas testified that defendant told him that an attractive woman from Los Angeles lived next door to him, that he liked her, and that he would “get her one way or the other.” Two days after the killing, defendant sexually assaulted Janyce B., a prostitute. After the assault, he told her he killed the woman that lived next door to him in Selma. Later, he told her he was kidding. Finally, after his arrest, defendant told his cellmate, Kenny Smith, that he had wanted to “make out” with his girlfriend, she refused, and he beat her until she was unconscious. He then claimed he burned down her house with gasoline, and drove a car to the country and burned it as well. On the day of the murder, defendant’s employer, Earl Wells, asked defendant and David Pulley to tear down an old garage, clear the brush, and burn the materials and debris. The two stopped at 10:30 that morning and filled a two-gallon can with gasoline for the job. Defendant saw the victim in Cooper’s Cadillac and told Pulley, “Well, I’m gonna get that Cadillac one way or another, if it takes me to jail or imprisonment or killing her.” After completing the demolition job, defendant told Pulley he was going to drink some beer, and “as soon as he got up enough courage that he was going to go over to whoever’s house and burn the bitch out” with gasoline. Defendant drove oif with the gasoline can still partially full. 2. Olga Cannon Olga Cannon, also known as Wendy and Nene, worked as a prostitute on G Street in Fresno. She spoke often with defendant and he introduced her to various people as his girlfriend or his wife. In early August 1984, defendant complained to Flenard Johnson that Cannon charged him $35 for sexual relations but charged Mexicans only $15. He bragged that he would rape and rob Cannon, and then “put her out.” On another occasion, he said he would “beat [her] brains out.” Also around this time, defendant twice told Jessie Thomas that he wanted to kill Cannon. Albert Aranda saw Cannon with defendant on August 14, 1984. Defendant told Aranda that if Cannon did not behave, he was going to kill her. He then sped off with Cannon in his van. Cannon’s husband, Larry Shepard, reported her missing the next day. Around this time, defendant was living with Louisia Thomas, a former prostitute who had worked on G Street and knew Olga Cannon. He told Louisia Thomas that Cannon had been killed by some Mexicans in a payment dispute. Later, he said he was only kidding. The next day, Louisia Thomas found a brown leatherette purse in defendant’s car. She asked if she could have it but defendant took it away from her. Although he later gave it to her, he first removed some papers from it. The purse was later identified as belonging to Cannon. Cannon’s nude body was found on December 8, 1984, in an irrigation ditch outside Fresno. Because of advanced decomposition of the body, the cause of death could not be determined, although it was determined that she had a broken jaw. There was an empty Budweiser can three feet from the body. As with the Linda Johnson killing, defendant also made incriminating statements about the Cannon killing to his cellmate, Kenny Smith. Defendant told Smith he picked up Cannon on G Street and demanded sex. She refused so he drove to the country and forced her to “make out” with him by slapping her. When she tried to get out of the car, he “went berserk” and beat her to death with a crowbar. He then “ditched her body.” 3. Jacqueline Frazier Jacqueline Frazier apparently worked as a prostitute in the Fresno area, often picking up men at Hunt’s Club and bringing them home with her. Rodney Bradley, her former boyfriend, often watched her apartment and saw her come home with different men. On one occasion, Bradley saw her come home with defendant, who was a frequent customer at Hunt’s Club. It was Frazier’s habit to wear eight rings, four on each ring finger. On July 21, 1984, she wore only seven, having misplaced one earlier in the day. Later that evening, Frazier’s brother saw her at Hunt’s Club about 9:30 o’clock. At 11:30 or 12 that night, Eloísa Mayberry saw Frazier sitting in a Ford Pinto with defendant, parked in front of the club. Frazier’s body was discovered three days later in a canal. She was still wearing the clothes she wore three days earlier, but was missing three of her seven rings. Police found a pair of women’s panties, a broken Budweiser bottle, and an empty Budweiser carton in the vicinity. Tests revealed death was caused by drowning, although she had been beaten about the head and neck with a blunt instrument. An autopsy also revealed the presence of semen in her vagina. Tire tracks near the body were similar to tracks left by the Pinto defendant drove on July 21, although a positive match could not be made. Two of the missing rings were later found in defendant’s jewelry box. 4. Karen Robinson Karen Robinson worked as a prostitute on G Street. Her friend, Vonceil Whitehead, also knew defendant and had seen defendant with Robinson on several occasions. The last of these occasions was August 21, 1983, when Whitehead saw Robinson speaking to defendant as he sat in a Ford LTD. The next day, Ricky Glenn repaid a $5 debt to Robinson and watched her enter a similar car. She was wearing red shorts, a red blouse, and tennis shoes. Her body was found the next day in a pond. The red blouse was around her ankles and the rest of her clothes were missing. There were some bloodstains near the body and an empty Budweiser carton between the bloodstains and the body. An autopsy revealed the victim had been beaten about the face and head, and then drowned. Tests showed the presence of semen in the vagina and anal canal. It appeared she had been dead for 12 to 24 hours. In the course of their investigation, police gave defendant’s photograph to Robinson’s father, Lonnie Manning. Robinson’s seven-year-old daughter, Temika, saw the photograph and said, “Papa, this is a mean man.” Temika also recalled three violent episodes involving her mother and defendant. In all of them, defendant began fighting and choking Robinson. On more than one occasion, he threatened to kill her. Temika was “real scared” of defendant’s photograph. About a month prior to killing Linda Johnson, defendant told his half brother Harris that he had killed three prostitutes. He said that each time, he talked to them, got them into his car or van and, after having sex, he took their money. When they protested, he killed them by choking and beating them to death. 5. Other Crimes Garren F. worked as a prostitute on G Street and “dated” defendant a few times. Sometime in August 1984, she spent the night with defendant in exchange for $150. The next day, defendant accused her of stealing his money. She angrily denied the accusation and announced she would no longer “date” him because he scared her. A few days later, he asked her for a “date” and requested that she not tell anyone about it. She reluctantly agreed and he picked her up at 11 p.m. Defendant then drove to an isolated orchard, parked, placed some money on the dashboard, and got in the back seat with Garren F. He then asked why she had stolen his money and went to the trunk, returning with a pipe and a wine bottle. After hitting her once, he announced that the “date” was a ruse to get her out to the orchard and that he was going to kill her. Garren F. managed to talk defendant out of killing her, submitting to sexual intercourse out of fear. She reported the incident the next day but declined to press charges. She called an anonymous tip line when she heard of Olga Cannon’s murder; she believed defendant was Cannon’s killer. Lydia L. worked as a prostitute in the Chinatown area of Fresno. One night in the summer of 1983, she agreed to “date” defendant. Although she preferred to rent a room, defendant drove to an orchard in the country. She expressed a desire to finish the “date” and get back to town, whereupon defendant started strangling her. She apologized and he stopped and said, “I’m sorry I lost control.” Lydia L. decided to do whatever defendant asked. They engaged in sexual intercourse and, later, afraid defendant would hurt her, she orally copulated him at his direction. She later bolted from his car and reported she had been raped. Gayle H. worked as a prostitute on G Street. She agreed to “date” defendant but, once in his car, he attempted to rob her. When she laughed and said she had no money, he knocked her unconscious. When she awoke, she was in defendant’s car, parked in the country. He pressed a screwdriver under her eyes and said that if she didn’t comply with his demands, he would pop her eyes out so that she would be unable to identify him. He demanded oral sex but she could not comply because defendant had broken her jaw. The ordeal lasted 45 minutes with defendant constantly striking her in an attempt to have her orally copulate him. He eventually fled when a truck approached, allowing Gayle H. to escape. Detective Rascón arrested defendant on September 15, 1984, for killing Linda Johnson. On the way to jail, Rascon’s car passed G Street. As it did, Rascón overheard defendant mutter, “Good-bye, ‘G’ Street.” Defendant testified on his own behalf. He claimed he did not know and never had sexual relations with Gayle H., Jacqueline Frazier, or Karen Robinson. He denied knowing Robinson’s daughter, Temika. He admitted spending the night with Garren F. and claimed that she stole $200 from him and that he never engaged in any violence towards her. He admitted knowing Olga Cannon and said they never fought. He denied making incriminating statements to A.C. Harris, Kenny Smith, Flenard Johnson, Jessie Thomas, or Matt Miller. He denied killing Linda Johnson, Cannon, Frazier, or Robinson. Penalty Phase Several women testified at the penalty phase and offered evidence of defendant’s prior criminal activity. Mary W. testified that she was in the eighth grade in 1962 when defendant lured her into his car on the pretext of driving her to school. Instead of driving to her school, however, he drove to a vineyard. Once there, he beat and forcibly raped her. Defendant later pleaded guilty to rape. In 1961, Gladys P. was defendant’s neighbor. One night that year, she was in defendant’s house and he offered to walk her home. She accepted, but once outside, defendant put his hand over her mouth, picked her up and carried her to a toolshed, where he raped her. She did not report the crime because she was ashamed of it. Later that year, defendant came to her house and acted as if he were her boyfriend, accusing her of being with a married man. She retrieved a gun and announced she was going to kill him, but when her grandmother walked into the room, defendant knocked the gun away. That fall, defendant forced Gladys P. into his car and drove to a barn where he beat and forcibly raped her. Afterwards, they got back into the car and drove to a store. Later, he raped her again. When the prosecuting attorney explained what would happen if she prosecuted, she declined to press charges and moved from Selma because everyone knew she had been raped. She did not tell her mother about being raped in the toolshed until she heard Linda Johnson had been killed. Johnson was Gladys P.’s cousin. In the spring of 1966, Dale Drake and Mary Richardson drove to a beach on the Kings River, where they encountered defendant. Armed with a rifle, defendant grabbed Drake and demanded money. He also said he was on parole and that he had been forced to have sexual relations with his ex-wife. When he announced he could not allow them to leave, Richardson ran away. Looking back, she saw defendant strike Drake on the head with the rifle butt. Returning with police, they found Drake bleeding profusely from the head. Her bathing suit had been ripped, exposing her torso. Defendant was traced through his truck’s license number, which Richardson had noted before fleeing the scene. Drake suffered serious head injuries and a broken wrist. Defendant later pleaded guilty to assault with a deadly weapon and attempted rape. In 1977, defendant telephoned Chun Smith and asked her to meet him at the Greyhound bus depot. She declined but later agreed because of defendant’s persistence. They sat in her car and conversed for a time until he said something that made her laugh. Suddenly, he hit her, told her to shut up, grabbed her neck, and knocked her unconscious. When she regained consciousness, the car was moving. She either jumped or was pushed from the car as it was travelling about 40 miles per hour. Her car was recovered two weeks later in Oakland. Also in 1977, Betty Burrell began corresponding with defendant while he was still in prison. When he was released, he visited her in Oakland. Sometime after Burrell told defendant she wanted to end their relationship, he attacked her as she walked to her car. Although he held a butcher knife to her neck, she struggled with him. He eventually let her go when her sons confronted him with baseball bats. She later moved out of her apartment. Sometime later, defendant forcibly entered the home of Burrell’s neighbor, Rosemary Graham, and demanded that Graham’s friend, Henry Jones, take him to Burrell. He threatened them with a shotgun. He said Burrell had wronged him and he was going to kill her. When Jones’s car was later stopped on the freeway, defendant was pointing his gun at Jones. Burrell testified against defendant at a preliminary hearing but charges were dropped when, pursuant to a plea bargain, defendant pleaded guilty to assaulting Jones with a deadly weapon. Evidence of defendant’s sexual assault on Janyce B., the prostitute to whom defendant made incriminating statements about the Linda Johnson murder, was admitted without limitation at the penalty phase. Evidence of defendant’s conviction of false imprisonment in connection with that incident was also admitted. Defendant presented evidence of his good character in mitigation. Darrel Williams, his stepbrother, testified defendant helped neighbors work around their homes and also gave financial assistance to their mother. He recalled defendant was a good athlete in high school. Earl Wells, defendant’s employer, had known defendant since he was in high school and believed defendant was a good and reliable worker. Imogene Wells, Earl’s wife, echoed her husband’s sentiments. Artis Williams, defendant’s mother, testified that defendant was bom in 1940 in Shreveport, Louisiana. She separated from her husband four years later and moved to California, leaving defendant and his three siblings with her parents in Shreveport. The family reunited in 1948, when Williams was living in Los Angeles. The family moved to Selma in 1950. It was there defendant attended and graduated from high school. She was not aware of any of her neighbors having a problem with defendant. To her knowledge, defendant never had any trouble while incarcerated, and noted he was made a trusty while in Fresno County jail. Discussion Guilt Phase Issues 1. Sufficiency of the Information Counts 14 to 24 of the information charged defendant with committing various felonies against six different victims. The information for these counts was phrased in the traditional “on or about” language, i.e., “on or about the summer of 1983,” or “on or about April of 1983.” Defendant claims his due process rights were violated as to these 11 counts because the information failed to specify a particular date on which the crimes allegedly occurred, thereby preventing him from presenting an alibi defense. At the outset, however, we note defendant was not convicted of the crimes set forth in counts 14, 15, and 20 to 22 (Rhonda S., Sharon H., Dorothy T.), and so any deficiency in the pleadings was therefore moot as to those counts. As to the remaining counts, defendant concedes he did not demur to the information. Under these circumstances, the claimed defect in the information was waived. (People v. Jackson (1978) 88 Cal.App.3d 490, 500 [151 Cal.Rptr. 688]; § 1012 [failure to demur to a demurrable defect apparent on the face of a pleading waives the defect].) “ ‘Any uncertainty in the pleading amounts to no more than a defect of form, which should be attacked under Penal Code section 1004. Failure to demur to an information on the ground of uncertainty constitutes a waiver of the objection . . . , and the validity of the subsequent objection is not affected.’ ” (Jackson:, supra, at p. 500, quoting People v. Washington (1971) 17 Cal.App.3d 470, 475 [94 Cal.Rptr. 882], disapproved on other grounds in People v. Najera (1972) 8 Cal.3d 504, 509, fn. 4 [105 Cal.Rptr. 345, 503 P.2d 1353].) The purpose of the waiver rule is twofold. First, it permits correction of pleading defects prior to trial, thereby promoting efficiency and conserving judicial resources. Second, it prevents “[a] defendant from speculating on the result of the trial and raising the objection after an unfavorable verdict.” (4 Witkin & Epstein, Cal. Criminal Law (2d ed. 1989) Proceedings Before Trial, § 2132, p. 2502.) This rule is of long standing; we stated 90 years ago that a criminal defendant “cannot, under our system, lie by until he shall see the result of a trial of his case on the merits and then be permitted to take advantage of a mere uncertainty in the indictment by motion in arrest of judgment.” (People v. Rodley (1900) 131 Cal. 240, 249 [63 P. 351].) Defendant posits two theories why his failure to demur did not waive the issue for appeal. First, he relies on People v. Frank (1985) 38 Cal.3d 711 [214 Cal.Rptr. 801, 700 P.2d 415], for the proposition that in capital cases, “a technical insufficiency in the form of an objection will be disregarded and the entire record will be examined to determine if a miscarriage of justice resulted.” (Id. at p. 729, fn. 3.) However, the complete failure to demur in this case is not analogous to the “technically insufficient” objection in Frank. (See People v. Anderson (1987) 43 Cal.3d 1104, 1129-1130, fn. 3 [240 Cal.Rptr. 585, 742 P.2d 1306] [failure to “even allude” to Evid. Code, § 352 is distinguishable from the “technical insufficiency” in Frank].) Second, defendant claims his trial counsel provided constitutionally ineffective assistance by failing to demur. (People v. Ledesma (1987) 43 Cal.3d 171, 215-218 [233 Cal.Rptr. 404, 729 P.2d 839]; People v. Fosselman (1983) 33 Cal.3d 572, 584 [189 Cal.Rptr. 855, 659 P.2d 1144]; U.S. Const., Amend. VI; Cal. Const., art. I, § 15.) In order to demonstrate ineffective assistance of counsel, a defendant must first show counsel’s performance was “deficient” because his “representation fell below an objective standard of reasonableness . . . under prevailing professional norms.” (Strickland v. Washington (1984) 466 U.S. 668, 687-688 [80 L.Ed.2d 674, 693-694, 104 S.Ct. 2052]; Ledesma, supra, 43 Cal.3d at pp. 215-216.) Second, he must also show prejudice flowing from counsel’s performance or lack thereof. (Strickland, supra, at pp. 691-692 [80 L.Ed.2d at pp. 695-696]; Ledesma, supra, at pp. 217-218.) Prejudice is shown when there is a “reasonable probability that, but for counsel’s unprofessional errors, the result of the proceeding would have been different. A reasonable probability is a probability sufficient to undermine confidence in the outcome.” (In re Sixto (1989) 48 Cal.3d 1247, 1257 [259 Cal.Rptr. 491, 774 P.2d 164]; Strickland, supra, at p. 694 [80 L.Ed.2d at pp. 697-698].) As we explain, however, counsel was not remiss because it does not appear a demurrer would have been granted had he timely filed one. We begin our analysis with section 955, which provides, “The precise time at which the offense was committed need not be stated in the accusatory pleading, but it may be alleged to have been committed at any time before the finding or filing thereof, except where time is a material ingredient in the offense.” (See also People v. Wrigley (1968) 69 Cal.2d 149, 155 [70 Cal.Rptr. 116, 443 P.2d 580] [following § 955]; § 951 [form of information approving the “on or about” phraseology].) In accordance with this statutory directive, we recently noted that a “defendant has no right to notice of the specific time or place of an offense, so long as it occurred within the applicable limitation period. ‘Beyond that, . . . the prosecution clearly has no duty to provide more explicit notice than human nature or science permit.’” (People v. Jones (1990) 51 Cal.3d 34, 56 [270 Cal.Rptr. 611, 792 P.2d 643], quoting in part People v. Gordon (1985) 165 Cal.App.3d 839, 868 [212 Cal.Rptr. 174] [conc. opn. of Sims, J.].) Under modern pleading procedures, notice of the particular circumstances of an alleged crime is provided by the evidence presented to the committing magistrate at the preliminary examination, not by a factually detailed information. (People v. Thomas (1987) 43 Cal.3d 818, 829 [239 Cal.Rptr. 307, 740 P.2d 419].) Defendant contends People v. Barney (1983) 143 Cal.App.3d 490 [192 Cal.Rptr. 172] establishes a due process right to an information that more explicitly sets forth the date of the offense. In Barney, the information charged the defendant with having committed a lewd act with a minor “on or about” February 8, 1981. Barney presented a defense of lack of opportunity, a defense the Court of Appeal termed “analogous” to a classic alibi defense. (Id. at p. 498.) Although the prosecution’s evidence at trial fixed the time of the alleged crime on a certain date, the trial court instructed the jury that it was not necessary that the proof show the crime was committed on that date. Instead, the trial court said it was permissible to convict if the jury concluded the crime was committed “on or about” that date. The appellate court reversed. After first acknowledging that the People do not have to plead the exact date of the offense, the court stated, “if the defense is alibi or, as here, lack of opportunity to commit the offense, the exact time of commission becomes critically relevant to the maintenance of the defense. An instruction which deflects the jury’s attention from temporal detail may unconstitutionally impede the defense. The defendant is entitled as a matter of due process to have the time of commission of the offense fixed in order to demonstrate he was elsewhere or otherwise disenabled from its commission.” (Barney, supra, 143 Cal.App.3d at p. 497, italics added.) As is clear, the Barney court did not hold that the information must plead the exact date of the offense. Instead, it merely held that when the prosecution’s proof establishes the offense occurred on a particular day to the exclusion of other dates, and when the defense is alibi (or lack of opportunity), it is improper to give the jury an instruction using the “on or about” language. (143 Cal.App.3d at p. 497.) This holding is unremarkable, being consistent with past authority. (See People v. Jones (1973) 9 Cal.3d 546, 557 [108 Cal.Rptr. 345, 510 P.2d 705], overruled on other grounds in Hernandez v. Superior Court (1989) 49 Cal.3d 713 [263 Cal.Rptr. 513, 781 P.2d 547]; Com. to CALJIC No. 4.71 (5th ed. 1988 bound vol.).) Because Barney did not address the constitutionality of charging a criminal defendant in a pleading that does not specify the precise day of the crime, it provides no support for defendant’s claim that his right to due process was abridged. It thus appears that even had counsel demurred to the information, the demurrer would have been overruled. Under these circumstances, no ineffective assistance of counsel is apparent and defendant is not relieved of the requirement of demurring to the information in order to preserve the issue for appeal. We conclude he waived the issue. 2. Change of Venue Prior to trial, defendant moved for a change of venue. Dr. Holder, a defense expert, filed a report concluding (1) 72 percent of persons surveyed recalled the case, a number he termed “a rather strong percentage of recollection of the case”; (2) only about one-fourth of those contacted recalled any details about the case; (3) 51 percent of those surveyed “thought they might be influenced by the publicity”; (4) an unusually small percentage (31 percent) believed the district attorney had a very strong case against defendant; and (5) 64 percent believed the jury could be impartial in Fresno County. Of the 423 persons assembled for voir dire, 269, or 64 percent, stated they had been exposed to some media coverage about the case. The trial court did not hold a formal hearing on the venue motion; the matter was instead submitted on the briefs and Dr. Holder’s report. Defendant attached six newspaper articles from the Fresno Bee to his motion and these articles were considered by the trial court. The court denied the motion without prejudice; defendant did not renew the motion. Defendant contends the trial court erred by denying his change of venue motion. The applicable principles are well established. “ ‘A change of venue must be granted when the defendant shows a reasonable likelihood that in the absence of such relief, a fair trial cannot be had.’ ” (People v. Williams (1989) 48 Cal.3d 1112, 1125 [259 Cal.Rptr. 473, 774 P.2d 146], quoting People v. Harris (1981) 28 Cal.3d 935, 948 [171 Cal.Rptr. 679, 623 P.2d 240].) When the denial of a motion for a change of venue is reviewed on appeal, we make an independent determination of whether a fair trial was obtainable. (Williams, supra, at p. 1125; People v. Balderas (1985) 41 Cal.3d 144, 177 [222 Cal.Rptr. 184, 711 P.2d 480].) In making that decision, we examine five factors: the nature and gravity of the offense, the nature and extent of the news coverage, the size of the community, the status of the defendant in the community, and the popularity and prominence of the victim. (People v. Douglas (1990) 50 Cal. 3d 468, 495 [268 Cal.Rptr. 126, 788 P.2d 640]; Williams, supra, at p. 1125; Balderas, supra, at p. 177.) In contrast to pretrial appellate review by way of a petition for a writ of mandate, review on appeal is retrospective. Thus, “any presumption in favor of a venue change is unnecessary, for the matter may then be analyzed in light of the voir dire of the actual, available jury pool and the actual jury panel selected. The question then is whether, in light of the failure to change venue, it is reasonably likely that the defendant in fact received a fair trial.” (Williams, supra, 48 Cal.3d at pp. 1125-1126.) To answer this question, we examine “the voir dire of prospective and actual jurors to determine whether pretrial publicity did in fact have a prejudicial effect.” (Balderas, supra, 41 Cal. 3d at p. 177.) We begin with the gravity and nature of the crime. Of course, capital murder is the most serious crime and “that fact weighs strongly in favor of a change of venue.” (Balderas, supra, 41 Cal.3d at p. 177.) Indeed, the prosecuting attorney admitted as much at trial. Although this factor is not, by itself, dispositive (see Odle v. Superior Court (1982) 32 Cal. 3d 932, 942 [187 Cal.Rptr. 455, 654 P.2d 225]), we reiterate that the fact that an accused is facing the death penalty is a factor militating strongly in favor of a change of venue. Moreover, the nature of the crime also supports a change. Defendant was charged with four murders and thirteen counts of forcible sex crimes, as well as other assorted felonies and weapon enhancements. The victims were all women and, with the lone exception of Linda Johnson, were all prostitutes working in the Fresno area. The murder victims were found nude or partially undressed in irrigation canals in semirural areas of the city. At least one victim had been under water so long that her body was badly decomposed. Under the circumstances, the public understandably believed there was a serial killer in their community. As in Harris, supra, 28 Cal.3d at page 948, we conclude these crimes “were especially heinous” and that the nature of the crimes is another factor supporting a change of venue. Analysis of the nature and extent of the pretrial publicity is a more complex matter. Although defendant strenuously argues that the pretrial publicity was pervasive and inflammatory, the evidence produced at trial consisted of a mere six newspaper articles from the Fresno Bee. Moreover, as the trial court recognized, 11 months had passed between publication of the last article and the commencement of jury selection. (See Anderson, supra, 43 Cal.3d at p. 1130 [danger of prejudice significantly reduced where last article published five months before commencement of jury selection].) “Time dims all memory and its passage serves to attenuate the likelihood that early extensive publicity will have any significant impact at the time of trial.” (Odle v. Superior Court, supra, 32 Cal.3d 932, 943.) Defendant argues that any assumption the prejudicial effect of the publicity was blunted by the passage of time is rebutted by his evidence showing more than 70 percent of the community recalled hearing something about the case. Dr. Holder’s report, however, concluded that although a high percentage of persons recalled something about the case, many fewer could recall anything specific, and approximately two-thirds of those polled believed a Fresno County jury could be impartial. This prediction was borne out by the actual voir dire, when the 12 jurors who ultimately sat on defendant’s case stated they either had no recollection of the case or admitted having some vague memory based on the prior publicity but could not recall anything specific about the case. Because defendant was implicated by the media in so many serious crimes, he argues the jurors’ collective profession of ignorance of the case should be viewed with skepticism. Although we agree that such assurances are not conclusive (People v. Tidwell (1970) 3 Cal.3d 62, 73 [89 Cal.Rptr. 44, 473 P.2d 748]), several factors present here convince us they were sincere. First, as noted above, the publicity had abated by the time of trial; the last article supporting the venue motion was published 11 months before jury selection. Second, as the trial court held, the publicity was not extensive. Finally, and most significantly, Dr. Holder’s expert opinion was that despite the high penetration of information into the public mind, an impartial jury could be chosen, apparently because the publicity did not have a lasting or pervasive effect. We thus accept the jurors’ representations of impartiality as one factor supporting the trial court’s decision to deny the venue motion. Defendant also relies heavily on the allegedly inflammatory nature of the publicity. He asserts the articles reported that (1) Janyce B. stated defendant admitted one of the murders to her, (2) defendant was suspected in a fifth, uncharged murder, (3) he had spent 18 of the previous 22 years in prison, and (4) various incriminating evidence had been discovered in defendant’s residence, such as the jewelry and underwear of some of the victims. The reporting of these facts is troublesome. Although the reports were largely factual, they nevertheless could have led to a jury pool disposed to convict. Moreover, the fact that the publicity was factual and not inflammatory or sensational is not controlling. “ ‘A reasonable likelihood of unfairness may exist even though the news coverage was neither inflammatory nor productive of overt hostility. [Citation.] When a spectacular crime has aroused community attention and a suspect has been arrested, the possibility of an unfair trial may originate in widespread publicity describing facts, statements and circumstances which tend to create a belief in his guilt.’” (Martinez v. Superior Court (1981) 29 Cal.3d 574, 580 [174 Cal.Rptr. 701, 629 P.2d 502], quoting Corona v. Superior Court (1972) 24 Cal.App.3d 872, 877 [101 Cal.Rptr. 411].) The contrary may also be true, depending on the particular facts of the case. “The fact that a case receives enormous publicity does not by itself establish error nor does conceded ‘massive’ publicity automatically translate into prejudice.” (People v. Manson (1976) 61 Cal.App.3d 102, 191 [132 Cal.Rptr. 265].) In Odle v. Superior Court, supra, 32 Cal.3d 932, for example, over 150 newspaper articles reported on the crime, including several which “contained information that might be potentially prejudicial.” (Id. at p. 939.) We nevertheless declined to issue a writ to reverse the trial court’s denial of a change of venue, explaining that although there were an inordinate number of newspaper articles about the case, “they received very limited circulation, and the reporting on the whole was not inflammatory, sensational, or hostile.” (Ibid.) Considering the totality of the circumstances in this case, we conclude the evidence of media coverage does not demonstrate a reasonable likelihood of unfairness, or that the publicity led to the selection of a jury that was tainted by prejudicial pretrial information. Indeed, the record demonstrates the contrary: there were relatively few newspaper articles, they were remote in time from the trial, and they had no lasting effect on those summoned for jury duty. Moreover, expert evidence disclosed that obtaining a fair jury was possible despite the pretrial publicity. We conclude that consideration of the nature and extent of the publicity supports the trial court’s decision to deny defendant’s motion to change venue. The third factor is the size of the community. “The larger the local population, the more likely it is that preconceptions about the case have not become imbedded in the public consciousness.” (Balderas, supra, 41 Cal.3d at p. 178.) The size of the county is not alone determinative. (Fain v. Superior Court (1970) 2 Cal.3d 46, 52, fn. 1 [84 Cal.Rptr. 135, 465 P.2d 23].) The key is whether it can be shown that the population is of such a size that it “neutralizes or dilutes the impact of adverse publicity.” (Lansdown v. Superior Court (1970) 10 Cal.App.3d 604, 609 [89 Cal.Rptr. 154].) Defendant’s trial took place in 1986. Fresno County then had a population of 580,200, ranking it the 12th most populous county. (State of Cal., Cal. Statistical Abstract (1986) p. 16.) We have previously noted that Fresno County is “considerably more populous and . . . less provincial” than other counties from which we concluded a change of venue was necessary. (People v. Hathcock (1973) 8 Cal.3d 599, 620 [105 Cal.Rptr. 540, 504 P.2d 476].) Moreover, Dr. Holder’s report reveals the relatively large population of the county acted to dilute the impact of the adverse publicity; although he found many citizens recalled the case, many fewer could recall anything specific. We conclude this factor did not weigh in favor of a change of venue. The final two factors, the status and prominence of the defendant and the victims, also do not support a change. Although defendant grew up in Selma and was a resident of the community, he had also spent much of his adult life in prison. The victims, save one, were prostitutes. Although they could be seen as especially vulnerable, they do not occupy an elevated position in society. Neither defendant nor the victims were prominent or well known in the Fresno area. We conclude neither factor supported a change of venue. Considering the totality of the evidence, we conclude defendant has not shown it was reasonably likely he could not receive a fair trial in Fresno County absent a change of venue. Although the gravity and nature of the crime supported a change, the remaining four factors did not. Significantly, the voir dire of the actual jurors demonstrated that none was tainted by the modest pretrial publicity. We conclude the trial court correctly denied the venue motion. 3. The Corpus Delicti Rule and Insufficient Evidence Defendant challenges several of his convictions on the dual grounds that admission of his extrajudicial statements violated the corpus delicti rule and that there was insufficient evidence to convict. As we explain below, these contentions are meritless. The corpus delicti rule requires that the corpus delicti of a crime be proved independently from an accused’s extrajudicial admissions. (People v. Robbins (1988) 45 Cal.3d 867, 885 [248 Cal.Rptr. 172, 755 P.2d 355]; People v. Alcala (1984) 36 Cal.3d 604, 624 [205 Cal.Rptr. 775, 685 P.2d 1126].) “The corpus delicti of a crime consists of two elements, the fact of the injury or loss or harm, and the existence of a criminal agency as its cause.” (People v. Hamilton (1989) 48 Cal.3d 1142, 1175 [259 Cal.Rptr. 701, 774 P.2d 730].) Such proof, however, may be circumstantial and need only be a slight or prima facie showing “permitting the reasonable inference that a crime was committed.” (Alcala, supra, at pp. 624-625.) “When the sufficiency of the evidence is challenged on appeal, the court must review the whole record in the light most favorable to the judgment to determine whether it contains substantial evidence—i.e., evidence that is credible and of solid value—from which a rational trier of fact could have found the defendant guilty beyond a reasonable doubt.” (People v. Green (1980) 27 Cal.3d 1, 55 [164 Cal.Rptr. 1, 609 P.2d 468]; see also People v. Johnson (1980) 26 Cal. 3d 557, 578 [162 Cal.Rptr. 431, 606 P.2d 738, 16 A.L.R.4th 1255].) a. Robbery of Linda Johnson We conclude that the corpus delicti rule was satisfied with respect to the Linda Johnson robbery. The blue Cadillac Johnson was driving was missing from her home. It was later found, on fire, some distance from the spot where police found Johnson’s body. This evidence is sufficient to establish a prima facie showing that personal property was taken from the victim, thereby indicating the loss or harm. Moreover, because the victim was found beaten to death and her body abandoned in a rural area, we may infer the car was forcibly taken against her will, thereby establishing the action of a criminal agency. Although defendant contends there was no evidence of mental state, we may infer from the circumstances that the perpetrator intended to permanently deprive Johnson of the car. We conclude the corpus delicti for the robbery was established by evidence independent from defendant’s numerous extrajudicial statements; for that reason, we need not address defendant’s contention that his trial counsel was ineffective for failing to object on corpus delicti grounds to his admissions and confession. (See People v. Moreno (1987) 188 Cal.App.3d 1179 [233 Cal.Rptr. 863] [failure to object on corpus delicti grounds constituted ineffective assistance of counsel].) Defendant also claims there was insufficient evidence to show that he robbed Linda Johnson. This claim need not detain us long. Experts determined Johnson had been severely beaten, indicating the use of force. Melvin Cooper’s blue Cadillac, last seen in her possession, was missing. Defendant admitted several critical, inculpatory details of the crime to Matt Miller, Albert Aranda, and David Pulley, among others. He confessed his guilt to A.C. Harris. It is manifest there is substantial evidence that defendant robbed Johnson of the Cadillac. Defendant claims his various admissions go to the killing and not the robbery. Further, he argues there was no evidence showing he formed the intent to rob before he killed the victim. (Green, supra, 27 Cal.3d at p. 54; see also People v. Ramkeesoon (1985) 39 Cal.3d 346, 351 [216 Cal.Rptr. 455, 702 P.2d 613].) These assertions, however, ignore his admissions to Pulley. The day of Linda Johnson’s disappearance and probable murder, defendant told Pulley that he intended to obtain Johnson’s Cadillac “one way or another, if it takes me to jail or imprisonment or killing her.” This evidence was sufficient to establish that defendant intended to rob Johnson prior to killing her. b. Robbery of Olga Cannon The evidence shows that the nude body of Olga Cannon was found in an irrigation canal. Although the cause of death could not be determined because of the advanced state of decomposition, the coroner determined that she had a fractured jaw. She was last seen the night of August 14, 1984, with defendant. A few days later, Louisia Thomas found Cannon’s purse in defendant’s car. When Louisia Thomas asked whether she could have the purse, defendant behaved in a suspicious manner. From this evidence, the jury could have reasonably concluded defendant had knowledge of crimes against Cannon. These facts satisfy the corpus delicti rule as to the Cannon robbery. The missing purse provided evidence of the loss or harm. The condition of the body, coupled with defendant’s suspicious behavior when Louisia Thomas discovered the purse, establishes a prima facie showing of the existence of a criminal agency. We may further infer from this evidence that the purse was taken from the victim by force or fear with the intent to permanently deprive her of it. Defendant also contends that even assuming the corpus delicti rule is satisfied, there nevertheless was insufficient evidence of robbery. We disagree. About one month before Linda Johnson's death, defendant confessed to his half brother, A.C. Harris, that he had killed three prostitutes. In explaining his actions, defendant told Harris that he would “proposition the money, take them out, take their money back from them after he [got] through doing what he wants” and then kill them when they struggled or cried rape. (Italics added.) Around the same time Cannon disappeared, defendant asked Flenard Johnson whether he remembered Cannon. Defendant then proclaimed, “Man, I took her ass out the other night. I got her loaded and fucked her three times, took her money, put her ass out.” (Italics added.) A few days later, he told Flenard Johnson “practically” the same thing. Defendant attempts to explain his admissions to Flenard Johnson by claiming that he was boasting of having taken money on some prior occasion and not on the critical night when Cannon was killed. While that inference is possible, it is certainly not the only one permissible on this record. (See People v. Ramirez (1979) 91 Cal.App.3d 132, 137 [153 Cal.Rptr. 789].) We conclude the evidence of defendant’s admissions, his unexplained possession of Cannon’s purse shortly after she disappeared, his suspicious behavior regarding the purse with Louisia Thomas, and the evidence of obvious force applied to Cannon’s body, viewed in a light most favorable to the judgment below, constitutes substantial evidence from which a rational trier of fact could have found defendant robbed Cannon of her purse before killing her. (Johnson, supra, 26 Cal.3d at p. 578.) c. Rape of Olga Cannon Defendant forcefully argues that there was insufficient evidence to establish the corpus delicti of rape. In their respondent’s brief, the People concede that the evidence supporting the corpus delicti of rape was “thin” but urge that the physical evidence, taken in conjunction with evidence of defendant’s other crimes, comprises a prima facie showing that a rape occurred. At oral argument, however, the People retreated from that position, instead arguing that even without the evidence of defendant’s other criminal acts, a prima facie showing of rape existed. As we explain, we need not decide the admissibility of other-crimes evidence to establish the corpus delicti because the physical evidence, and reasonable inferences drawn therefrom, satisfy the corpus delicti rule. The evidence shows that the victim, Olga Cannon, was found, unclothed, in an irrigation canal. She had been dead several weeks. Although her body was badly decomposed, experts determined she had suffered a broken jaw. While this evidence would satisfy the corpus delicti of murder (there being evidence that she died through the involvement of a criminal agency), the evidence of rape was not strong. For example, because of the advanced state of decay, there was no evidence of seminal fluids on the body (see People v. Wright (1990) 52 Cal.3d 367, 405 [70 Cal.Rptr. 116, 443 P.2d 580] [corpus delicti proven from the condition of the body and presence of semen on the victim’s external genitalia]; People v. Morales (1989) 48 Cal.3d 527, 553 [257 Cal.Rptr. 64, 770 P.2d 244] [evidence showed presence of spermatozoa]), or evidence of penetration (see People v. Mattson (1990) 50 Cal. 3d 826, 874-875 [268 Cal.Rptr. 802, 789 P.2d 983] [victim found with a lacerated hymen]; People v. Duncan (1959) 51 Cal.2d 523, 528 [334 P.2d 858] [injuries to genitalia supported an inference of rape]). Further, there was no evidence that the victim’s clothes were arranged in such a manner as to suggest a sexual assault. (See Wright, supra, at p. 383 [victim naked from the waist down].) Although the evidence of rape is thus minimal, we nevertheless deem it sufficient to satisfy the corpus delicti rule. When the body of a young woman is found unclothed in a remote locale, an inference arises that some sexual activity occurred, thus satisfying the requirement that there be some showing of a loss, injury, or harm. People v. Robbins, supra, 45 Cal. 3d 867, is illustrative. In that case, we listed the absence of any clothes where the body was discovered as one factor in proving the corpus delicti of lewd conduct with a child. {Id. at p. 886.) This was so despite the fact that the victim’s body was so decomposed that a physical examination could not establish the commission of a sexual assault. While the inference of sexual activity is by no means the only, or even the most compelling, one in this case (see, e.g., Green, supra, 27 Cal.3d at pp. 58, 61 [murder victim’s clothes taken to conceal her identity]), it nevertheless remains a reasonable one, at least for corpus delicti purposes. Further, it is important that the victim was found in a location where her lack of clothing was not easily explainable, that she was dead, and that she had suffered a broken jaw. From these factors, we may infer that whatever sexual activity occurred, it occurred against the victim’s will. The evidence thus satisfies the second prong of the corpus delicti rule, i.e., the involvement of a criminal agency. We reemphasize that the quantum of evidence the People must produce in order to satisfy the corpus delicti rule is quite modest; case law describes it as a “slight or prima facie” showing. (Wright, supra, 52 Cal.3d at p. 404; see 1 Witkin & Epstein, Cal. Criminal Law (2d ed. 1988) Elements of Crime, § 140, p. 156, and cases cited.) This minimal standard is better understood when we consider that the purpose of the corpus delicti rule is “to protect the defendant against the possibility of fabricated testimony which might wrongfully establish the crime and the perpetrator.” (People v. Cullen (1951) 37 Cal.2d 614, 625 [234 P.2d 1].) As one court explained, “Today’s judicial retention of the rule reflects the continued fear that confessions may be the result of either improper police activity or the mental instability of the accused, and the recognition that juries are likely to accept confessions uncritically.” (Jones v. Superior Court (1979) 96 Cal.App.3d 390, 397 [157 Cal.Rptr. 809].) Viewed with this in mind, the low threshold that must be met before a defendant’s own statements can be admitted against him makes sense; so long as there is some indication that the charged crime actually happened, we are satisfied that the accused is not admitting to a crime that never occurred. Indeed, although proof of Cannon’s murder does not necessarily tend to show a rape was committed, the independent evidence of Cannon’s murder enhances the reliability of defendant’s admissions to Kenny Smith that he forced Cannon to “make out” with him by slapping her. (See Robbins, supra, 45 Cal.3d at p. 886 [“the physical evidence of the homicide lends reliability to other aspects of defendant’s confession”].) Finally, we are convinced that it is fair in this case to apply the “slight or prima facie” standard for purposes of the corpus delicti rule. To hold otherwise would lead to the incongruous result of permitting a criminal to publicly proclaim his guilt so long as he was able to successfully hide the body of the victim. As this court opined in Cullen, supra, 37 Cal.2d at p. 624, “to require direct and positive proof of the corpus delicti would be most unreasonable; . . . the worst crimes are naturally committed at chosen times, in darkness and secrecy .... [H]uman tribunals must act upon such indications as the circumstances admit; . . . more often than not the attendant and surrounding facts remove all mystery and supply that degree of certainty men are daily accustomed to regard as sufficient in the most important concerns of life.” As another court noted, successful disposal of the victim’s body “is one form of success for which society has no reward.” (People v. Manson (1977) 71 Cal.App.3d 1, 42 [132 Cal.Rptr. 265].) In sum, we find that although the evidence of Cannon’s rape was “thin,” it was sufficient to satisfy the corpus delicti rule. Because we reach this conclusion, we need not address the People’s further contention that evidence of defendant’s other crimes can be used to establish the corpus delicti of rape. Finally, defendant was observed in Cannon’s company shortly before she disappeared. Then, around the time Cannon disappeared, defendant intimated to Flenard Johnson that he raped and killed her. (See, ante, p. 366.) Defendant also made incriminating admissions to his cellmate, Kenny Smith. We thus reject defendant’s claim that there was insufficient evidence of convict him of raping Cannon. d. Murder of Jacqueline Frazier The evidence shows that on July 21, 1984, Frazier was seen wearing a green and white horizontally striped blouse. In addition, she was wearing seven of her customary eight rings. Frazier’s brother, Freeman Burton, saw her that night at Hunt’s Club. About 11:30 or 12 midnight, her friend Eloísa Mayberry saw her sitting in a Ford Pinto with defendant. At that time, Frazier told Mayberry that she would return to the club shortly. Frazier, however, never returned. Her body was found two days later in an irrigation ditch. Three of her seven rings were missing. Most of her clothes were missing, but she was still wearing the green and white blouse. It was determined that she had been dead at least 36 hours and that there was semen in her vagina. Tire tracks found near the body were similar to those left by defendant’s Pinto, although a definite identification could not be made because the tires on that car had no unique feature. Two of the missing rings were found in defendant’s jewelry box in his home. Significantly, about a month prior to the Linda Johnson killing (i.e., approximately mid-August 1984), defendant told A.C. Harris that he had killed three prostitutes. He admitted that for each one, he enticed them into his car or van, drove to rural areas, had sex with them, and then took his money back. When they protested, he beat and choked them to death. (See discussion, ante, p. 366, fn. 6.) Frazier was killed in late July 1984. Keeping in mind that we “must review the whole record in the light most favorable to the judgment to determine whether it contains substantial evidence . . . from which a rational trier of fact could have found the defendant guilty beyond a reasonable doubt” (Green, supra, 27 Cal.3d at p. 55), it is apparent that this web of circumstantial evidence is sufficient to support a conviction for murder. (See People v. Reilly (1970) 3 Cal. 3d 421, 424 [90 Cal.Rptr. 417, 475 P.2d 649] [People may rely on circumstantial evidence to prove crime beyond a reasonable doubt].) Defendant was apparently the last person with the deceased before she died and tire tracks similar to those left by his car were found near the body. More important, he was in possession of two of the missing rings. Finally, he made suspicious and incriminating statements to Harris. Defendant strenuously objects to the use of his admissions to Harris, claiming there was no evidence Frazier was a prostitute, thereby undercutting the relevance of his statements. Defendant notes that two prosecution witnesses, who were close enough to Frazier to know about her fondness for her rings, testified that to their knowledge, Frazier was not a prostitute. As the People assert, however, there was sufficient evidence provided by other witnesses from which a reasonable trier of fact could have concluded Frazier was engaging in prostitution during the period leading up to her death. The main witness providing this information was Donna Bradley, one of Frazier’s friends. Bradley testified that most of the times she visited Frazier’s apartment, Frazier asked her to leave for a period of time because she was expecting company. Bradley testified the visitor was always male and almost always a different man. As she left the apartment on these occasions, Frazier usually said she was “going to try to get some money” from her male visitor. Bradley would return in one or two hours and the male visitor was always gone. Rodney Bradley also testified. He recounted his experience watching Frazier’s apartment and seeing her come home with different men. Finally, the People proved that Frazier did not work and received no financial assistance from her mother or former boyfriend. Thus, although there was no direct evidence Frazier was a prostitute, there is evidence from which a reasonable trier of fact could have so deduced. We conclude that defendant’s statements to Harris were properly considered by the jury and that there was substantial evidence supporting the jury’s verdict that defendant murdered Frazier. e. Robbery of Jacqueline Frazier As the evidence recounted above clearly shows, there was substantial evidence defendant robbed Frazier before killing her. Especially pertinent is the evidence that two of the victim’s missing rings were found in defendant’s jewelry box and that defendant admitted to Harris that in addition to killing three prostitutes, he took their money. As with his robbery of Linda Johnson, defendant claims there was no evidence showing he formed the intent to rob before he killed Frazier. (Green, supra, 27 Cal.3d at p. 54.) This overlooks the evidence of defendant’s own admissions as provided by Harris: defendant sa