Full opinion text
Opinion BAXTER, J. A jury convicted defendant Terry Douglas Bemore (defendant or Bemore) of one count of first degree murder (Pen. Code, § 187), one count of robbery (§ 211), and one count of burglary (§ 459). Under the 1978 death penalty law, two special circumstance allegations were found true, namely, that the murder occurred during the commission of a robbery (§ 190.2, subd. (a)(17)(A)), and that the murder was intentional and involved the infliction of torture (§ 190.2, subd. (a)(18)). Following a penalty trial in front of the same jury that decided guilt, defendant was sentenced to death. The trial court denied the automatic motion to modify the verdict. (§ 190.4, subd. (e).) This appeal is automatic. (Cal. Const., art. VI, § 11; Pen. Code, § 1239, subd. (b).) No prejudicial error occurred at defendant’s trial. We therefore will affirm the judgment in its entirety. I. Guilt Phase Evidence A. Prosecution Case The crime occurred August 26, 1985, at the Aztec Liquor Store in San Diego. The victim, 55-year-old Kenneth Muck, was the lone clerk on duty and was responsible for closing the store at 10:00 p.m.—the approximate time of the robbery and murder. A small storage room in the back of the liquor store contained cleaning supplies, including commercial mops, and a safe sitting on the floor. A door opened from the storage room into a Dumpster area behind the building. The back door was unlocked only when trash was discarded, usually at closing time. Upon closing, Muck was required to transfer cash from the register to the top chamber of the safe. Muck did not know the combination to this chamber and could not retrieve money once it was deposited inside. However, all employees knew the combination to a separate bottom chamber of the safe, which held money placed in the register at the start of each shift. Money was wrapped in cloth bags tied with distinctive sailing knots by the owner of the store, Otto Heinkel. Muck was required to set the burglar alarm before leaving work each night. When this task was performed, a loud ring would alert persons in the store that the alarm had been set. An. alarm-on signal would also be received at the premises of a private security company. The time of the crime was established primarily through witnesses who lived nearby. Walter Cardwell testified that between 9:30 and 9:45 p.m. on August 26, he returned a plunger he had borrowed from the liquor store a short time earlier. During Cardwell’s return visit, Muck was otherwise alone, and the pair chatted for about five minutes. While walking between the store and his apartment, Cardwell saw a distinctive maroon Buick, later identified as defendant’s, parked in the lot in front of the store. Another neighbor, Sandra McIndoe, testified that between 9:45 and 10:00 p.m., her roommate told her to look at something “odd” outside their bedroom window, which faced the Dumpster area behind the liquor store. There, McIndoe saw two people she could not otherwise identify standing around a “medium to large-sized sedan-type” car. Both McIndoe and a woman who lived in another building nearby testified that they did not hear the usual ring of the liquor store alarm at 10:00 o’clock the night of the crime. At some point after 10:15 p.m., the security company informed the store’s owner, Heinkel, that the alarm had not been set. Heinkel called an employee, John Riley, and asked him to investigate. When Riley arrived at 10:45 p.m., he unlocked the front door and saw that the cash register drawer was open and empty—its normal condition after money has been removed and placed in the safe at closing time. However, as Riley approached the storage room, he saw blood on the floor. He fled and called the police from a business nearby. The police found Muck lying dead on the floor of the storage room. There was a large amount of blood, including a smear or trail leading from the body towards the back door, which was open. The safe was gone, and striation marks suggested it had been dragged or pushed outside. Heinkel estimated that the safe contained “at least $1,200” when it was stolen, accounting for both “start-up” money in the bottom chamber and sales receipts in the top chamber. Detective Patrick Padillo testified that two sets of bloody shoe prints—one significantly larger than the other—were found in the storage room. Impressions made by the larger shoes were greatest in number and were located closest to the body. No bloody prints attributable to the smaller shoes, estimated to be men’s size eight, were found in the immediate vicinity of the body. Testimony by a shoe print expert, John Simms, and by an investigator for the district attorney’s office, Richard Cooksey, established that the larger set of prints were made by Puma tennis shoes—men’s size 13—bearing a particular herringbone pattern on the soles. The forensic pathologist who performed the autopsy, Dr. Robert Bucklin, testified that Muck was over six feet tall, weighed 188 pounds, and was in good physical condition before he died. The autopsy disclosed one blunt force laceration and several abrasions, mostly to the head. There were also 37 stab wounds distributed over Muck’s entire body. Almost half, or 17, of the knife wounds were located on the front and back of the torso. Dr. Bucklin identified one back wound and four chest wounds as “potentially fatal,” either individually or in combination. However, three of the latter wounds were particularly dangerous because they “blended” together on the chest, involved a great deal of force, and penetrated through the rib cage into the heart and lungs. The 20 remaining knife wounds—none identified as fatal—were located on Muck’s head, neck, arms, legs, hips, and buttocks. They included two punctate marks on the left side of the neck and one nick or cut to the jugular vein on the right side of the neck. Dr. Bucklin indicated that because pressure in the veins of a live person is much lower than pressure in the arteries, a cut to the jugular vein would produce only a momentary spurt of blood, which would be followed by a “slow gradual flow as opposed to [the continuous] spurting type flow which might be expected from [cutting] an artery.” Dr. Bucklin encountered two unusual circumstances during the autopsy. First, while four shallow cuts on the arms seemed defensive in nature, Dr. Bucklin found no defensive knife wounds on Muck’s hands—wounds commonly present in multiple stabbing cases like this one. Second, Dr. Bucklin observed a “cluster” of eight puncture and cutting wounds on Muck’s right lateral flank. These injuries were “distinct and different” from all other stab wounds because they were smaller, shallow, and irregular in shape. As discussed later in the opinion, two knives were linked to defendant and the capital crime—a Dragon Taiwan knife identified as People’s exhibit No. 48, and a Super Thrower knife identified as People’s exhibit No. 66. Dr. Bucklin testified that the eight wounds on Muck’s flank could have been made with People’s exhibit No. 48, given the size, shape, and rough finish of the blade. However, Dr. Bucklin believed the fatal knife wounds on Muck’s torso were inflicted with a different knife—one that created cuts with a “sharper,” more regular edge—such as People’s exhibit No. 66. Brian Kennedy, a deputy sheriff, testified as an expert in bloodstain pattern analysis, and reconstructed the crime in light of Muck’s injuries and the bloody scene. Kennedy believed Muck was probably seated upright on the floor—legs “drawn up” and feet bottoms “facing each other”—when “several blows” with the knife were delivered, including the nonlethal cut to his jugular vein. This conclusion was based on a single venal spurt pattern, as well as several miscellaneous spatter marks, on certain boxes; bloody crease marks in clothing on Muck’s lap; the presence of blood drops on the ankle area of his sock; a blood flow stain running down the shirt towards his lap; and a transfer stain caused when the bottom of his chin evidently hung down against his bloody shirt. According to Kennedy, additional stab wounds—including some of the injuries identified as fatal by Dr. Bucklin—were administered after Muck assumed the prostrate position in which he was ultimately found. Evidence supporting this conclusion included the large pool of blood underneath the chest cavity, and bloody “spine” marks projecting from the pool onto surrounding surfaces. Such blood loss and spining evidently occurred when the knife was driven violently into Muck’s chest while he was lying down, causing blood which had collected and started to clot underneath him to squirt sideways onto the floor, and driving clots onto the wall. Kennedy also believed Muck had been restrained during the attack— testimony consistent with autopsy evidence concerning the lack of defensive cuts on his hands. Several finger-size “compression marks” appeared in bloodstains circling the left wrist. A blood-free zone on the right wrist was roughly the size of a hand and, along with contact stains on the bicep, suggested that Muck’s right arm had been grabbed and held against his bloody shirt. Based in part on the fact that blood had started to clot before the stabbing was complete, Kennedy estimated that the 37 knife wounds were inflicted over a period of 15 to 30 minutes. Finally, there was no blood on the floor where the safe had been located, even though Muck was stabbed nearby. This fact, along with the bloody smear leading towards the door, suggested the safe was moved after most or all of the bloodletting had occurred. Kennedy inferred from the condition of the floor that a wet soapy mop had been pushed through the blood, perhaps in an effort to move the safe. In summer 1985, defendant rented a garage in an apartment complex on Bates Street in San Diego—a marginal neighborhood whose inhabitants generally knew one another and were involved in the sale and use of crack cocaine. Defendant’s friend, Jackie Robertson, and Robertson’s girlfriend, Patti Hill, shared a unit above defendant’s garage. Defendant also knew Troy Patterson (Robertson’s neighbor), Echo Ramey (Patterson’s roommate), Lloyd Howard (a local drug dealer), and Kim Strickler (Howard’s wife). However, the person with whom defendant apparently spent the most time was Keith Cosby (Robertson’s cousin and houseguest). Howard regularly sold cocaine to defendant and Cosby. At some point on August 26, the night of the crime, defendant and Cosby separately visited the Howard home, apparently to buy drugs. Howard’s wife, Strickler, testified that she saw “fresh” scratch marks on defendant’s back, which was bare. Cosby’s shirt was bloody. Patterson and Ramey testified that they were home together from 9:00 p.m. through midnight on August 26. Shortly before midnight, defendant came to the door and asked to borrow something to cover a safe, like a large duffel bag. According to Ramey, defendant appeared wild-eyed, sweaty, and jumpy. Patterson followed defendant to his garage, and saw a safe resembling the one stolen from the liquor store. Robertson and Hill testified that after midnight on the same night, they heard banging noises and the sound of metal against metal coming from defendant’s garage downstairs. Early the next morning, Robertson entered the garage and saw the safe. Exterior parts had been removed, but both chambers were still locked. Throughout the day, various attempts to drill open the safe were made. Robertson and Patterson each admitted at trial that they assisted defendant and Cosby in this process. While working on the safe, Robertson expressed curiosity about its origins. Defendant replied, “you don’t want to know” and “just stay out of it.” Defendant’s tone frightened Robertson, who then left the garage. When Robertson returned, the top chamber of the safe had been forced open. According to Robertson, he and Patterson were both present when defendant and Cosby brought the loot—two or three bank bags containing cash—into Robertson’s apartment. However, as best Robertson could recall, defendant and Cosby counted the cash in a bedroom by themselves. The empty money bags were later found by Robertson on a shelf above his refrigerator. Both Robertson and Patterson denied receiving any money from the safe. Robertson’s girlfriend, Hill, witnessed unusual behavior by defendant shortly after the safe first arrived in his garage. Before 7:00 o’clock in the morning, defendant asked to see Hill’s newspaper, which contained an article about the capital crime. Hill also saw defendant place a mop similar to the ones used at the liquor store in the Dumpster outside her apartment building. At Hill’s request, Robertson retrieved the mop, which Hill used to clean their apartment. According to Robertson, the safe sat in defendant’s garage for about two days. It was next seen by both Patterson and Ramey in a vacant apartment next to their unit, which was located in a building near defendant’s garage. Patterson testified that he became nervous about the proximity of the stolen safe to his residence. Hence, he and defendant put the safe in defendant’s car, drove to a remote residential area, and dumped it. The damaged, empty safe was given to the police the next day by the owner of the property on which it was found. At trial, the safe was identified by Heinkel as the one stolen from his store. The capital crime remained unsolved through September and most of October 1985. During this time, Robertson found an unfamiliar knife— identified as People’s exhibit No. 48—in the apartment he shared with Hill. The knife was linked both to defendant and to the Aztec crime. Hill testified that the morning after the safe first arrived in defendant’s garage, she saw defendant at her kitchen sink washing an object that could have been People’s exhibit No. 48. As noted earlier, Dr. Bucklin testified that, based on the shape and finish of the blade, the same knife could have inflicted the shallow and irregular wounds clustered together on Muck’s right flank. On October 21, 1985, a local television show called Crime Stoppers sought information from the public about the Aztec crime on behalf of the San Diego Police Department. Hill promptly telephoned the program and conveyed her suspicions about defendant’s involvement. Robertson and Hill gave the police the mop that defendant had discarded in the Bates Street Dumpster, as well as the money bags and knife left in their apartment after the safecracking episode. According to Heinkel, the recovered mop and money bags were identical to items stolen during the capital crime. On October 26, 1985, several days after the Crime Stoppers broadcast, the San Diego Police Department encountered Cosby when he drove defendant’s car into the front yard of a house. The car was impounded. Detective Padillo testified that he subsequently acquired unspecified information leading him to believe that the impounded vehicle “had been used in the murder of Mr. Muck.” Pursuant to a warrant, Padillo seized items from the car, including two knives and two pairs of shoes. One of the knives was identified at trial as People’s exhibit No. 66—the same weapon that could have inflicted the fatal wounds on Muck’s torso. Although the shoes found in defendant’s car were not Pumas and did not match any prints at the crime scene, both pairs were quite large. One pair bore a size 13 label, and the other pair—though evidently unmarked—was similar in size. Other evidence linked defendant to the large shoe prints found close to Muck’s body and identified as size 13 Puma tennis shoes. Specifically, the three men who helped defendant drill the safe (Cosby, Robertson, and Patterson) have smaller feet and/or are shorter than defendant, who is six feet six inches tall. In addition, Patterson testified that he gave defendant a new pair of size 13 Puma tennis shoes because he (Patterson) disliked their color and fit. Although Patterson was uncertain about the time, the shoes could have changed hands before August 26, the day of the Aztec crime. Patterson saw defendant wear the Puma shoes, which were black and red, on at least one unspecified occasion. Before his arrest on October 31, 1985, defendant purportedly made several statements indicating that he personally killed Muck, and that the stabbing occurred in order to facilitate the robbery. Howard, the drug dealer, heard defendant and Cosby discuss the Aztec crime while drinking beer with several other men on Bates Street. Cosby accused defendant of stabbing the victim for “no reason.” Defendant replied that if “he would have did what I told him I wouldn’t have had to stab him so many times.” Similarly, Angela Tabor, a woman who apparently helped Howard sell cocaine on Bates Street, testified that she saw the safe in defendant’s garage and witnessed an argument between Cosby and defendant, apparently over the Aztec crime. When Cosby said, “you didn’t have to do that,” defendant replied, “if the motherfucker had did what I told him he might still be alive.” Another woman who lived in the neighborhood, Latonya Wadley, testified that she and several neighbors, including defendant, were “getting high” together the morning after the capital crime. At one point, when she and defendant were alone, he said he “stabbed somebody” and inflicted as many as 20 wounds. The prosecution presented similar testimony by Glenn Heflin, a convicted felon who met defendant in jail while he was awaiting trial in the present case. Heflin described three incidents between October 1987 and April 1988 in which defendant made statements suggesting he had personally killed Muck in the course of a robbery. B. Defense Case 1. Defendant’s testimony Defendant acknowledged that in August 1985, at age 29, he was an unemployed crack addict who committed shoplifting and armed robbery to support his habit. However, defendant denied being present during, or otherwise involved in, the robbery and murder of Muck. Defendant offered an alibi defense, and blamed Cosby and Patterson for the capital crime. Defendant testified that on the evening of August 26, 1985, he smoked cocaine on Bates Street with Cosby, Patterson, and “Johnny,” a drug dealer from Los Angeles whose last name defendant did not know. Shortly before 9:00 p.m., the group purportedly drove in defendant’s car to a Kmart in El Cajon, and discussed stealing merchandise that could be sold to earn money for more drugs. Because he carried a pistol, defendant suggested they rob a cashier instead. Defendant entered the Kmart alone to determine whether it was safe to rob. However, when he returned to the parking lot, his three companions had driven away in his car. According to defendant, he wandered aimlessly down the street. He soon arrived at a Wherehouse music store and committed an “easy robbery.” It was 9:00 p.m. at the time. Defendant was less precise in accounting for his time after 9:00 o’clock. He testified that he walked for a while, and then hired a taxicab to travel across town to “Imperial and 54th,” where cocaine is openly sold on the street. He explained, “If I would have purchased the cocaine on Bates [instead of Imperial], I would have had to share it with everyone .... They took no part in the robbery so I wasn’t going to share any [of its] fruits.” Defendant then taxied to Bates Street. Not seeing his car or friends, defendant smoked the cocaine by himself in a vacant apartment in Robertson’s building. When asked on direct examination about the scratches seen on his back that night by Strickler (Howard’s wife), defendant said they were acquired several days earlier during a fight “with a guy that I only know by the name of Tex.” Defendant claimed he bought cocaine from Howard on Bates Street on August 26 after consuming the supply purchased a short time earlier on Imperial Street. According to defendant, he smoked the second batch of cocaine in the same vacant apartment as the first batch, and consumed beer and marijuana on the latter occasion as well. While wandering around later the same night, defendant reportedly saw his car “coming up Bates Street” with Cosby, Patterson, and a bloody safe inside. Despite evidence suggesting that the safe was in the garage when Patterson first saw it, defendant claimed he helped Patterson and Cosby unload it from the car. Defendant’s account about opening the safe was similar to what both Robertson and Patterson had described at trial. However, contrary to evidence suggesting that only defendant and Cosby profited from the safe, defendant testified that money from both the top and bottom chambers was divided among three people—defendant, Cosby and Patterson. Defendant explained that his share represented compensation for use of his car. Defendant admitted abandoning the safe in the manner described by Patterson. Defendant also confirmed Hill’s account of his discarding the Aztec mop, saying “anything I could find that had anything to do with that crime I threw in the dumpster.” Defendant admitted that he owned the knives introduced into evidence as the probable murder weapons, and said they were usually kept in his car. However, defendant contradicted prosecution evidence with respect to other postcrime details. He purportedly never washed or left any of his knives in the Robertson/Hill apartment, and expressed no interest in reading about the capital crime in Hill’s newspaper. Although defendant acknowledged his feet ranged in size from 11½ to 13, “depending upon the shoe,” he denied owning or wearing Puma tennis shoes similar to those linked to the crime scene. Defendant also denied making any incriminating statements to Howard, Tabor, or Wadley on Bates Street, or to Heflin in jail. On cross-examination, defendant disclosed that he did not know the distance and direction he walked between the Kmart and the Wherehouse; the nature of any statements he made to Wherehouse employees during the robbery; the amount of money he took from the Wherehouse; the location at which he hailed the taxicab; the name of the taxicab company he used; the name of the grocery store where he bought beer; or the length of time he spent consuming drugs and alcohol alone on Bates Street. Defendant also could not explain why he would consider robbing the Kmart when he knew there was a police station across the street, or why he would rob the Wherehouse even though he had no car or escape plan. Defendant offered the same basic excuse for any gaps in his story—poor memory and bad judgment as the result of heavy cocaine use. When the prosecutor asked why defendant played such an active role in concealing a crime he supposedly did not commit, and why Cosby and Patterson did not hide evidence of their own alleged involvement, defendant replied, “[T]hey’re more messed up [on drugs] than me. . . . They’re not covering anything, you know, and I’m loaded and I’m paranoid and I panicked.” 2. Other defense witnesses Wherehouse employee Yolanda Salvatierra confirmed that she had previously identified defendant both at a police lineup and at a preliminary hearing as the man who robbed her at gunpoint around 9:00 p.m. on August 26, 1985. However, she made clear that such prior identifications were equivocal when made, and that she presently was “not sure” defendant committed the Wherehouse crime. No evidence corroborated defendant’s account of his whereabouts after 9:00 o’clock on August 26, 1985. However, in an effort to suggest he was not present when the capital crime occurred around 10:00 p.m., defendant called John Verdugo, who lived near the Aztec Liquor Store and whose roommate (McIndoe) testified for the prosecution. Much like his roommate, Verdugo saw someone behind the store around the time of the crime, standing near a car similar to defendant’s. Because the view was obscured, Verdugo could not identify the suspicious person as defendant. However, like defendant, the person seen by Verdugo was Black, and could “easily” have been six feet six inches tall. C. Rebuttal Psychiatrist Reese Jones, an expert in psychopharmacology, was called to rebut any inference from defendant’s testimony that cocaine impairs memory, cognition, or the formation of criminal intent. Dr. Jones testified that cocaine increases confidence, “sharpens” mental acuity, and does not affect either the ability to distinguish right from wrong or to plan and premeditate conduct. The pleasurable effects are felt most rapidly by smoking the drug, as opposed to other means of ingestion. However, aside from irritability commonly experienced by all cocaine users, smokers encounter a special problem—“you come down ... so very very rapidly and get a feeling you want to have another dose . . . and so you go up and down.” Dr. Reese made clear that even during the low points, cocaine smokers function “in a reasonably normal state.” Severe cocaine intoxication can produce paranoid delusions, but is not typified by complete delirium or incoherence. The prosecution also sought to cast doubt on defendant’s claim that he was the person who robbed the Wherehouse one hour before the capital crime. Kimberly Rainer testified that she was working alongside defense witness Salvatierra when the gunman demanded money from the register. Although Rainer initially told police that the robber was about six feet four inches tall, she later determined that she had overestimated his height based, in part, on the fact that she never stood upright in his presence. Rainer did not identify defendant as the Wherehouse robber in the capital trial or, apparently, at any earlier point in time. Other evidence suggested that defendant could have committed the Aztec crime at 10:00 p.m. even assuming he robbed the Wherehouse at 9:00 p.m. Investigator Cooksey testified that, using the most direct route and obeying all traffic laws, the distance between the stores can be driven in 16 minutes. II. Penalty Phase Evidence A. Prosecution Case As reflected in jury instructions identifying permissible factors in aggravation, the prosecution relied on the circumstances of the capital crime (§ 190.3, factor (a)), and three subsequent, unadjudicated criminal acts involving violence or the threat of violence (id., factor (b)). Evidence of one such act—intimidating inmate Heflin to prevent him from testifying about defendant’s statements concerning the robbery murder—was presented at the guilt phase. (See ante, fn. 9.) Evidence of the other two section 190.3, factor (b) crimes was introduced at the penalty phase, as follows. 1. Assault on Mr. Oliver A married couple, the Olivers, testified that in October 1985, they visited an apartment building on Bates Street to retrieve a television borrowed by a friend. While Mr. Oliver socialized with a man named Ellis in the backyard, Mrs. Oliver saw defendant and two other men sitting on the Olivers’ car parked on the street out front. When she told them to move, defendant responded with profanity (e.g., “Bitch, don’t fuck with me”). He then followed Mrs. Oliver into the backyard, and argued with both Mr. Oliver and Ellis. At one point, defendant apologized to Mrs. Oliver and received her husband’s assurance that the incident was “over.” Nevertheless, when the Olivers loaded the television into the car a short time later, defendant approached holding a revolver and a wine bottle. He pointed the gun at Mr. Oliver’s head, threatened to shoot, and said “shut the fucking trunk.” When Mr. Oliver refused to comply, defendant hit Mr. Oliver with the wine bottle, breaking the glass and inflicting a forehead wound. Oliver fell to the ground, where he was hit with the bottle a second time and cut on the wrist. Meanwhile, a boisterous crowd gathered. The incident ended when several people, including Mrs. Oliver, “piled up” around defendant and Mr. Oliver. Defendant was somehow stabbed in the melee. Later, when the two men received treatment in the hospital emergency room at the same time, defendant threatened to kill Mr. Oliver and his family. 2. Rape of Zelda C. Zelda C. testified that in the fall of 1985, she occasionally allowed Howard, the drug dealer, to conduct business in her Bates Street apartment in exchange for free cocaine. Late one night, Howard and his associates departed, leaving Zelda and her two young daughters alone in the apartment with defendant, a stranger. Although Zelda asked defendant to leave, he followed her into the bedroom and displayed a knife. He pushed Zelda onto the bed, cut her nightgown with the knife, and held the knife against her throat while engaging in a nonconsensual act of sexual intercourse. When she refused to orally copulate defendant, he masturbated and ejaculated on her. Throughout the incident, Zelda feared for herself and her children, who were asleep in another bedroom. Zelda testified that she promptly told her sisters and Howard about the incident—testimony corroborated by these individuals in the penalty trial. Ashamed and afraid, Zelda soon moved from Bates Street, and never contacted the police. While she had difficulty identifying defendant from photographs before trial, she positively identified him as the rapist in court. B. Defense Case 1. Personal history Over 40 witnesses were called to present defendant’s life history. Defendant did not testify at the penalty phase. Defendant was born and raised in South Central Los Angeles. His parents never married or lived together. In 1956, when defendant was born, his mother already had four sons from a marriage that ended before she met defendant’s father. Defendant’s father rarely visited defendant as a child. In the early 1960’s, defendant’s mother stopped working and began receiving public assistance as the result of severe rheumatoid arthritis. She underwent numerous surgeries, used a wheelchair, and regularly took painkillers and other medications on which she may have become psychologically dependent. Defendant was close to, and protective of, his mother until her death in 1976. Two siblings described the household as chaotic during defendant’s youth. Aside from Kenneth, who was shy and kind, defendant’s half brothers—Ray, Don, and Bobby—committed crimes, such as burglary, and spent time in custody as juveniles and/or adults. Don, who was particularly violent, once came home bleeding from a bullet or stab wound, and later died in a car accident. Bobby was an epileptic, and may have abused alcohol. Don and Ray both used illicit drugs at home, including heroin. Defendant reportedly smoked marijuana beginning at age nine or 10, and had his first sexual experience at age 11 or 12 with his sister-in-law, Ray’s wife. When defendant was no more than 12, he served as a lookout while Ray committed several burglaries. Two teenage cousins, Sharon and Cheryl, joined the household when their parents died in 1970. Sharon testified that the family often argued and rarely ate meals together. Defendant slept on the floor in the front room. There was little money for school clothes or extracurricular activities. Cheryl eventually married Kenneth, her cousin and defendant’s half brother. Defendant became interested in basketball at a young age. He was well-liked and well-behaved in grades 1 through 12. In high school, defendant became captain of a successful basketball team, was voted most popular boy in the senior class, and showed an interest in church and prayer. Witnesses providing such testimony included defendant’s high school coach, a minister’s family, and several school friends and teammates who had become successful adults, including a police officer, minister, professional basketball player, California Youth Authority counselor, and dentist. By some accounts, defendant drank beer and smoked marijuana in high school. Between 1974, when defendant graduated from high school, and 1979, defendant attended a series of community colleges and small four-year schools in Oregon, California, Kansas, and Kentucky. He received several basketball scholarships, and earned an associate of arts degree. Defendant forged strong personal relationships with coaches and teammates, many of whom described his good nature and expressions of Christian faith. While attending Pasadena City College in 1976, defendant met Bernetta, a cheerleader from a more privileged background. They married after she graduated from college in 1980, and stayed together until shortly before the capital crime. Bernetta testified that she never approved defendant’s marijuana “habit,” or fully understood his ability to “maintain” under its influence. A longtime friend disclosed that defendant became heavily involved in liquor and drugs, including PCP, after his mother died. In the first five years of marriage, two daughters were born, and defendant pursued various career paths. In 1980, he entered Bible college in Northern California and became a licensed Baptist minister. Largely for financial reasons, defendant decided to enter law enforcement. He graduated from the police academy in early 1982, and was hired as a police officer for the City of Palo Alto. He was terminated a few months later for reasons that may have included difficulty writing reports. Although the evidence suggested defendant’s substance abuse had stopped for a while, Bernetta testified that the habit resumed after he lost his job. In mid-1983, defendant joined the Army. Defendant was described by his sergeant as a “model” soldier while stationed for 18 months in Washington State. He was discharged in late 1984 for foot problems that may have stemmed from old basketball injuries. According to his wife, defendant became despondent and used alcohol while taking prescription drugs. However, when the family subsequently moved to San Diego, defendant acquired a new job that he “loved” and performed well—armed enforcement officer for the San Diego County Humane Society. Nevertheless, defendant underwent a destructive change beginning in April 1985. Bernetta noticed that defendant was unusually agitated, unable to account for time and money spent away from home, and became interested in obtaining a divorce. They separated in June, shortly before defendant admitted to Bernetta and another relative that he was addicted to cocaine. One high school friend who saw defendant around the same time noticed that he seemed different, and was accompanied by two apparent drug addicts— Keith Cosby and Jackie Robertson. In mid-August, defendant was arrested for shoplifting liquor from a supermarket, and was fired by the Humane Society when he failed to return to work. The capital crime occurred two weeks later. Evidence was also introduced concerning defendant’s conduct and character after he was arrested in the present case on October 31, 1985. Bernetta testified that she and the children regularly visited and exchanged letters with defendant in jail, and that defendant had written several poems. Consistent with her belief that defendant had been a “good husband” and “excellent father” even while abusing drugs, Bernetta testified that his family still appreciated and needed him. Five sheriff’s deputies who worked either in the courthouse (Fay) or county jail (Randall, O’Connor, Spina, and Quick) described defendant as a cooperative, respectful, and well-behaved inmate. Witnesses in the latter group testified that as jail trusty, defendant maintained an orderly tank, and served successfully in that position for at least two years—an unprecedented period of time. Three instances in which defendant had calmed irate inmates or otherwise assisted deputies were described. No deputy reported seeing gratuitous violence on defendant’s part. Sergeant Quick, who once prayed with defendant and observed his Bible studies, believed defendant’s expressions of Christian faith were sincere and that he would adjust in prison. Similar testimony was given by three chaplains who had counseled defendant in jail (De Hass, Olmsted, and Campbell), including one who knew defendant from Bible college. These witnesses uniformly held defendant in high regard, describing him as a man of “principle and faith,” who had “developed spiritually” in custody and brought “a sense of peace and calm” to the housing unit. Each chaplain believed defendant would continue ministering to others in prison as he had in jail, and that he would perform well in prison. 2. Expert testimony Defense psychologist Stephen Bucky testified that distinctions could be drawn between “normal” families and families living with chemical dependency. Based on a postconviction interview with defendant and information provided by counsel, Dr. Bucky believed defendant had been raised in a family rendered dysfunctional by chemical dependency. As a result, defendant had difficulty identifying and expressing his feelings, considering the consequences of his actions, developing close and trusting relationships, and remaining steadily employed. On cross-examination, Dr. Bucky admitted that he had performed no psychological tests on defendant, that substance abuse is not necessarily genetic in origin, and that defendant displayed certain traits commonly found in sociopaths. C. Rebuttal The prosecution sought to rebut evidence suggesting that defendant maintained perfect order in the protective custody unit and never misbehaved while serving as captain. First, Deputies Rybka and Seitz testified that on June 8, 1988, defendant reported something wrong with dinner, inspiring other inmates to react wildly as though they had been poisoned and requiring medical checkups as a precaution. Inmate Juarez testified that he saw defendant pour toilet water onto his tray that night, and overheard defendant plotting in advance to sue the county or seek early release over the incident. Another inmate, Luken, saw defendant dump tobacco-tainted water into the beverage intended for the entire tank. Luken, who admitted receiving immunity for his role in the matter, testified that he discussed the plan to adulterate food with defendant beforehand, and that they hoped to “get out, escape” if sent to the hospital. Second, some of the same witnesses opined that defendant was manipulative and predatory as tank captain, and gave examples of conduct supporting this view. Specifically, Juarez, Luken, and another inmate, Wilson, testified that defendant and his “followers” threatened and assaulted inmates in order to obtain illicit drugs, cigarettes, and other scarce items. Defendant also used a variety of techniques to frighten and control newcomers, such as accusing them of being informants, making sexual advances while naked, and displaying his martial arts skills. Although defendant read the Bible and held religious meetings, the witnesses perceived these activities primarily as a cynical means of ensuring favorable testimony at trial. In a related vein, Deputy Rybka opined that defendant was skilled at befriending and manipulating less experienced and more naive deputies like O’Connor and Quick, each of whom had given good character testimony on defendant’s behalf. Rybka also mentioned the general problem of having to remove inmates from the protective custody tank if they did not get along with defendant, though no specific fights were witnessed or reported by Rybka. D. Surrebuttal The defense called another group of inmates (Erickson, Moore, Stites, Holland, Castro, and Dunn) who confirmed defendant’s good nature and Christian faith, and placed contrary rebuttal evidence in context, as follows. Although defendant yelled and became angry when inmates broke the rules—particularly the ban on drugs—he did not otherwise commit violent or intimidating acts. The three inmates who testified on rebuttal disliked defendant because he refused to tolerate their disciplinary infractions. For example, defendant once disposed of drugs Juarez had smuggled into his cell, and intervened in disputes Luken and Wilson each waged with other inmates. With respect to defendant’s treatment of newcomers, these acts were described as “games” used primarily to fight boredom. Surrebuttal witnesses also maintained that defendant did not contaminate the meal on June 8, 1988, and that someone else could have done so because the food cart was not in its normal locked condition when it left the kitchen and/or arrived in the tank that night. III. Jury Selection Issues A. Effective Representation—Death Qualification Defendant contends various acts of ineffective assistance of counsel deprived him of a properly death-qualified jury, and violated his federal and state constitutional rights to due process and an impartial jury, and his right to a reliable penalty determination under the federal Constitution. We reject the claims. Defendant’s primary complaint is that his trial attorneys, lead counsel C. Logan McKechnie and cocounsel Elizabeth Barranco, did not vigorously participate in sequestered voir dire, and that an insufficient number of prospective jurors were examined and challenged for cause as a result. (See Hovey v. Superior Court (1980) 28 Cal.3d 1, 80-81 [168 Cal.Rptr. 128, 616 P.2d 1301] (Hovey).) Counsel’s “nonparticipation” was purportedly so egregious as to constitute a “complete abdication” of the duty of competent representation. Viewed in context, jury selection as a whole occurred over a 10-weelc period. Present in court throughout this process, including death qualification, was Dr. Jo-Ellan Dimitrius, a jury expert assisting the defense. Our review discloses nothing perfunctory about Hovey voir dire in general, or about defense counsel’s performance in particular. (Cf. People v. Lewis (1990) 50 Cal.3d 262, 290-291 [266 Cal.Rptr. 834, 786 P.2d 892][no incompetence based on counsel’s participation in one-day voir dire in capital case].) Six and one-half weeks—or 65 percent—of the time spent selecting the jury was devoted to death qualification. Around 160 prospective jurors appeared during this phase and were not excused for hardship or by stipulation of the parties. Individual Hovey examinations—which consumed about 3,500 pages of the reporter’s transcript—followed the same basic pattern. The trial court first asked questions, and then gave both defense counsel and the prosecutor the opportunity to do so. Sometimes follow-up inquiries were made. No restrictions appear to have been placed on the number or nature of questions that could be asked. (Cf. People v. Tuilaepa (1992) 4 Cal.4th 569, 586-587 [15 Cal.Rptr.2d 382, 842 P.2d 1142] [approving Hovey voir dire limited to four questions with almost no follow-up inquiry by defense counsel].) Contrary to what defendant now claims, the record suggests his trial attorneys “participated fully in the process, and did so intelligently.” (People v. Freeman (1994) 8 Cal.4th 450, 485 [34 Cal.Rptr.2d 558, 882 P.2d 249, 31 A.L.R.5th 888] [rejecting ineffectiveness claim based on the nature and extent of counsel’s questions about capital punishment].) Defense counsel questioned at least 86 prospective jurors, including a large number of actual jurors in the case. Counsel also exercised at least 34 challenges for cause, and vigorously opposed several prosecutorial challenges based on the individual’s views on capital punishment. Counsel’s decision to forgo questioning in some instances seems tactically sound on this record. (E.g., People v. Freeman, supra, 8 Cal.4th 450, 485; see People v. Smithey (1999) 20 Cal.4th 936, 986-987 [86 Cal.Rptr.2d 243, 978 P.2d 1171] [stating general rule that ineffectiveness claims are rejected on appeal unless “there could be no satisfactory explanation for counsel’s performance”].) Defendant’s attorneys typically remained silent when the examination otherwise revealed that a prospective juror did not strongly favor capital punishment, or was amenable to life imprisonment without parole. By not probing deeper into the matter, defense counsel reduced the risk of “antagonizing] the juror,” or exposing pro-life scruples that might “give the prosecution a reason to use a peremptory challenge or even grounds for a challenge for cause.” {People v. Freeman, supra, 8 Cal.4th at p. 485; see People v. Cox (1991) 53 Cal.3d 618, 657-659 [280 Cal.Rptr. 692, 809 P.2d 351].) At bottom, nothing shows counsel was incompetent for the reasons urged by defendant. Defendant also complains that the defense had exercised only two of its 26 peremptory challenges when it expressed satisfaction with the 12-member jury. The implication seems to be that counsel did not meaningfully participate in this phase of jury selection, and that defendant’s jury was death prone as a result. We note, however, that defense counsel used two additional peremptories when the panel of six alternate jurors was chosen. The prosecution used a total of eight peremptory challenges in selecting all jurors, including alternates. “Because the use of peremptory challenges is inherently subjective and intuitive, an appellate record will rarely disclose reversible incompetence in this process.” (People v. Montiel (1993) 5 Cal.4th 877, 911 [21 Cal.Rptr.2d 705, 855 P.2d 1277].) We have consistently rejected complaints about either the failure to excuse prospective jurors on an individual peremptory basis, or the decision to accept the jury as constituted before exhausting such challenges. (E.g., People v. Ochoa (1998) 19 Cal.4th 353, 448 [79 Cal.Rptr.2d 408, 966 P.2d 442]; People v. Lucas (1995) 12 Cal.4th 415, 480 [48 Cal.Rptr.2d 525, 907 P.2d 373]; People v. Cain (1995) 10 Cal.4th 1, 62 [40 Cal.Rptr.2d 481, 892 P.2d 1224]; People v. Freeman, supra, 8 Cal.4th 450, 486-487; People v. Montiel, supra, 5 Cal.4th at p. 911; People v. Lewis, supra, 50 Cal.3d 262, 290.) No different result is warranted here. Peremptory challenges were exercised only after both Hovey and general voir dire were complete, and the pool of prospective jurors had been passed for cause by both sides. The defense thus had the benefit of both the protracted examination process and any advice received from its in-court jury consultant. We see no basis on which to conclude that peremptory challenges were used in an unsound or uninformed manner. One particular exchange reinforces this view. Over the prosecutor’s objection, Defense Counsel McKechnie requested and received the court’s permission to use a photograph of the victim’s body during general voir dire. Counsel insisted he could not otherwise “intelligently exercise my peremptory [challenges] without knowing how people are going to react to this very bloody scene at the Aztec Liquor Store.” Counsel said he planned to rely on “body language” and “eye contact” generated by the photograph. Thus, contrary to what defendant suggests, it appears counsel placed special value on the peremptory challenge process, and viewed it as a nuanced means of selecting a suitable jury. Finally, defendant insists trial counsel viewed the death qualification process as merely a one-sided tool by which the prosecution eliminates potential jurors biased in favor of life imprisonment without parole: “Due to this fallacious interpretation of the critical importance of sequestered voir dire, trial counsel performed below the standards to be expected of diligent counsel in a death penalty case.” The record does not support the claim. The defense repeatedly made clear its intent to excuse individuals whose views in favor of capital punishment would “ ‘prevent or substantially impair’ ” their performance as jurors. (People v. Crittenden (1994) 9 Cal.4th 83, 121 [36 Cal.Rptr.2d 474, 885 P.2d 887], quoting Wainwright v. Witt (1985) 469 U.S. 412, 424 [105 S.Ct. 844, 852, 83 L.Ed.2d 841].) Counsel expressed this understanding both orally and in writing when presenting the trial court with reasons underlying numerous challenges for cause during Hovey voir dire. No fundamental misunderstanding of counsel’s role during this phase of trial has been demonstrated by defendant. B. Retention of Juror G. Defendant insists Mr. G., who sat on the jury, was biased in favor of the death penalty, and was unwilling to consider constitutionally relevant evidence offered in mitigation. According to defendant, the trial court erred in denying a defense challenge for cause made after Juror G. answered questions asked by the court and counsel on both sides during Hovey voir dire. He claims violations of his federal and state constitutional rights to due process and an impartial jury, and his right to a reliable penalty determination under the federal Constitution. It is settled that in order to preserve such claims, the defense either must exhaust its peremptory challenges and object to the jury as finally constituted at trial, or must justify its failure to do so on appeal. (People v. Waidla, supra, 22 Cal.4th 690, 715; People v. Lucas, supra, 12 Cal.4th 415, 480; People v. Bittaker (1989) 48 Cal.3d 1046, 1087 [259 Cal.Rptr. 630, 774 P.2d 659]; cf. United States v. Martinez-Salazar (2000) 528 U.S. 304 [120 S.Ct. 774, 145 L.Ed.2d 792].) As noted, defendant remained in possession of most of his peremptory challenges at the time he accepted the jury—a panel which included Juror G. No justification for this failure to exhaust is made here. Defendant claims in the alternative that trial counsel was incompetent for failing to remove Juror G. by way of peremptory challenge. However, as suggested earlier, the decision whether to accept the jury as constituted is inherently nuanced and tactical. Nothing in the record shows that counsel’s actions were unreasonable or harmful in this regard. Indeed, whether the appellate claim concerning Juror G. is framed in terms of an erroneous denial of a challenge for cause or an incompetent failure to use a peremptory challenge, we see no evidence that he was biased or that he should not have served on the jury for the reasons defendant now suggests. (E.g., People v. Lucas, supra, 12 Cal.4th 415, 480-481.) On the one hand, defendant emphasizes answers to questions asked by the trial court in which Juror G. said he “can’t guarantee” that he would enter the penalty phase with an open mind, and that he would “probably” vote for death if first degree murder with special circumstances were found. In response to a question by defense counsel, the juror also said he was not opposed to the notion of “an eye for an eye,” at least where no mitigating evidence was available to “adjus[t]” his thinking in this regard. However, after making each of the foregoing statements, Juror G. insisted upon “explain[ing],” “elaborating],” and “clarifying]” his answers. He rejected any insinuation that he was a religious “fanatic,” and denied acceptance of the “eye for an eye” principle as literal truth. The juror also made clear that he hoped the parties would present evidence beyond the circumstances of the crime at the penalty phase, and that he would carefully consider and weigh such evidence. “Some actions,” he said, “are a combination of the person and the environment and a lot of other factors, and those are the factors that I could listen to . . . as an adjustment in my decision.” Finally, in response to questioning by the prosecutor, Juror G. specifically rejected the notion that he would always choose death, and said he would impose a sentence of life imprisonment without parole in an appropriate case. Deferring to the manner in which the trial court resolved any conflict or ambiguity in the juror’s answers (People v. Millwee (1998) 18 Cal.4th 96, 146 [74 Cal.Rptr.2d 418, 954 P.2d 990]), we see no predisposition in favor of a death sentence. The court did not err in implicitly finding no substantial impairment in Juror G.’s ability to function as a juror at the penalty phase. (People v. Crittenden, supra, 9 Cal.4th 83, 121, citing Wainwright v. Witt, supra, 469 U.S. 412, 424 [105 S.Ct. 844, 854].) We also cannot fault counsel for retaining Juror G. on this record, particularly since he expressed a willingness to consider background and character evidence bearing favorably on defendant. (E.g., People v. Freeman, supra, 8 Cal.4th 450, 486-487; People v. Montiel, supra, 5 Cal.4th 877, 911.) IV. Guilt Phase Issues A. Torture-murder Special Circumstance Defendant contends the trial court’s refusal to dismiss the torture-murder special circumstance undermined the fundamental fairness of the proceedings at both the guilt and penalty phases. Here, as below, the gravamen of the claim is that the evidence does not sustain the elements of the charge. The claim necessarily fails because there was sufficient evidence from which the jury could find the truth of the torture-murder special-circumstance allegation, as properly construed. In general, the torture-murder special circumstance embodied in section 190.2, subdivision (a)(18) (section 190.2(a)(18)), and applicable in the present case, authorizes death or life imprisonment without parole where the defendant is convicted of first degree murder, and where “[t]he murder was intentional and involved the infliction of torture. For the purpose of this section torture requires proof of the infliction of extreme physical pain no matter how long its duration.” This version of the statute was enacted as part of the 1978 death penalty scheme, and was upheld against constitutional challenge in People v. Davenport (1985) 41 Cal.3d 247, 255, 260-271 [221 Cal.Rptr. 794, 710 P.2d 861]. Distilled, the statutory language requires intent to kill, intent to torture, and infliction of an extremely painful act upon a living victim. (Id. at p. 271.) The applicable statutory requirements are set forth in CALJIC No. 8.81.18, which was read to the jury in defendant’s case. 1. Infliction of extreme pain on live victim Defendant observes that the pathologist, Dr. Bucklin, gave no opinion concerning the order in which the 37 knife wounds occurred, or the point during the attack at which Muck died. Thus, with respect to the five deep wounds to the torso identified as fatal, defendant suggests there is no proof they occurred last or that Muck was alive when any of the other 32 cuts were made. Defendant also notes that Dr. Bucklin did not describe the degree of pain experienced by Muck before he died. Based on these factors, defendant claims there was insufficient evidence that Muck’s injuries would have caused extreme pain. We disagree. Testimony by Dr. Bucklin and Deputy Sheriff Kennedy indicated that Muck was sitting upright and was alive when his jugular vein was cut, causing blood to spurt onto surrounding surfaces. The jury could reasonably infer that the nonlethal jugular wound, and perhaps other knife “blows” mentioned by Kennedy, occurred in the first part of the violent episode, before Muck fell or was pushed into the prostrate position in which his body was ultimately found. According to Kennedy, it was only after Muck was lying on the ground that most of the fatal stab wounds—violent thrusts to the chest—were administered. Other evidence suggested that Muck was not only alive but also conscious when stabbed, at least during the first part of the attack. Evidence of a struggle was supplied by the “fresh” scratch marks that Strickier saw on defendant’s back, and by arm cuts that Dr. Bucklin identified as potentially defensive in nature. The jury could infer that Muck—a fairly large and vigorous man—remained a threat to his attacker even after he was stabbed and started to bleed. In particular, bloodstains suggested that both wrists were grabbed, and that he was prevented from using his hands to deflect the knife. No restraint would have been necessary if Muck had perished at the start of the attack in the manner defendant now suggests. As urged by the prosecutor in closing argument, the eight unusual wounds on Muck’s flank could also have been viewed as torturous by the jury. These cuts and punctures were uniformly shallow and grouped together in an area away from any vital organs. They also appear to have been inflicted with a knife other than the one used to fatally stab Muck in the torso during the latter part of the attack. The jury could conclude that the flank wounds were neither accidental nor lethal in nature, and that they were inflicted because the victim was alive, helpless, and capable of experiencing pain. (See People v. Barnett (1998) 17 Cal.4th 1044, 1076-1077, 1162 [74 Cal.Rptr.2d 121, 954 P.2d 384] [evidence of torturous acts supplied by numerous shallow cuts on the hip and thigh inflicted while the victim was alive and restrained].) The evidence supports a finding that the murder involved the infliction of extreme physical pain. 2. Intent to inflict extreme pain Defendant next argues that any inference of an intent to cause extreme pain is speculative and unsupported by the record. According to defendant, no evidence bearing on the requisite mental state exists aside from the “condition of the victim’s body.” The argument seems to be that since multiple stab wounds can be as consistent with a rash explosion of violence as with an intent to inflict cruel suffering, the evidence is insufficient to sustain the torture-murder special-circumstance finding. However, as we have explained in rejecting similar claims in other cases, the trier of fact may find intent to torture based on all the circumstances surrounding the charged crime, including the nature and severity of the victim’s wounds and any statements by the defendant revealing his state of mind during the crime. (People v. Crittenden, supra, 9 Cal.4th 83, 141 [torture-murder special circumstance]; People v. Proctor (1992) 4 Cal.4th 499, 531 [15 Cal.Rptr.2d 340, 842 P.2d 1100] [same]; see People v. Raley (1992) 2 Cal.4th 870, 888 [8 Cal.Rptr.2d 678, 830 P.2d 712] [first degree torture murder]; People v. Pensinger (1991) 52 Cal.3d 1210, 1239 [278 Cal.Rptr. 640, 805 P.2d 899] [same].) Contrary to what defendant suggests, there was sufficient evidence that he committed the crime with a “sadistic intent to cause the victim to suffer pain in addition to the pain of death.” (People v. Davenport, supra, 41 Cal.3d 247, 271.) For background purposes, we note the evidence established the following chain of events: Muck was murdered during the course of a robbery, the object of which was money located in the Aztec Liquor Store. Entry of the store for this illicit purpose occurred around closing time, after money had been transferred from the register to the top chamber of the safe. Using his own knives and stepping in the victim’s blood, defendant stabbed Muck 37 times over a 15- to 30-minute period on the floor of the storage room near the safe. With apparent difficulty, defendant and a third person then moved the safe from the store to defendant’s garage on Bates Street. There, the safe was forced open after defendant and his Mends devoted substantial time and effort to the project. At trial, defendant admitted receiving money from the top and bottom chambers of the safe. Heinkel believed both compartments contained $1,200. Based on this chronology, and consistent with the prosecution’s closing argument, the jury could infer that defendant intentionally tortured Muck to gain entry to the safe and easy access to the cash while inside the store, and that Muck was killed after he failed to comply. Defendant’s postcrime statements to various witnesses indicated that Muck was stabbed because he did not cooperate with demands made during the robbery (“if he would have did what I told him I wouldn’t have had to stab him so many times”), and because he did not open the safe (“the stupid son-of-a-bitch should have opened the safe”). Other evidence established that Muck could not extract money from the top chamber of the safe because he did not know the combination. Also, since money was present in the bottom chamber when the safe was finally opened in defendant’s garage, an inference was raised that Muck refused access to this compartment even though he knew the combination. The painful series of flan