Full opinion text
Opinion MORENO, J. A jury found defendant Gunner Jay Lindberg guilty of the first degree murder (Pen. Code, § 187) of Thien Minh Ly and found he personally used a knife (§ 12022, subd. (b)). The jury further found true special circumstance allegations that defendant committed murder in the attempted commission of robbery (§ 190.2, former subd. (a)(17)(i), now subd. (a)(17)(A)) and because of the victim’s race, color, religion, nationality, or country of origin (§ 190.2, subd. (a)(16) (“hate-murder” special circumstance)). At defendant’s penalty trial, the jury returned a death verdict. The trial court denied defendant’s motion for new trial (§ 1181) and automatic application to modify the penalty verdict (§ 190.4, subd. (e)) and sentenced him to death. This appeal is automatic. (§ 1239, subd. (b).) We affirm the judgment. I. Facts and Proceedings A. Prosecution Guilt Phase Case 1. The Murder of Thien Minh Ly Defendant concedes that the prosecution proved he murdered Ly on the Tustin High School tennis courts on January 28, 1996. The evidence showed that on January 28, 1996, between 8:30 and 9:00 p.m., Thien Minh Ly left his family’s home in Tustin wearing his Rollerblades and leaving behind his wallet and car keys. When Ly did not return home, his family telephoned the police the next day. On the same morning, around 7:45 a.m., Frank Armenta, a groundskeeper at Tustin High School, noticed someone wearing Rollerblades lying on one of the tennis courts. As he approached, Armenta noticed the person was not breathing and saw blood on his shirt and a cut on his neck. He asked two nearby school employees to call the police. When the police responded, they found Ly dead. Next to Ly’s body, they recovered a cap and a single key on a keyring. The key fit the locks at Ly’s residence. Ly had suffered multiple injuries. A pattern contusion (i.e., having “some pattern-like linear marking”) and abrasion comprising an area about five inches by four inches appeared on the right side of Ly’s face, extending from his forehead to his right cheek and ear. A contusion and an abrasion appeared on the left side of Ly’s forehead, and a contusion appeared on his mid-nose area and below his left eye. Redness was visible on his left cheek. Ly had suffered five-and-a-half-inch and three-and-a-half-inch slash wounds on the right and left sides of his neck, respectively. Each of these wounds had irregular edges, suggesting the perpetrator did not inflict a single wound, but probably cut and then extended the cut. The slash wounds to Ly’s neck had been inflicted close in time to his death but not postmortem. Ly had suffered multiple deep stab wounds on the right and left sides of his chest that penetrated his internal organs, linear abraded areas that were consistent with being caused by the pulling of a knife from a deep penetrating wound, stab wounds on his right upper arm, a stab wound in his abdominal area, and an abrasion on his right hand. Some of the chest wounds penetrated through the body. Ly had suffered about 22 wounds to his chest and abdominal areas, some inflicted from the front and some from the back. Each wound had been inflicted by a single-bladed knife or sharp object with a blade about an inch to an inch and a quarter in width. The maximum depth of penetration was about four and one-half inches. Ly had been stabbed about 14 times in the heart. The multiple stab wounds that perforated Ly’s heart, both lungs, diaphragm, liver, duodenum, and kidney had caused Ly to bleed to death. 2. Defendant’s Confession to Ly’s Murder Walter Ray Dulaney IV, also known as Robert Dulaney, testified he was defendant’s cousin and friend and had known defendant all his life. Dulaney previously had been convicted of first degree assault and burglary and, at the time he testified, was in custody in Missouri for shooting at someone. Sometime during the five years before trial, Dulaney, defendant, and defendant’s brother Jerry formed a gang called the Insane Criminal Posse (ICP). In 1995, primarily at defendant’s urging, the gang became involved in the White power movement. By “White power,” Dulaney meant that Whites were superior to all other races. He said defendant shared this view. Dulaney, who was part Japanese, did not consider himself to be any race other than “American.” On February 29, 1996, Dulaney, who was living in Alamogordo, New Mexico, received a handwritten letter from defendant dated February 23, 1996 (the February 23d letter). Defendant had addressed the letter to “Dear Bro, ex-con 2/11 Rob” and stated in relevant part: “Oh, I killed a jap a while ago. I stabbed him to death at tustin High school I walked up to him Dominic was with me and I seen this guy Roller blading and I had a knife. We walked in the tennis court where he was I walked up to him, Dominic was right there. I walked right up to [illegible] him and he was scared I looked at him and said, ‘oh, I thought I knew you’ and he got happy that he wasn’t gona get jumped, then I hit him with one of my mother fuckers and he feel on the ground and he said in a very low voice ‘what the fuck’ and ‘you can have whatever I got.’ I have nothing only a key. You can have it’ then I said ‘you got a car,’ oh I pulled the knife out a butcher knife! and he said ‘no’ then I put the knife to his throught and asked him ‘Do you have a car.’ And he grabed my hand that I had the knife in and looked at me, trying to get a discription of me so I stomped on his head 3 times and each time said ‘stop looking at me’ then he was kinda knocked out Dazzed then I stabbed him in the side about 7 or 8 times he rolled over a little so I stabbed his back about 18 or 19 times then he layed flat and I slit one side of his throught on his jugular vain. Oh, the sounds the guy was making were like uhhh then Dominic said, ‘do it again’ and I said ‘I already did, Dude’ ‘ya, do it again’ so I cut his other juggular vain, and Dominic said ‘kill him do it again.’ I said, ‘he’s already dead’ Dominic said, ‘stab him in the heart.’ So I stabbed him about 20 to 21 times in the heart and we took off. . . . [T]hen I wanted to go back and look, so we did and he was dicing just then taking in some bloody gasps of [illegible] air so I nudged his face with my shoe a few times then I told Dominic to kick him, so he kicked the fuck out of his face and he still has blood on his shoes all over [smiley face] then I ditched the knife, after whiping it clean onto the side of the 15 freeway [smiley face] here’s the clippings from the news paper and we were on all the news channels 2/11 Insane Loc in having a ball in tustin wish you were here. . . .” (Errors in original.) After Dulaney read the letter, his wife gave it to his mother and stepfather, who then gave the letter to Alamogordo police, all of which occurred on the same day. Alamogordo police brought the letter to the attention of the Orange County District Attorney’s Office and Tustin police. The next day, March 1, 1996, Dulaney spoke by telephone to defendant who told him the murder “gave [him] a rush,” “like a high. Better than a drug.” Defendant told Dulaney that he “killed the Jap,” that he “slit his throat and stabbed him a whole bunch of times,” and that he “couldn’t stop.” Defendant told Dulaney he killed Ly “for racial movement [,sic].” On March 5, 1996, Tustin Police Detectives Todd Bullock and Bruce Williams interviewed Dulaney about the letter he had received from defendant. Dulaney denied he had spoken with defendant since he had received the letter because he did not want defendant to be in more trouble than he already was. When Detective Bullock asked Dulaney how defendant felt about Asians, Dulaney said he did not know, as they never talked about it. Dulaney later moved to Missouri with his wife. Sometime in the early part of 1997, while living in Missouri, Dulaney was shot in the stomach by somebody who yelled, “You want to put your cousin on death row, here is death row.” Dulaney did not seek medical help, but pulled the bullet from his stomach himself using tweezers and a lug wrench as he had been trained to do in the “Young Marines.” Dulaney did not report the gunshot wound to police because, at that time, he did not want to violate the conditions of his parole and return to prison. On April 11, 1997, Dulaney telephoned Carl Waddell, an investigator with the Orange County District Attorney’s Office, and informed him that defendant had told him the murder was racially motivated. On April 24, 1997, investigator Waddell and Tustin Police Detective Thomas Tarpley interviewed Dulaney in Missouri. Dulaney repeated that defendant said the murder had been committed for “the racial movement.” Dulaney said he had not previously told the police about his telephone conversation with defendant because he was afraid and did not want to snitch on defendant any more than he had. Dulaney told investigator Waddell that “when he [Dulaney] testified that he was a dead man.” Sometime before he telephoned Waddell on April 11, 1997, Dulaney received a letter from defendant while defendant was in custody awaiting trial in this case. In the letter, defendant wrote that Dulaney’s parents were “2/11,” meaning they were dead because they had turned defendant in. Dulaney and defendant also used the term “2/11” to mean “armed robbery” to show that their gang was “for real” and not “some punk gang or nothing.” After giving defendant’s February 23d letter to police, Dulaney was afraid defendant would kill him. Dulaney became depressed and admitted himself to a “mental rehab” facility because he felt responsible that defendant could receive the death penalty. Dulaney received no promises from either the prosecution or the authorities in Missouri in exchange for his testimony at defendant’s trial. 3. Defendant’s Arrest and the Search of His Apartment In the early morning hours of March 2, 1996, police officers executed a search warrant at defendant’s apartment in Tustin with the assistance of the Orange County Sheriff’s Department SWAT team. They arrested defendant, who was in the living room, and Domenic Christopher, who had fled through a window but was quickly apprehended nearby. Bob Mix, who was present in the apartment with defendant, was detained and taken to the police station. On a wall in the bedroom shared by defendant and Christopher, police officers observed a poster that read across the top, “Celebrate Martin Luther King Day” (“Martin Luther King” poster). The bottom of the poster read, “If they would have shot four more, we could have had the rest of the week off from work.” The word “death” was written below “Luther” in “Martin Luther King.” The police seized the following items from defendant’s bedroom. (1) A notebook containing writing on numerous pages. One writing was entitled Blessed Be Ye Ears that discussed “killing the meek,” talked extensively about “devastation and death,” called Robert Dulaney “Ex-Con,” stated that “Dominic” was a “2/11” member but had not reached any “levels,” and declared that “Death is apperant in all my members eyes, kill spill the blood of the meek. The meek shall inharent shit. The stronge shall survive my tounament of death” (errors in original); (2) a box bearing the words “Mixed Fruit” and “Gunner’s Box,” and two pairs of gloves on top of the box; (3) a Bible with “Presented [][] to Rambi [illegible] [ft] by Gunner Lindberg” inscribed on the inside front cover and listing the names of White supremacist organizations, a White supremacist leader, and a White supremacist newsletter on the last several pages. Inserted among the pages of the Bible were various papers and printed material, including: (a) an application for the N.A.A.W.P. (National Association for the Advancement of White People); (b) a newsletter dated August 1994 and entitled “The Talon Euro-American alliance” that described the Aryan movement, noting it “courageously offer[s] the White race its only hope for survival”; (c) a piece of paper that read “Failure to speak up, a silent and deadly killer” written by Jack Mohr, a “Brigadier General” who heads a White supremacist organization known as “The Crusade for Christ and Country,” an envelope showing Mohr’s return address that was addressed to defendant, an envelope and a letter dated October 31, 1994, addressed to Mohr and showing defendant’s name and return address, and two handwritten letters from Mohr addressed to defendant; (d) a printed form entitled “The Nationalist Party of Canada Membership Oath” that read, “I declare that I am a racist who respects other races with common sense and good will and fair play towards the maintenance of my racial integrity and identity, [ft] I pledge to establish and maintain the constitutional racist state homeland. . . .”; and (e) a piece of paper bearing the title “Pro White Organizations,” listing the name and addresses of 12 organizations, including the Aryan Research Fellowship, the Ku Klux Klan, and the White Aryan Resistance; (4) a cardboard box bearing the words “2/11 Insane LOC,” “Insane Loc,” “I.C.P.,” and “O.G.,” with lightning bolts and two swastikas; (5) a plastic skull with a motorcycle helmet bearing a swastika across the top; and (6) a T-shirt belonging to defendant with a small bloodstain about the size of a nickel. 4. Defendant’s Statements to Police After his arrest, defendant was transported to the Tustin police station. Police Detective Todd Bullock advised defendant of his rights under Miranda v. Arizona (1966) 384 U.S. 436 [16 L.Ed.2d 694, 86 S.Ct. 1602], which defendant waived. Bullock conducted two audiotaped interviews of defendant. During the first interview, defendant admitted he had heard about the murder of Thien Minh Ly but denied any involvement. During the second interview, conducted by Detectives Bullock and Mike Clesceri, defendant admitted that “2/11” meant “armed robbery” and that he “wrote the whole [February 23d] letter” to Dulaney to boast and impress his cousin. Defendant maintained the statements in the letter meant nothing to him. Defendant said he had heard about the crime from newspapers and television. He admitted he sent one of the newspaper articles to Dulaney along with the February 23 d letter as proof he had written the letter. Defendant said he was interested in the murder “[c]ause it was an ethnic,” and “[i]t wasn’t a White person.” Defendant acknowledged his letter to Dulaney was “nice and detailed.” He said he made up the details, including the seven or eight stab wounds he inflicted to Ly’s side and the 18 or 19 stab wounds he inflicted to his back, and acknowledged the newspaper articles specified only that Ly suffered “multiple” stab wounds. When asked where he had heard about Ly’s having a key, defendant said he “[j]ust thought of it” and acknowledged he did not learn about this detail from the newspaper or television news. Defendant admitted that it was “[k]ind of odd” that Ly had only a key found next to his body and that defendant had written in the February 23d letter that Ly said he had nothing but a key. 5. Forensic Evidence DNA samples were obtained from dried bloodstains on three areas of the right-hand black glove found on the box in defendant’s bedroom. One of these DNA samples was mixed, containing DNA from two sources. Ly’s DNA was consistent with the sample DNA from all three areas of the glove. Defendant’s DNA was consistent with being one of the sources of the mixed sample. Christopher was excluded as being a contributor of the blood tested on the glove. The percentage of the population that could be excluded as having been the source of the bloodstains on the gloves was 99.999 percent. Based on FBI national population databases, estimates of the frequency with which the DNA pattern found on the right-hand black glove (excluding the mixed DNA sample) occurred was one in two million in the Asian population, one in 30 million in the Caucasian population, one in 10 million in the African-American population, and one in three million in the Hispanic population. The bloodstain found on defendant’s T-shirt that was seized from his bedroom was consistent with the genetic markings of Christopher, but not Ly. 6. Prior Acts Evidence a. Attempted Robbery of Emelio Reyes-Martinez In October 1990, defendant, who was 15 years old, and Kenny Harp went to a field near San Diego to rob Hispanic people. Defendant and Harp knew that Hispanics who worked in the field were paid in cash. Emelio Reyes-Martinez, a Hispanic landscaper, was walking through the field to obtain water and saw Kenny, defendant, and three other boys approach. Defendant held a stick about two feet long and two and a half inches in diameter in his right hand behind his back. Defendant gestured with his left hand towards Reyes-Martinez, moving his fingers, and demanding, “Money, money, money.” When Reyes-Martinez told defendant he did not have any money, defendant hit him on the head with the stick. Reyes-Martinez again told defendant he did not have any money, and defendant again hit him with the stick. Defendant struck Reyes-Martinez’s right arm, causing the bone to protrude. Believing the beating was not going to stop, Reyes-Martinez began to run and yell for help. Defendant and Harp followed, pulled at Reyes-Martinez’s arms, and kicked him until he stumbled and fell. Reyes-Martinez managed to get back up and started running again, bleeding from his face. Reyes-Martinez thought that if he fell again, defendant and Harp would “hit [him] to a pulp.” Defendant and Harp continued to beat Reyes-Martinez, hitting him from behind. Reyes-Martinez lost $200 or $210 in the attack. Reyes-Martinez’s friends chased defendant and Harp away. Reyes-Martinez was taken to the hospital, where he received 14 to 19 stitches. b. Attempted Robbery of Helen Tillman On October 31, 1990, defendant and Zachery Ellis, both 15 years old and armed with knives, entered the home of Helen Tillman, an elderly woman who lived alone, and demanded her money. At trial, Tillman testified a man held a knife to her neck while restraining her. Defendant or Ellis took $90 that Tillman had in her purse in her bedroom. Before leaving, defendant stmck Tillman on the right side of her face with his hand, knocking her onto the counter and causing her face to swell and bruise. On November 1, 1990, defendant admitted to Oceanside Police Officer James Sandifer that he and Ellis had entered Tillman’s residence through a sliding door. Defendant claimed Ellis went into a back room while he remained in the kitchen with Tillman. Defendant held Tillman by the back collar of her shirt and admitted he punched her on the right side of her face because he feared she might escape. Defendant denied having a knife, but admitted he and Ellis took money from the back bedroom. Ellis admitted to Officer Sandifer that he was defendant’s friend and that both he and defendant had been armed with knives when they robbed Tillman. Ellis had difficulty remembering details of the incident, but testified it was defendant’s idea to enter Tillman’s residence. Ellis confirmed that on June 11, 1997, he told investigator Waddell that defendant came out of the back room and hit Tillman. 7. Evidence Offered to Support the Hate-murder Special-circumstance Allegation a. Defendant’s Assault on Tung Le and His Statements While in Jail In July 1997, Alejandro Villa, who previously had been convicted of and imprisoned for numerous crimes, including commercial burglary, grand theft from a person, grand theft auto, and petty theft, was incarcerated in the same area of the Orange County jail where defendant was in custody awaiting trial in this case. At the time of defendant’s trial, Villa was facing charges for armed robbery, assault on a peace officer and emergency personnel, battery on a peace officer and emergency personnel, escape from jail with felony force, and possession of hypodermic needles and syringes. Tung Le, an Asian inmate, was placed in the same jail modular group as Villa and defendant. Before Le arrived, defendant told Villa he wanted Le to be put in their group. When Le arrived, defendant appeared to be excited, rubbing his hands together and smiling at Le. Defendant told Villa he did not like Le and thought Le was “a punk, fucking nip,” and that he was “going to get [Le].” At times, when defendant watched Asians on television, he would mumble or say something. While playing cards in the dayroom, defendant threw Le against a wall and choked him because Le accused defendant of not following the rules of the game. On another occasion, during shower call, defendant choked Le in the shower to the point that Le’s face was purple and blue and his veins and his eyeballs were bulging. When Villa warned defendant that he was going to kill Le, defendant told Villa, “[Le] is going to tell, he is going to rat. I got to kill him. I got to kill him.” Villa then pulled defendant off Le. While in jail, Villa came to believe that defendant hated Asian people based on comments he had heard defendant make. Defendant said that Asian speech sounded like “mice talking, like a fast-forward cassette. . . .” Defendant told Villa he was in jail “for stabbing a Nip to death.” Defendant explained that as the knife was going in, “it was a—fleshy kind of sound and feeling.” Defendant stated that he told a friend, “Let me show you how easy it is to kill a Vietnamese and get away with it.” Defendant also made “wise cracks” about being the “best tennis player” because of what had happened on the tennis courts. Villa denied that he expected to receive anything from the Orange County District Attorney’s Office in exchange for his testimony in this case. b. Defendant’s Statements to Ellis and Coworker Rochelle Lopez Sometime before defendant and Ellis robbed Tillman on October 31, 1990, defendant told Ellis that he disliked Asians because he “got kicked off Okinawa.” Defendant referred to Asians as “gooks” and Hispanics as “spick[s]” and “wetback[s].” Between November 3, 1995, and January 28, 1996, Rochelle Lopez worked with defendant, whom she knew as Jerry Lindberg, at a Kmart store in Tustin. On one occasion in the employee lunchroom, an African-American employee came in, said hello, and then left the area. Defendant told a supervisor, “I hate that nigger bitch. She got on my nerves,” or something to that effect. On another occasion, some Asians walked into the store and defendant said, “There goes gooks,” or words to that effect. On January 10, 1996, about two and a half weeks before the murder of Thien Minh Ly, Lopez left Kmart with Christopher and saw defendant, who was part of a crowd, pushing and screaming at an Asian man. The man asked defendant, “Why are you doing this to me?” c. Defendant’s Written Statements to Dulaney While Incarcerated on Another Matter Before Ly’s Murder In a letter to Dulaney postmarked November 3, 1993, defendant wrote, in part, “Dog, its time to look in to the future this nation is comming to a hult with the niggers and us. We must choose sides now! for time is comming fast here is an address for Aryan Racial Unity: Nationalist Party of Canada .... [][] Write them and get some info and littiture ok and copy it and we’ll bring the 2/11 war party into effect. . . . [f] Well, cuz I wan’t to get this address to you so you can get some info. . . . Tell them you want to get your own party going and would like littiture to start a part of your own or would like to become apart of your party OK!” (Errors in original.) In a letter to Dulaney dated March 10, 1993, defendant stated, in part, “Well, its different on the streets. I run the W.A.R. group in here. White Arian resístanse is a action group—were a branch of NVAP National Vastal Arian Party they dictate we react, in other words they talk—we back them .with violence. Oh, yes, were still runnin ours! Its up to you if you can handel it—I know you can, but without bustin probation is the question. Ask them what there about, and if they say violence or anything of that nature you know there solid Dogs. If not don ‘t fuck with them." (Errors in original.) In a letter to Dulaney dated February 13, 1994, defendant stated, in part, “I hate hole time! I’ve wrote many people no one writes the Gun back, I feel lonely dog! All I keep lookin forward to is Aug 3rd then I’ll be free, Hey bro I’ll be the first to say doing time is fuckin hard. After a while you change, your mind just relates to this kind of life. And that’s not cool because I’m pure fucking evil dog and thats no shit. All I want to do is hurt and kill, I think of many ways to hurt the Mt. Vernon people. And I have one!” Defendant ended the letter with “KILL” (with the “K” written in a style resembling a Nazi swastika), and ‘‘kill-kill-kill-kill-kill-kill-kill’’ followed by “Them all! with love, insane Loe OG for life.” (Errors in original.) d. Defendant’s Written Statements to Others While in Custody in the Orange County Jail Awaiting Trial in This Case In an undated letter to Kelly Dresen, defendant wrote, “I’m White to the bone. 1/2 german 1/2 Indian and I’m 100% against black. [<j[] My trial date is now My 21st, my crime partner got convicted of 1st degree murd[er] goes back May 25th for sentencing. I feel sorry for him all he did was stand there well I’m shure you don’t want to hear all that.” (Errors in original.) In a letter to Jeremie Overstreet, defendant drew two lightning bolts and wrote the phrase, “stay White,” followed by, “No better not them hong kong fuee’s might not like you!” (Errors in original.) In a letter to Tammy Shoopman, defendant said, “You herd of Tustin High School? Well a Chino got stabbed to Death on the tennis courts at Tustin High School while roller Blading. I have a 187—211—and Hate crime.” (Errors in original.) In an undated letter to Samantha Roby, defendant wrote, “Not much has changed with me always in trouble—But this time I really did it. I have a 1st degree murder robbery and hate crime and the state of California wants to give me the death penalty.” (Misspellings and grammatical errors in original.) Defendant then detailed the murder of Ly, explaining, “Well Super Bowl Sunday ‘96’ Dallas over Pittsburg, A friend and I were walking home from work—K-mart—I was a Stocker. And we were walking through a high school and my friend saw this dud and asked if I could kick his ass, I was stoned, and said of course, walked in and blam I knocked him out with one punch—you know me—And we waited for him to get up. [f] When he did he layed there, and was looking at me. I was already on the run from Mt. Vernon shooting some people with a shot gun. So I thought he was trying to get a discription of me, so I stomped on his head, then stabbed him over 51 times, and slashing his neck. Then we left the guy was Asian so now I’m charged with a 1st degree murder robbery, and a hate crime—so the want the Death Penalty. Yah I fucked up big this time.” (Errors in original.) In an undated letter to Vanessa Smrekar, defendant admitted, “I’m in on a 1st degree murder, hate crime and robbery. But, I’m no thief and I’m only ALiL racist.” (Original formatting.) e. Expert Testimony on White Supremacists and White Supremacy Beliefs Huntington Beach Police Department Sergeant Ronald Miller testified for the prosecution as an expert on the subject of White supremacy. Miller testified that a “White supremacist” is “a racist who is oriented toward the superiority of the White race, believing that it is above all others. They tend to view minorities as . . . sub-humans. [j[] They are also quite often Antisemitic [sz'c], even to the point that they label the Holocaust as a Jewish trick to gamer support and sympathy for the Jews throughout the world, [f] Those are the two major tenets of the White supremacist.” Based on his extensive experience with White supremacists and White supremacy groups, defendant’s own words in his letters, the groups with whom defendant associated, and defendant’s use of the Nazi “SS” lightning bolts and the swastika symbols, Miller opined that defendant was a White supremacist. B. Defendant’s Guilt Phase Case Walter Ray Dulaney HI, Robert Dulaney’s father, testified that, in his opinion, Robert was a compulsive liar most of the time who liked to brag and tell “big stories.” For example, Robert told his father that he had an IQ of 550 and had once run a marathon between Missouri and Hawaii. Walter Dulaney testified that Robert was not, and could not be, a member of any White supremacy groups because Robert was Japanese and Apache Indian. Walter Dulaney stated that on one occasion when Robert was in jail, he was put “in the nut ward.” Walter Dulaney had known defendant all of defendant’s life. He had never heard defendant utter any racial slurs and had no information suggesting that defendant was involved in White supremacy organizations. On cross-examination, Walter Dulaney admitted that Robert had a swastika tattoo and an “S.W.P.” tattoo on his hand and that “S.W.P.” could stand for “Supreme White Power.” Walter became angry at Robert and his mother and stepfather because they gave defendant’s February 23d letter to the police. Walter believed a person should not “rat on family.” Walter had suffered two prior felony convictions, one for stabbing someone who molested his granddaughter and another for transporting drugs. Christina Colby worked with defendant at Kmart in January 1996. She dated defendant and never heard him use any racial slurs or call Asians by any derogatory names. Colby knew defendant for only three months. On cross-examination, Colby testified that she had seen the “Martin Luther King” poster in defendant’s bedroom and that defendant told her it had belonged to his dead brother. Roger Scharf, a private investigator retained by the defense, testified that the inline skates worn by Thien Minh Ly on the night of his death were Rollerblades, model LS Lightning. At the time of Ly’s murder, the skates sold for $139. On the night before he testified, Scharf and another investigator went to the Tustin High School tennis courts to determine whether someone standing inside the courts could be seen by a person walking along the sidewalk directly outside the courts and around the perimeter. Scharf attempted to simulate the lighting and weather conditions on the night of the murder. The other investigator stood inside the courts about eight feet away from the outside fence. Scharf testified that the screen around the courts “almost totally blocks your vision under good conditions.” Scharf could not see the investigator standing on the court. When Scharf shined his flashlight through the screen, he could make out the investigator’s image but not his facial features. When Scharf had the investigator move toward him, to within five feet, he could see that the investigator’s skin was light but could not tell his hairstyle or distinguish racial features. C. Prosecution Penalty Phase Case 1. Randy Bowers Assault Around 1992, defendant and Randy Bowers got into an argument, during the course of which Bowers cursed at defendant’s mother. The police were called and warned Bowers to stay away from defendant. In July 1995, defendant told Bowers he wanted Bowers dead. Defendant and Bowers agreed to fight one evening on Hell’s Road. Bowers and a couple of his friends brought bats to defend themselves. As Bowers drove onto a driveway, he saw defendant on the tailgate of a truck, holding a shotgun. The truck was parked on the side of the road. Defendant shot through the windshield of Bowers’s car, striking Neal Eubank in the arm and near his right eye. When Bowers put his car in reverse, he noticed six of defendant’s friends armed with bats and “lots of guns, 22’s.” Bowers and Eubank sought help from a nearby resident and entered the resident’s house. The occupants wrapped Eubank’s arm and called the police. Meanwhile, defendant, armed with a .410 shotgun, entered the house and asked Eubank, “Hey pussy, how do you feel now?” Bowers ran away carrying a baseball bat, but got caught in a nearby barbed wire fence. Defendant pointed his shotgun at the back of Bowers’s head. Eventually, Bowers untangled himself, jumped over the fence, and ran away from defendant. During the chase, Bowers heard gunshots that sounded like they were fired from a .410 shotgun and a “.22 shotgun.” 2. Timothy Branham Assault On December 26, 1991, in Mount Vernon, Missouri, 17-year-old Timothy Branham and his brother had skateboarded to a local store and were waiting for a nearby business to close so they could skate on its property. Defendant, standing nearby, asked Branham if he had a problem. Branham said no. Defendant walked up and hit Branham in the face, causing him to fall to the ground. Defendant kicked him three or four times in the ribs. Defendant took Branham’s skateboard but later gave it to someone, who returned it to Branham. 3. Nicholas Gari Shooting On January 19, 1992, in Mount Vernon, Missouri, Nicholas Gari and two friends were riding their bikes in a local park. Defendant and other boys were also in the park, armed with BB guns. At some point, the cap Gari was wearing was hit by a BB and he fell off his bike; Gari saw defendant standing in the woods nearby and told defendant that he was a “cop’s son.” Defendant chased him about 30 feet and shot him in the neck. As defendant and his two friends ran away, defendant proclaimed, “I blew a hole in his neck.” Gari did not know defendant. Gari was taken to a hospital and underwent two surgeries on his throat. The surgeon was unable to remove the BB, which had traveled to Gari’s heart. 4. Jeffrey Prewitt Assault On January 25, 1992, Jeffrey Prewitt, a detention supervisor at the Jasper County Juvenile Detention Center in Joplin, Missouri, was supervising three or four juveniles, including defendant, in the dayroom. After defendant finished a telephone call, he started hitting Prewitt on the top of his head and on his forehead. Prewitt pushed defendant away. Another employee called police. Defendant stopped fighting. Prewitt suffered knots on his head and a black eye. 5. Victim Impact Testimony ofThien Minh Ly’s Brother, Thai Ly Thai Ly testified he had always looked up to his 24-year-old brother, Ly, who was the oldest of three children. Ly had attended Georgetown University and had returned to California to work with a charity organization that helped minorities, mostly Vietnamese. When Thai heard that Ly had been murdered, he felt dead and numb, as if he had no life going through him. Since the murder, Thai’s life has lacked direction and inspiration. Every day since the murder, Thai’s mother and father go to Ly’s room, which has remained essentially untouched, and cry. Ly’s death also has been “incredibly hard” on his sister. His death has deeply affected the lives of his family and friends. D. Defendant’s Penalty Phase Case 1. Sergeant Russell Hayes In 1995, defendant and Gary Wolfgram lived with Marine Corps Sergeant Russell Hayes and his family for one or two months. Hayes did not know defendant before he moved into the house and later learned that he and Wolfgram were not cousins, as defendant had initially represented to Hayes. During the time defendant lived with Sergeant Hayes, he took Hayes’s three young children to a nearby park where children of other races played. Occasionally, a friend of Hayes’s would drop off his Japanese daughter at the Hayeses’ house. Hayes’s best friend was an African-American man who often visited the house. Hayes was not aware of any problems between defendant and his African-American friend. Hayes never heard defendant utter any racial slurs. 2. Drugs Found During Search of Defendant’s Apartment During the search of a box found in defendant’s bedroom by police on the day of defendant’s arrest, police discovered baggies of marijuana and a baggie of methamphetamine. 3. Clinical Psychologist Roberto Flores de Apodaca Roberto Flores de Apodaca, Ph.D., a clinical psychologist, examined defendant four days before he testified. He took a history from defendant and reviewed other documents regarding defendant. Dr. de Apodaca did not believe all of the responses defendant provided during the interview. When Dr. de Apodaca asked defendant about his “211” tattoo, defendant responded that he always said it meant “armed robbery” but that it actually meant “those that lock you up shall pay.” Dr. de Apodaca understood this to mean defendant could “harbor animosity and vengefulness toward those who incarcerate him.” Based on defendant’s history, Dr. de Apodaca testified defendant had a “disorganized, tumultuous, dysfunctional” family background, with a number of “losses” and “breaks in his family relationships, notably with his biological father” when defendant was about two years old. Defendant told Dr. de Apodaca that he had smoked marijuana, drunk alcohol, smoked cigarettes, and used methamphetamine during his adolescence. Dr. de Apodaca testified he had reviewed reports in which defendant was referred for treatment for substance abuse and on that basis, made a similar diagnosis. Dr. de Apodaca diagnosed defendant with personality disorder not otherwise specified, with components of dependency, narcissism, and antisocial behavior, and secondarily with being polysubstance dependent. The antisocial features included victimizing and violating the rights of others. Dr. de Apodaca testified that he was not opining that Ly’s murder was drug induced. Dr. de Apodaca could not “rule[] out” or “rule[] in” that defendant suffered from brain damage. He agreed that such a determination would require a neurological and psychological assessment. II. Guilt Phase Issues A. Asserted Trial Court Error in Admitting Evidence of Defendant’s Two Prior Uncharged Robberies Before trial, the prosecution moved to admit evidence that defendant committed the uncharged Reyes-Martinez and Tillman robberies in order to prove that defendant intended to rob Ly during the course of murdering him. The prosecution argued the evidence was admissible under Evidence Code section 1101, subdivision (b), because the crimes shared numerous similarities: in each of the prior robberies, defendant had a companion to assist him in the robbery; he robbed and assaulted the victims; he was the aggressor of the two assailants; he attacked a vulnerable victim who was a stranger to him; the victim did not fight back; he assaulted his victim whether or not the victim cooperated; and he had a dual purpose to steal from and assault each victim. Defense counsel argued the evidence was irrelevant, more prejudicial than probative under Evidence Code section 352, and impermissible propensity evidence under Evidence Code section 1101. Counsel maintained there was no evidence Ly had been robbed, in that a key was found near his head and no other property had been taken. The trial court overruled each of defendant’s objections and ruled the evidence of defendant’s prior robberies and assaults admissible on the issue of intent. The trial court also overruled counsel’s additional objections under Evidence Code section 352 that the prior robberies were remote in time and that defendant committed those offenses when he was a juvenile. On appeal, defendant renews his argument that the evidence of the uncharged robberies should have been excluded under Evidence Code section 1101, subdivision (b), because the prosecution presented no evidence that he attempted to rob Ly during the course of murdering him, and in any event the evidence should have been excluded as more prejudicial than probative under Evidence Code section 352. He asserts the admission of the evidence violated his state and federal constitutional rights to due process, a fair trial, and a reliable penalty determination. Evidence Code section 1101, subdivision (a) generally prohibits the admission of evidence of a prior criminal act against a criminal defendant “when offered to prove his or her conduct on a specified occasion.” Subdivision (b) of that section, however, provides that such evidence is admissible when relevant to prove some fact in issue, such as motive, intent, knowledge, identity, or the existence of a common design or plan. “The admissibility of other crimes evidence depends on (1) the materiality of the facts sought to be proved, (2) the tendency of the uncharged crimes to prove those facts, and (3) the existence of any rule or policy requiring exclusion of the evidence.” (People v. Carpenter (1997) 15 Cal.4th 312, 378-379 [63 Cal.Rptr.2d 1, 935 P.2d 708].) Evidence may be excluded under Evidence Code section 352 if its probative value is “substantially outweighed by the probability that its admission would create substantial danger of undue prejudice, of confusing the issues, or of misleading the jury.” (People v. Harrison (2005) 35 Cal.4th 208, 229 [25 Cal.Rptr.3d 224, 106 P.3d 895].) “Because substantial prejudice is inherent in the case of uncharged offenses, such evidence is admissible only if it has substantial probative value.” (People v. Kelly (2007) 42 Cal.4th 763, 783 [68 Cal.Rptr.3d 531, 171 P.3d 548].) We have considered specific circumstances under which evidence of uncharged crimes may be admitted under subdivision (b) of Evidence Code section 1101. When the prosecution seeks to prove the defendant’s identity as the perpetrator of the charged offense with evidence he had committed uncharged offenses, the admissibility of evidence of the uncharged offenses turns on proof that the charged and uncharged offenses share sufficient distinctive common features to raise an inference of identity. A lesser degree of similarity is required to establish the existence of a common plan or scheme and still less similarity is required to establish intent. (People v. Roldan (2005) 35 Cal.4th 646, 705 [27 Cal.Rptr.3d 360, 110 P.3d 289]; People v. Ewoldt (1994) 7 Cal.4th 380, 402-403 [27 Cal.Rptr.2d 646, 867 P.2d 757].) In order to be admissible to prove intent, the uncharged misconduct must be sufficiently similar to the charged offense to support the inference that the defendant probably acted with the same intent in each instance. (People v. Kelly, supra, 42 Cal.4th at p. 783; People v. Ewoldt, supra, 7 Cal.4th at p. 402.) The decision whether to admit other crimes evidence rests within the discretion of the trial court. (People v. Kelly, supra, 42 Cal.4th at p. 783.) By pleading not guilty, defendant placed all the elements of the murder as well as the attempted robbery and hate-murder special-circumstances allegations in dispute at trial. (People v. Roldan, supra, 35 Cal.4th at pp. 705-706.) On the issue of intent, defendant declined to stipulate that he intended to permanently deprive Ly of his property. Accordingly, defendant’s intent when he murdered Ly was a material fact. Citing People v. Ewoldt, supra, 7 Cal.4th 380, and People v. Guerrero (1976) 16 Cal.3d 719 [129 Cal.Rptr. 166, 548 P.2d 366], defendant first contends that because there was no independent evidence that he attempted to rob Ly, the evidence of the uncharged robberies was erroneously admitted on the issue of intent. In Guerrero, this court relied on the absence of any independent evidence of actual or attempted sexual activity between the defendant and the victim to hold that evidence of a prior rape was inadmissible to establish that the charged murder was committed during the course of an attempted rape, i.e., to show the defendant’s intent to engage in sexual activity with the victim. (People v. Guerrero, supra, 16 Cal.3d at pp. 727-728.) “In short, the People may not conjure up an attempted rape in this instance in order to introduce evidence of another rape.” (Id. at p. 728.) In Ewoldt, we stated that when proving a defendant’s intent with evidence of uncharged crimes, the act alleged is “ ‘conceded or assumed,’ ” leaving only the question of “ ‘the state of mind that accompanied it.’ ” (People v. Ewoldt, supra, 7 Cal.4th at p. 394, fn. 2.) Here, defendant concedes the prosecution proved he murdered Ly but insists there was no evidence he attempted to rob him. Not so. “Robbery is the felonious taking of personal property in the possession of another, from his person or immediate presence, and against his will, accomplished by means of force or fear.” (§ 211.) “An attempted robbery requires a specific intent to commit robbery and a direct, ineffectual act (beyond mere preparation) toward its commission.” (People v. Medina (2007) 41 Cal.4th 685, 694 [61 Cal.Rptr.3d 677, 161 P.3d 187].) Defendant’s admissions in the February 23d letter to Dulaney establish he committed acts that tended to show he attempted to rob Ly: defendant admitted he walked up to Ly at the tennis courts and Ly “was scared”; defendant hit Ly, causing him to fall to the ground; Ly told defendant that he could have whatever he wanted but that he had only a key; defendant asked Ly if he had a car; and when Ly said he had none, defendant put his knife to his throat and asked him again whether he had a car. Thus, evidence of the prior robberies was logically probative of whether, in hitting and knocking Ly to the ground and demanding to know if Ly had a car, defendant intended to rob him. The evidence of defendant’s involvement in the Reyes-Martinez and Tillman robberies tends to prove this material fact. Defendant’s attack on Ly in this case shares numerous distinctive common features with those robberies. Defendant brought a companion to assist him in each crime: Christopher assisted defendant in the attack on Ly, and Harp and Ellis aided defendant in the prior robberies of Reyes-Martinez and Tillman, respectively. In each crime, defendant assaulted his victims and was the aggressor of the two assailants: Defendant knocked Ly to the ground before demanding to know if Ly had a car and put a knife to Ly’s throat when he said he had none; defendant hit, chased, and kicked Reyes-Martinez before he and Harp stole the victim’s money; and defendant punched the elderly Tillman in the face as he and Ellis left her home after stealing her money. Defendant did not know any of the victims. Each victim was vulnerable (alone, elderly, or outnumbered), did not fight back, and was assaulted whether or not he or she cooperated. Defendant argues for the first time on appeal that the trial court should have excluded any reference that defendant assaulted Reyes-Martinez and Tillman during the commission of the uncharged robberies because evidence of the assaults had “virtually no probative value” on the issue of whether he killed Ly during an attempted robbery. Because he failed to request that the trial court sanitize the evidence of the prior uncharged robberies by excluding references to the assaults, however, he cannot raise this issue for the first time on appeal. (People v. Elliot (2005) 37 Cal.4th 453, 472 [35 Cal.Rptr.3d 759, 122 P.3d 968]; Evid. Code, § 353, subd. (a) [a judgment shall not be reversed because of the erroneous admission of evidence unless there was a timely objection “so stated as to make clear the specific ground of the objection”].) Even were we to assume that defendant properly preserved this issue, we would reject his contention. Defendant’s brutal acts of violence towards the victims in the Reyes-Martinez and Tillman robberies were part and parcel of those robberies and, as stated above, shared substantial similarities with his conduct towards Ly in this case. Further, contrary to defendant’s protests that his act of punching the elderly victim’s face in the Tillman robbery was gratuitous and “unconnected” to the robbery, defendant’s admission that he punched Tillman because he was fearful she might escape was evidence of the “force or fear” element of the robbery. (See People v. Hill (1998) 17 Cal.4th 800, 850 [72 Cal.Rptr.2d 656, 952 P.2d 673] [the force or fear element of robbery is satisfied if the perpetrator uses force to retain or escape with the property].) Under the totality of the circumstances, evidence of defendant’s uncharged robberies of Reyes-Martinez and Tillman, including evidence he assaulted each victim during the commission of those crimes, reasonably could assist the jurors in determining whether defendant assaulted Ly in an attempt to rob him. Thus, the evidence was probative of defendant’s intent to rob. The trial court did not abuse its discretion in admitting evidence of these uncharged crimes. We also conclude the trial court acted within its discretion under Evidence Code section 352 in finding the probative value of the evidence of the uncharged robberies was not substantially outweighed by the potential for undue prejudice. As explained, the evidence had substantial probative value with respect to whether defendant intended to rob Ly at the time of the murder. The trial court instructed the prosecutor to keep this evidence brief so that it would be neither cumulative nor excessive. Based on our review of the record, we are satisfied the prosecution’s presentation of this evidence complied with the court’s directive. Moreover, none of the uncharged conduct was particularly inflammatory compared to the manner in which defendant brutally murdered Ly by stomping on his head, repeatedly stabbing him, and slicing the veins in his neck. (People v. Ewoldt, supra, 7 Cal.4th at p. 405.) Further, the trial court’s instructions to the jury under CALJIC No. 2.09, regarding evidence admitted for a limited purpose, and CALJIC No. 2.50, advising it to consider such evidence not to prove defendant’s predisposition to commit crimes but rather to determine whether the necessary element of intent to rob was proven, eliminated any danger “of confusing the issues, or of misleading the jury.” (Evid. Code, § 352.) We presume the jury followed these instructions. (People v. Coffman and Marlow (2004) 34 Cal.4th 1, 107 [17 Cal.Rptr.3d 710, 96 P.3d 30].) We reject defendant’s contention that the admission of the uncharged robberies violated his constitutional rights to due process, a fair trial, and a reliable adjudication at all stages of a capital trial. We have long observed that “[application of the ordinary rules of evidence generally does not impermissibly infringe on a capital defendant’s constitutional rights.” (People v. Kraft (2000) 23 Cal.4th 978, 1035 [99 Cal.Rptr.2d 1, 5 P.3d 68].) Defendant fails to persuade us his case presents an exception to this general rule. Finally, assuming for the sake of argument that the trial court abused its discretion in admitting evidence of defendant’s prior crimes, reversal is not required. Even if the other crimes evidence had been excluded, defendant’s admissions in his February 23d letter to Dulaney, including his numerous references to “2/11,” which defendant admitted referred to armed robbery, provided compelling evidence defendant intended to rob Ly. (See pt. II.B., post.) Accordingly, a result more favorable to defendant was not reasonably probable absent admission of the prior crimes evidence. (People v. Welch (1999) 20 Cal.4th 701, 750 [85 Cal.Rptr.2d 203, 976 P.2d 754]; People v. Watson (1956) 46 Cal.2d 818, 836 [299 P.2d 243].) For the same reasons, any error was harmless beyond a reasonable doubt. (See Chapman v. California (1967) 386 U.S. 18, 24 [17 L.Ed.2d 705, 87 S.Ct. 824]; People v. Cole (2004) 33 Cal.4th 1158, 1195 [17 Cal.Rptr.3d 532, 95 P.3d 811].) B. Sufficiency of Evidence of First Degree Felony Murder and the Robbery Special Circumstance Defendant concedes sufficient evidence establishes he murdered Ly and intended to kill Ly from the moment “he hit him and knocked him to the ground.” He contends, however, the evidence was insufficient to prove first degree murder on an attempted robbery-felony-murder theory because the prosecution failed to prove that he attempted to rob Ly. Even assuming there was sufficient evidence he attempted to rob Ly, defendant contends the evidence was nonetheless insufficient to support the special circumstance finding that he murdered Ly during the attempted commission of a robbery because any intent to steal was incidental to the murder. The insufficiency of the evidence, he claims, violated his rights to due process, a fair trial, and a reliable penalty determination under the Fifth, Sixth, Eighth and Fourteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution and sections 1, 7, 12, 15, 16 and 17 of article I of the California Constitution. When considering a challenge to the sufficiency of the evidence to support a conviction, we review the entire record in the light most favorable to the judgment to determine whether it contains substantial evidence—that is, evidence that is reasonable, credible, and of solid value—from which a reasonable trier of fact could find the defendant guilty beyond a reasonable doubt. (People v. Valdez (2004) 32 Cal.4th 73, 104 [8 Cal.Rptr.3d 271, 82 P.3d 296].) When reviewing the sufficiency of evidence to support a special circumstance, the relevant inquiry is “ ‘whether, after viewing the evidence in the light most favorable to the People, any rational trier of fact could have found the essential elements of the allegation beyond a reasonable doubt.’ ” (People v. Alvarez (1996) 14 Cal.4th 155, 225 [58 Cal.Rptr.2d 385, 926 P.2d 365], quoting People v. Mickey (1991) 54 Cal.3d 612, 678 [286 Cal.Rptr. 801, 818 P.2d 84].) We presume in support of the judgment the existence of every fact the trier of fact reasonably could infer from the evidence. (People v. Ramirez (2006) 39 Cal.4th 398, 463 [46 Cal.Rptr.3d 677, 139 P.3d 64].) If the circumstances reasonably justify the trier of fact’s findings, reversal of the judgment is not warranted simply because the circumstances might also reasonably be reconciled with a contrary finding. (People v. Valdez, supra, 32 Cal.4th at p. 104.) A reviewing court neither reweighs evidence nor reevaluates a witness’s credibility. (People v. Guerra (2006) 37 Cal.4th 1067, 1129 [40 Cal.Rptr.3d 118, 129 P.3d 321].) As discussed above, to be convicted of attempted robbery, the perpetrator must harbor a specific intent to commit robbery and commit a direct but ineffectual act toward the commission of the crime. (People v. Medina, supra, 41 Cal.4th at p. 694.) The jury may infer a defendant’s specific intent to commit a crime from all of the facts and circumstances shown by the evidence. (See People v. Bloom (1989) 48 Cal.3d 1194, 1208 [259 Cal.Rptr. 669, 774 P.2d 698] [“Evidence.of a defendant’s state of mind is almost inevitably circumstantial, but circumstantial evidence is as sufficient as direct evidence to support a conviction.”].) Under the felony-murder rule, a murder “committed in the perpetration of, or attempt to perpetrate” one of several enumerated felonies, including robbery, is first degree murder. (§ 189.) The robbery-murder special circumstance applies to a murder “committed while the defendant was engaged in . . . the commission of, [or] attempted commission of’ robbery. (§ 190.2, subd. (a)(17)(A).) “[T]o prove a felony-murder special-circumstance allegation, the prosecution must show that the defendant had an independent purpose for the commission of the felony, that is, the commission of the felony was not merely incidental to an intended murder.” (People v. Mendoza (2000) 24 Cal.4th 130,182 [99 Cal.Rptr.2d 485, 6 P.3d 150]; see also People v. Green (1980) 27 Cal.3d 1, 61-62 [164 Cal.Rptr. 1, 609 P.2d 468], overruled on other grounds in People v. Hall (1986) 41 Cal.3d 826, 834, fn. 3 [226 Cal.Rptr. 112, 718 P.2d 99].) To prove a robbery-murder special circumstance, the prosecution must prove the defendant formed the intent to steal before or while killing the victim. (People v. Valdez, supra, 32 Cal.4th at p. 105.) The prosecution theorized that defendant approached Ly and attempted to rob him before savagely stabbing him to death because he was Vietnamese. Relying on People v. Morris (1988) 46 Cal.3d 1, 19 [249 Cal.Rptr. 119, 756 P.2d 843], overruled on other grounds in In re Sassounian (1995) 9 Cal.4th 535, 543-544, footnote 5 [37 Cal.Rptr.2d 446, 887 P.2d 527], and People v. Green, supra, 27 Cal.3d at pages 52-54, defendant initially argues that, at most, a theft or attempted theft occurred because he asked Ly, “Do you have a car?” only after he had already knocked Ly to the ground. To be clear, “a conviction of robbery cannot be sustained in the absence of evidence that the defendant conceived his intent to steal either before committing the act of force against the victim, or during the commission of that act; if the intent arose only after the use of force against the victim, the taking will at most constitute a theft.” (People v. Morris, supra, 46 Cal.3d at p. 19, italics added, citing People v. Green, supra, 27 Cal.3d at pp. 52-54.) Defendant’s argument fails, however, because it erroneously presumes proof of defendant’s use of force against Ly is required to sustain the attempted robbery-felony-murder conviction. The crime of attempted robbery requires neither the commission of an element of robbery nor the completion of a theft or assault. (People v. Medina, supra, 41 Cal.4th at p. 694; see also People v. Dillon (1983) 34 Cal.3d 441, 454-455 [194 Cal.Rptr. 390, 668 P.2d 697].) In any event, as discussed below, defendant pressed his knife against Ly’s throat before he asked a second time whether Ly had a car. We conclude the record contains substantial evidence supporting the finding that defendant attempted to rob Ly, the attempted robbery-felony-murder conviction and the special circumstance finding that the murder occurred during the commission of an attempted robbery. Defendant’s admissions in his February 23d letter to Dulaney established, in horrific detail, the circumstances of the attempted robbery and murder. The letter was handwritten and addressed to Dulaney (“Dear Bro, Ex-con 2/11, Rob”) with a large drawing of the characters 2/11, prominently appearing in the top margin. Defendant described to Dulaney how he and Christopher approached Ly as he Rollerbladed alone on the Tustin High School tennis courts. Defendant saw that Ly “was scared” and used a ruse whereby defendant indicated to Ly that he thought he knew Ly in order to have Ly think “he wasn’t gona get jumped.” Defendant then hit Ly, knocking him to the ground. Ly responded, “ ‘what the fuck’ and ‘you can have what ever I got.’ I have nothing only a key—you can have it.’ ” (Errors in original.) Defendant then asked Ly if he had a car and pulled out his knife. After Ly said, “No,” defendant pressed his knife against Ly’s throat, and again asked Ly if he had a car. Ly grabbed defendant’s hand that held the knife and looked at him. Because defendant thought Ly was trying to get his description, defendant stomped on his head three times and each time told Ly to stop looking at him. Defendant then repeatedly and fatally stabbed Ly with his knife. Ly’s body was discovered on the tennis courts the next morning. Near the body, the police found a hat and a single key that fit the locks at Ly’s residence. The prosecution also introduced evidence of the Reyes-Martinez and Tillman robberies on the issue of defendant’s intent during his assault of Ly. Based upon this evidence, the jury reasonably could have found that defendant harbored an intent to steal Ly’s property when he knocked Ly to the ground, demanded to know whether he had a car, and put his knife to his throat before asking him again whether he had a car. (See People v. Rodrigues (1994) 8 Cal.4th 1060, 1129 [36 Cal.Rptr.2d 235, 885 P.2d 1] [rejecting the defendant’s contention that the accomplice’s “unadorned question—‘where do you have it?,’ ” did not reflect an intent to steal the victims’ property].) Defendant’s own observation that Ly “was scared” before he knocked him to the ground, and Ly’s statement to defendant that he could take Ly’s (house) key before defendant first asked him whether he had a car, strongly suggest that