Does 1 v. Enfield Public Schools (716 F. Supp. 2d 172, 2010)

RULING RE: PLAINTIFFS’ MOTION FOR PRELIMINARY INJUNCTION (Doc. No. 5)

JANET C. HALL, District Judge.

I. INTRODUCTION

Plaintiffs, Doe 1 and Doe 3, are students at Enfield High School. They brought this action on May 14, 2010, together with their parents, Does 2, 4, and 5 (collectively “Does”), seeking, inter alia, a preliminary injunction prohibiting the defendant, En-field Public Schools, from conducting the 2010 graduation ceremonies for the two Enfield high schools at First Cathedral (sometimes “the Cathedral”), a Christian church. See Complaint (“Cmplt.”) (Doc. No. 1). The Does allege that holding graduation ceremonies at the Cathedral violates the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution and Article Seventh of the Connecticut Constitution. The graduation ceremonies are currently scheduled for June 23 and June 24, 2010.

A hearing on the Motion for Preliminary Injunction (Doc. No. 5) was held on May 24 and May 25, 2010. By request of counsel, the court, along with counsel and members of the public, visited First Cathedral on May 25, 2010, to view it. Oral argument was held on May 27, 2010.

Pursuant to Rule 52 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, the court’s findings of fact and conclusions of law are set forth below. Based upon its findings, the court concludes, on the record before it, that the Does have clearly demonstrated a likelihood of irreparable harm in the absence of the injunction and a substantial likelihood of success on the merits that holding the graduation ceremonies at First Cathedral violates the First Amendment of the United States Constitution.

II. BACKGROUND

A. Parties

Defendant Enfield Public Schools (sometimes “Enfield Schools”) is a municipal school district. It is a corporate body that maintains control of all public schools within the geographic limits of the Town of Enfield. The Enfield Board of Education (“the Board”) is an elected body that has final policy-making authority and control over the Enfield schools. The Board consists of nine members, who are elected every two-years. Four of its nine current members were newly elected in November 2009. The Chair of the Board is elected by fellow Board Members. Greg Stokes currently serves as Chair.

Enfield Schools operates two high-schools: Enfield High School (“Enfield High”) and Enrico Fermi High School (“Fermi High”). Enfield High’s 2010 senior class has approximately 202 students. Fermi High’s 2010 senior class has approximately 249 students.

Doe 1 is a student and member of the class of 2010 at Enfield High School. See Decl. of Doe 1 (Exh. 5) at ¶ 2. Doe 1 is agnostic and will likely not attend his/her graduation if it is held at First Cathedral. S/he attended the 2009 ceremonies held at First Cathedral, perceived a “pervasively religious environment,” and concluded that “it would be difficult, if not impossible, for me to attend my own graduation if it were held at the Cathedral.” Id. at ¶¶ 17, 18. Doe 2 is Doe l’s parent and a resident of the Town of Enfield. See Decl. of Doe 2 (Exh. 6) at ¶ 1. Doe 2 does not subscribe to the Christian faith. Id. at ¶ 6. If Doe 1 decides not to attend graduation, Doe 2 feels s/he will be “deprived of a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to celebrate my child’s high-school graduation.” Id. at ¶ 5. If Doe 1 does decide to attend graduation, Doe 2 feels s/he will be “forced to submit to a religious environment that ... will make me feel extremely uncomfortable and offended” and that “religious beliefs to which I do not subscribe are being imposed on me.” Id. at ¶ 6.

Doe 3 is also a student and member of the class of 2010 at Enfield High School. See Decl. of Doe 3 (Exh. 7) at ¶ 2. Doe 3 subscribes to the Jewish faith and will not attend the graduation ceremony if it is held at First Cathedral because s/he would “feel that the Cathedral is proselytizing its Christian beliefs ... through its scriptures and symbols.” Id. at ¶¶ 3, 8, 12. Doe 4 is a parent of Doe 3. See Decl. of Doe 4 (Exh. 8) at ¶ 1. Doe 4 does not have firm religious beliefs and has declared that s/he would “feel like an outsider if I attend graduation at First Cathedral, as I feel that when one steps into someone else’s church, one gets the feeling that one should be part of their religion.” Id. at ¶¶ 2, 3. Doe 5 is Doe 3’s step-parent. See Decl. of Doe 5 (Exh. 9) at ¶ 1. Doe 5 has declared that s/he “will be deprived of a onee-in-a-lifetime opportunity to celebrate Doe 3’s graduation” because Doe 3 will not attend graduation if it is .held at First Cathedral. Id. at ¶ 2.

B. First Cathedral

First Cathedral is a Christian church in Bloomfield, Connecticut. The pastor at First Cathedral is Archbishop LeRoy Bailey, Jr. (“Bailey”), who took an active role in designing the church. The Cathedral has the capacity to seat three thousand (3000) individuals in its main sanctuary.

In front of the Cathedral, a large sign is prominently displayed on the corner of Blue Hills Avenue and Wintonbury Avenue. It states, in large letters, “First Cathedral.” A very large cross rises above a stained glass cupola on top of the Cathedral’s roof. This cross is visible from all angles of the Cathedral’s surroundings. The cross is a symbol of the Christian faith of the members of the Cathedral. Stipulations (“Stip.”) (Doc. No. 71) at ¶ 17. The images portrayed in the stained-glass panels of the cupola are not readily identifiable from ground level.

Although there are numerous side exits to the Cathedral, there is one main entrance to the Cathedral that leads to a large lobby. Above the main entrance doors, there is a large cross (approximately 25 feet high and 10 feet wide) embedded within the window panes. Exh. 1-11. A hexagonal figure surrounds the upper part of the cross, and the window panels on the inside of the hexagonal figure are stained-glass and depict a group of people with arms raised towards the sun that is casting down light beams from above. Exhs. 1-10, 1-11,1-12.

After entering the Cathedral, students and family members attending graduation ceremonies pass through the Cathedral’s lobby. Some students and families also gather in the lobby before or after the ceremonies. The cross over the front door is visible from inside the lobby. The lobby of First Cathedral contains stairs that lead down to the main sanctuary. These stairs are divided by a large fountain that could be perceived to be a representational shape of a tomb. Exh. 1-13. The jets that supply the water in the fountain are arranged in the shape of a cross; there are seven vertical jets, and four horizontal jets that cut across the vertical jets in a similar manner to that in which the horizontal beam of a cross intersects with the cross’s vertical beam. Id. The lobby also contains a gift shop of Christian items. There are also large banners hung in the lobby, which, during the 2009 graduations, contained religious messages. One banner has quoted Psalms 100:4: “Enter into His gates with thanksgiving, and into His courts with praise. Be thankful to Him, and bless His name.” Exh. 1-16.

From the lobby, students and parents attending the 2010 graduation ceremonies will proceed either down the lobby stairs to the main level of the sanctuary, or up the lobby stairs to the balcony level. Exh. 1-13. A large hallway spans the entire circumference of both the lower and upper levels of the sanctuary, and those attending graduation will have to enter this hallway in order to enter the main level of the sanctuary or the balcony. Both the lower and upper hallways, as well as the lobby walls, contain many artistic wall hangings. Although some of the wall hangings can be characterized as secular, the majority of the hangings contain content that is religious, and plainly Christian. There are, for example, numerous pictures depicting biblical scenes, such as the birth of Jesus Christ. On the first floor, there is a framed poster of the Lord’s Prayer. Other pictures may also be characterized as religious, though their religious character is more subtle. In addition, a large number of the wall hangings contain permanent metal placards on their frames; these placards quote biblical passages and cite to passages from the Psalms, the Gospel, or the Proverbs.

From the hallways, those attending the 2010 graduation enter the main sanctuary. This main sanctuary is where religious services are performed, and where the main graduation ceremonies will take place. The sanctuary is vast, with a large number of individual, cushioned seats on both the main level and the balcony. There are numerous video displays that can stream live video of the graduation ceremony, or pre-recorded material. The actual ceremonies will take place on the stage of the sanctuary, which is slightly elevated from the main level. Exh. 1-25.

On the carpet on the floor in front of the main stage are seven images. These images are of a fire, a fish, a lion, a shepherd’s hand and staff, a lamb, a lily, and a chalice. Exhs. 1-25-1-32. These images are visible both from the stage area and from some areas of the audience seating. These images all can be religious.

The stage area contains a podium that is fronted with the image of a dove. Exh. 1-20. The back of the stage area is elevated and surrounded by seats that normally hold the First Cathedral choir. Those seats will be used for the graduates during the 2010 ceremonies. A large pentagonal stained glass panel is situated behind the center of the stage and above the center choir seats. Exh. 1-17. The central feature of the stained glass panel is a large cross, estimated at approximately twenty-five (25) feet tall and ten (10) feet wide. Id. There is also a dove visible within the stained glass. Exh. 1-20. During church ceremonies, First Cathedral turns on a light behind the central stained glass panel which illuminates the stained glass. See Exh. 1-17. During the 2010 ceremonies, this backlight will remain off. Even with the backlight off, it is plainly apparent from the audience’s viewpoint that the panel contains a large cross.

The Cathedral’s baptistry—the area where baptisms are performed—is located in a recess adjacent to the seating area and underneath the cross. The baptistry, the water filling it, and the two microphones in it are visible to people sitting in the choir balcony. On the edge of a table just below the front of the baptistry facing the audience, is written, in size visible from the choir, the words “This do in remembrance of me.”

Two additional items deserve mention. The large cross behind the stage is flanked by two large banners (approximately twenty-five feet long) that hang on the rear wall of the sanctuary. One banner states “Jesus Christ is Lord,” and lists the words “Savior, Redeemer, Deliverer, Truth, Good Shepherd, Great High Priest, Head of the Church, Bread of Life, Lamb of God, King of Kings, Lord of Lords, Prince of Peace.” Exh. 1-22. The other banner states “I am God” and lists various phrases, such as “Jehovah Yireh (one provider)” and “Jehovah Shalom (one peace)”. Exhs. 1-24, 4 at ¶ 12.

C. Previous Public School Graduations at First Cathedral

Fermi High held its graduation ceremonies at First Cathedral in 2007, 2008, and 2009. Enfield High did so in 2008 and 2009. Enfield Schools’ decision to begin using First Cathedral for its graduations largely stemmed from the fact that Fermi High performed construction on its athletic fields during the 2006-2007 school year, and that Enfield High performed similar construction during the 2007-2008 school year. In light of the renovation projects, a temporary alternative site needed to be identified for use for the graduation ceremonies that had been held at the high school grounds for decades. First Cathedral was selected.

On January 18, 2007, John Gallacher, Superintendent for the Schools, wrote to the Cathedral on behalf of Enfield and two other school districts, asking that the banners be removed during graduations. Exh. 145. They were not removed. Exh. 5 at ¶¶ 10-11. Further, before the Board decided to hold the 2007 Fermi High graduation at the Cathedral, a member of a graduation-site advisory committee represented to the Board that religious items at the Cathedral would be covered or removed for the graduation. Exh. 29 at 6. This was not in fact done for any Enfield graduation at the Cathedral.

Before the doors of First Cathedral opened for the 2009 ceremony, the graduating seniors and their guests had to wait outside the Cathedral’s lobby, in front of the large cross that adorns the main entrance. From this vantage point, the gift shop (which was closed) and the religious items inside the shop were plainly visible. Doe 1 noted several crosses embedded within the windows of the main entrance, a cross-shaped fountain immersed within a tomb-shaped pool of water, and the numerous religious paintings in the lobby. Exh. 5 at ¶¶ 6-8. The 2009 ceremonies took place in the main sanctuary. Doe 1 noted the large cross behind the main stage. Id. at ¶ 9; Exh. 2-1. The two banners described supra, at 7-8, were also plainly visible. Id. at ¶¶ 10-11. Furthermore, like the large cross, the banners were in the direct line of sight of parents and other guests watching the graduates on the stage. As guests waited for the graduates to enter, two jumbo screens behind the stage read, “Welcome to the First Cathedral, A Church for All People, This is God’s House Where Jesus Christ is Lord.” Exh. 5 at ¶ 13; exh. 2-5. Each of the images within the carpet described supra, at 6-7, were plainly visible. Id. at ¶ 14.

Enfield High placed a disclaimer in small print on the back of the 2009 graduation program that stated, “The graduation for Enfield High School Class of 2009 is being held at First Cathedral because the facility met all the requirements for the ceremony. The selection of this venue is not an endorsement of a specific religion in general by the Enfield School District.” Exh. J-2. Apparently, no disclaimer was placed on the Fermi High programs. Exh. J-4.

Other schools in the Hartford-area have also held graduations at First Cathedral. Stip. at ¶ 9. Windsor High School held its graduation at First Cathedral from 2001 through 2007, and also in 2009; South Windsor High School held its graduation at First Cathedral from 2006 through 2009; East Hartford High School did so in 2009; and the Metropolitan Learning Center did so from 2007 through 2009. Id. Between December 2009 and February 2010, the other four school districts that had been holding graduations at First Cathedral decided not to hold their 2010 graduations there. Stip. at ¶ 20.

Opposition to Enfield Schools (and other school districts) holding graduations at First Cathedral was voiced as early as 2006. On December 11, 2006, the American Civil Liberties Union (“ACLU”) of Connecticut, one of the counsel for the plaintiffs, sent a letter to Enfield Schools, objecting to the plan to hold Enrico Fermi’s 2007 graduation at First Cathedral, and asking that the ceremony be moved to a secular location. At this time, the ACLU also sent similar letters to other school districts that were then holding graduations at the Cathedral. On May 12, 2009, Americans United for Separation of Church and State (“Americans United”), one of the counsel for plaintiffs in this case, sent a letter to Enfield Schools objecting to the holding of graduations at the Cathedral and asking Enfield Schools to discontinue the practice.

D. Decision to Hold 2010 Graduations at First Cathedral Church

In advance of the Enfield Board selecting a location for the two 2010 graduation ceremonies, the ACLU of Connecticut, American’s United, and the ACLU Program on Freedom of Religion and Belief (together, counsel for the plaintiffs) sent a joint letter to the Enfield Schools advising that the three organizations had been retained to file litigation if Enfield did not agree to stop holding graduations at the Cathedral. On October 22, 2009, plaintiffs’ counsel also sent Freedom of Information Act (“FOIA”) requests to Enfield Schools that related to the practice.

On December 2, 2009, counsel for En-field Schools informed counsel for the plaintiffs that the Board had not yet made any decision as to where to hold the two graduation ceremonies for 2010. Enfield Schools’ counsel further informed plaintiffs’ counsel that the Board had not made a reservation, placed a deposit, or entered into a contract with First Cathedral regarding the 2010 ceremonies.

On January 26, 2010, the Board voted six to three to hold the two 2010 graduations at the schools themselves, regardless of whether the actual graduation site “be the field, the gyms, whatever.” Transcript of Hearing Re: Preliminary Injunction (“Tr.”) at 60; Exh. 38. This vote was made both due to financial considerations, and a desire to “bring the kids home.” Stokes, Tr. at 218. However, the January 2010 vote was rescinded on February 23, 2010, by a vote of five to three. See Exh. 39.

Following the February 23, 2010 Board vote, the Family Institute of Connecticut (“FIC”) began to increase its efforts to lobby the Enfield School Board to hold graduation ceremonies at First Cathedral. The record indicates that Chairman Stokes was in close contact with the FIC, beginning in early March 2010, on the issue of Enfield’s high school graduations. In March and April, Stokes and FIC Executive Director Peter Wolfgang exchanged numerous electronic messages containing discussions of strategy on how to best ensure that the Enfield graduations would be held at First Cathedral. See Exhs. 151-62. Stokes and Wolfgang discussed which Board of Education members would most likely provide the deciding votes in their favor. They agreed that then-chances of winning the vote would largely depend on the willingness of the American Center for Law and Justice (“ACLJ”) to serve as pro bono counsel for the Board, should it vote to hold the graduation at First Cathedral. While Stokes was initially under the impression that the ACLJ would be unable to aid any Board of Education efforts to hold the graduation at First Cathedral, Wolfgang assured him that the ACLJ would represent the En-field Schools pro bono if the Schools would agree to move their graduations back to First Cathedral.

As part of FIC’s lobbying effort, three dozen members of FIC personally called all nine members of the Board to lobby on behalf of returning the graduations to First Cathedral. Exh. 89. Wolfgang also attended the March 23, 2010 Enfield School Board meeting. The minutes of that meeting reflect that Wolfgang informed the attendees that the ACL J would fund any legal defense required. Exh. 40 at 4; Tr. at 174. Wolfgang urged the Board to return to First Cathedral and to “[s]tand up for religious rights” and “for the constitution and our first amendment rights” by holding graduations at First Cathedral. Exh. 40 at 4. Another attendee stated that he would like to fight the ACLU because “[a]ll countries have their beliefs and we should not run away from it or be embarrassed about our religious values.” Exh. 40 at 3. Speaking at the same March 23, 2010 meeting, Chairman Stokes stated that the graduation decision was not an easy one, and that “[m]orally, ethically and spiritually each Board member will get their vote.” Id. at 8.

The Enfield Schools’ budget for the 2010 graduations is $32,000, of which $15,000 has been allocated for Enfield High’s graduation, and $17,000 has been allocated for Fermi High’s graduation. First Cathedral’s rental fees for holding both of the high schools’ graduations on two separate days will be $8500 per high school. In previous years, however, First Cathedral charged additional fees. Stip. ¶ 33. In 2009, for example, First Cathedral set a rental fee of $8200 per high school. Exh. 51. Ultimately, however, each school was charged $9200, apparently because of the rental cost of a ramp that enabled handicapped access. See Exh. 141 at 5. Nothing in the record indicates that there would be any difference between 2010 and 2009 with respect to these extra fees.

Numerous alternative venues were proposed to the School Board prior to the final vote to hold graduation ceremonies at First Cathedral. An assessment of alternative locations was undertaken by the principals of the two high schools, Thomas Duffy and Paul Newton; compiled by John Gallacher, Superintendent of Enfield Public Schools; and presented first at the March 23 Board meeting and again at the April 13, 2010 meeting. See Exhs. E, 52. First Cathedral was not included in this written assessment. Among the off-site venues that were included in the assessment were Western New England College, Springfield Symphony Hall, the Mass Mutual Center, the Bushnell Theater, XL Center, and the Connecticut Convention Center. Exh. 53. Although the Board did not establish written criteria for evaluating these locations, the officials performing the assessment considered numerous factors, including: availability; costs associated with the use of each facility including rental, parking, security, sound system, set up, clean up; seating capacity; audio-visual capability; restroom availability; handicap accessibility; catering availability; staging area for the graduates; and reception area availability. Id. Additionally, it was important that the two high schools’ graduations be held on separate days because the graduations traditionally took place on different days.

Some of the alternative sites compare favorably to the Cathedral in terms of the factors set forth above. Without exhaustively cataloguing the entirety of alternative venues considered, a brief review of a couple of the available alternatives is worthwhile. The Springfield Symphony Hall could host both graduations, on the two scheduled dates, at a lower cost ($11,-400). See Exh. 52 at 3. This facility seats approximately 2611 guests, is handicapped accessible, and has a staging area. Id. at 3, 5. It was estimated by the Enfield Board that the seating capacity would require Enfield to limit each graduate to eight (8) tickets each, but it was felt that this “should not be a huge issue.” Exh. 52 at 3. Symphony Hall charges a $3 per car parking fee, and lacks reception and catering availability. Chairman Stokes testified that Symphony Hall was “suitable” for the Enfield graduations, and its price was “right.” Tr. at 66,122.

The Mass Mutual Center, which accommodates 6600 guests, was quoted at $24,600 if the graduations were held on two separate days. See Exh. 141 at 2. This price includes handicap accessibility, staging and reception areas, set up costs, and security. Id. However, Newton believed the facility was willing to further negotiate price. See Exh. 141 at 2. The site is a 12-minute drive from Enfield High and 17-minute drive from Fermi High; there is also a $7 per car parking fee at this location. Exh. E-5.

In addition to these “off-site” venue options, Enfield also evaluated the possibility of holding the graduation ceremony at each respective high school, as originally favored by the Board in January 2010. This alternative was apparently determined not to be feasible due to the fact that each school’s football field has an artificial turf surface; holding graduation ceremonies on the turf without a protective covering would void the turfs warranty. Taking into account the rental of the protective cover for two days, the cost of conducting graduation on the artificial turf, with an inside location in case of inclement weather, is approximately $29,035. This price includes chair rentals, see Exh. 52 at 7, but the Town Manager stated that the Town owns approximately 2400 mismatched folding chairs which could be used at graduation, thereby reducing some cost. See Exh. 141 at 24.

Upon learning of these alternatives, some Board Members concluded that First Cathedral provided the best location within the budget. Other members expressed apprehension that, when coupled with the costs of defending the School Board in a potential lawsuit, holding graduations at First Cathedral would actually be more costly. See Exh. 41 at 6-7. Although costs would be severely defrayed on account of the fact that the ACLJ would provide pro bono counsel for Enfield, filing fees and other associated costs were estimated at roughly seven or eight thousand dollars. Id.

On April 13, 2010, the Board voted six (6) to three (3) to hold the 2010 graduations at First Cathedral.

E. Modification Plans

On May 25, 2010, the Enfield Board of Education passed the following Motion:

MOTION TO AFFIRM THE EN-FIELD BOARD OF EDUCATION’S INTENTION REGARDING MODIFICATION OF THE INTERIOR OF FIRST CATHEDRAL FOR THE 2010 GRADUATION OF ENFIELD HIGH SCHOOL AND ENRICO FERMI HIGH SCHOOL—WITH THE UNDERSTANDING THE MODIFICATIONS WILL BE AS FOLLOWS:

1. The banners in the lobby will be masked or removed.

2. The Visitors table with the banner in front will be removed.

3. The bookstore/ gift shop will be closed, and items will be removed from the exterior windows.

4. The fountain in the lobby will be turned off and covered.

5. Areas of the upper and lower hallways that do not need to be accessed in order to enter the auditorium, enter the staging room, enter the reception room, or use a restroom will be roped off from access by graduation attendees.

6. All framed art in the lobby; the upper and lower hallway areas that are not roped off; the staging area; and the reception area; which contain a religious image or message will be covered.

7. The word “sanctuary” will be covered at the entrance to the auditorium.

8. The banners in the auditorium will be masked or removed.

9. The light behind the stained glass at the rear of the stage will remain off, as will the recessed lighting in the area of the baptistery.

10. The communion table will be removed from the auditorium.

11. The images in the carpet in front of the stage will be covered.

12. The image of a dove at the podium will be covered.

13. The numerous flat screen televisions throughout the auditorium will only show the graduation events, and will have no image regarding First Cathedral.

14. All First Cathedral flyers, brochures, hymnals, Bibles, donation envelopes, and informational papers of any kind will be removed from any area accessible to graduation attendees.

15. No First Cathedral staff will serve as greeters to the graduation attendees, or will interact in any way with the attendees, other than as necessary to provide the services contracted for by the Enfield BOE.

16. Any religious image or message not specifically described above will be masked or removed if disclosed, the only exceptions being the cross at the top of the structure, and what has been represented to be a cross in the stained glass formed by the steel window mullions above the front entranceway.

May 25, 2010 Affidavit of Gregory Stokes (Exh. L). Although not part of the record evidence, counsel for Enfield Schools represented that it would decide what was a “religious image or message.” Either Enfield Schools, or First Cathedral staff directed by Enfield Schools, would remove such items. Any cost associated with such removal or coverage will be borne by First Cathedral.

III. DISCUSSION

A. Preliminary Injunctive Relief Standard

Interim injunctive relief “is an extraordinary and drastic remedy, one that should not be granted unless the movant, by a clear showing, carries the burden of persuasion.” Mazurek v. Armstrong, 520 U.S. 968, 972, 117 S.Ct. 1865, 138 L.Ed.2d 162 (1997) (per curiam) (emphasis, internal quotation marks and citation omitted). “A party seeking preliminary injunctive relief must establish: (1) either (a) a likelihood of success on the merits of its case or (b) sufficiently serious questions going to the merits to make them a fair ground for litigation and a balance of hardships tipping decidedly in its favor, and (2) a likelihood of irreparable harm if the requested relief is denied.” Time Warner Cable, Inc. v. DIRECTV, Inc., 497 F.3d 144, 152-53 (2d Cir.2007).

If a party seeks a mandatory injunction, i.e., an injunction that alters the status quo by commanding the defendant to perform a positive act, he must meet a higher standard. “[I]n addition to demonstrating irreparable harm,’ [t]he moving party must make a clear or substantial showing of a likelihood of success’ on the merits, ... a standard especially appropriate when a preliminary injunction is sought against government.” D.D. ex rel. V.D. v. New York City Bd. of Educ., 465 F.3d 503, 510 (2d Cir.2006) (citations omitted). Such a heightened standard is also applicable where “the issuance of an injunction will render a trial on the merits ... partly meaningless, either because of temporal concerns ... or because of the nature of the litigation, say, a case involving the disclosure of confidential information.” Tom Doherty Associates, Inc. v. Saban Entertainment, Inc., 60 F.3d 27, 35 (2d Cir.1995) (citing Abdul Wali v. Coughlin, 754 F.2d 1015, 1026 (2d Cir.1985), overruled on other grounds, O’Lone v. Estate of Shabazz, 482 U.S. 342, 349 n. 2, 107 S.Ct. 2400, 96 L.Ed.2d 282 (1987)).

In this case, the Does seek a preliminary injunction that will both alter the status quo by requiring Enfield Public Schools to perform a positive act (namely, moving the scheduled high school graduations to another location) and render a trial on the merits largely meaningless “because of temporal concerns.” Tom Doherty Associates, Inc., 60 F.3d at 35. Therefore, the Does must meet the higher standard of a clear or substantial showing of a likelihood of success on the merits.

The Does have demonstrated a likelihood of irreparable harm if the preliminary injunction is not issued. Violations of First Amendment rights are “commonly considered irreparable injuries for the purposes of a preliminary injunction.” Bery v. City of New York, 97 F.3d 689, 693 (2d Cir.1996) (citing Elrod v. Burns, 427 U.S. 347, 373, 96 S.Ct. 2673, 49 L.Ed.2d 547 (1976) (“[t]he loss of First Amendment freedoms, for even minimal periods of time, unquestionably constitutes irreparable injury”)); 11A Charles A. Wright, Arthur R. Miller and Mary Kane, Federal Practice and Procedure, § 2948.1 at 161 (2d ed.1995) (“[w]hen an alleged deprivation of a constitutional right is involved, most courts hold that no further showing of irreparable injury is necessary”). Therefore, the critical question is whether the Does have made a clear or substantial showing of a likelihood of success on the merits as to their First Amendment claims or their claims under Article Seventh of the Connecticut Constitution.

B. First Amendment Claim

The First Amendment to the United States Constitution provides that “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof....” U.S. Const. amend. I. However, the “First Amendment contains no textual definition of ‘establishment’ and the term is certainly not self-defining.” McCreary County, Ky. v. ACLU of Ky., 545 U.S. 844, 874-75, 125 S.Ct. 2722, 162 L.Ed.2d 729 (2005). “Neutrality” has served as a useful touchstone in navigating the interpretive problems that the Establishment Clause creates. Id. As the Supreme Court has observed, “the principle of neutrality has provided a good sense of direction: the government may not favor one religion over another, or religion over irreligión, religious choice being the prerogative of individuals under the Free Exercise Clause.” Id. at 875-76, 125 S.Ct. 2722. Nonetheless, “[w]here the Establishment Clause is at issue, tests designed to measure’ neutrality’ alone are insufficient.” Van Orden v. Perry, 545 U.S. 677, 699, 125 S.Ct. 2854, 162 L.Ed.2d 607 (2005) (Breyer, J., concurring); see also Lee v. Weisman, 505 U.S. 577, 627, 112 S.Ct. 2649, 120 L.Ed.2d 467 (1992) (Souter, J., concurring) (“That government must remain neutral in matters of religion does not foreclose it from ever taking religion into account.”). Therefore, the Supreme Court has established several tests that guide this court’s analysis.

The essential framework for assessing Establishment Clause claims is provided by the three-prong test set forth in Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403 U.S. 602, 91 S.Ct. 2105, 29 L.Ed.2d 745 (1971). “Under [the] Lemon [test], government action that interacts with religion must: (1) have a secular purpose, (2) have a principal effect that neither advances nor inhibits religion, and (3) not bring about an excessive government entanglement with religion.” Westchester Day School v. Vill. of Mamaroneck, 504 F.3d 338, 355 (2d Cir.2007) (citing Lemon, 403 U.S. at 612-13, 91 S.Ct. 2105). With regard to the second prong (effect), which is the focus of this decision, the Lemon test essentially asks whether “the practice under review in fact conveys a message of endorsement or disapproval.” Lynch v. Donnelly, 465 U.S. 668, 690, 104 S.Ct. 1355, 79 L.Ed.2d 604 (1984) (O’Connor, J., concurring); see also County of Allegheny v. ACLU, 492 U.S. 573, 592-94, 109 S.Ct. 3086, 106 L.Ed.2d 472 (1989); Skoros v. City of New York, 437 F.3d 1, 17 (2d Cir.2006).

Although the Lemon test continues to guide Establishment Clause cases, the Supreme Court has refined its analysis. The Court has embraced a variety of approaches that can be viewed as either components of Lemon or supplements to it. First, in light of the fact that “the factors [used] to assess whether an entanglement is ‘excessive’ are similar to the factors [used] to examine ‘effect,’ ” the Supreme Court has determined that “it is simplest to recognize why entanglement is significant and treat it ... as an aspect of the inquiry into a statute’s effect.” Agostini v. Felton, 521 U.S. 203, 232, 117 S.Ct. 1997, 138 L.Ed.2d 391 (1997); see also Skoros, 437 F.3d at 17 (analyzing “entanglement” as a separate prong from a statute’s “effect” but being “careful to observe the link drawn in [Agostini] between this third prong of Lemon analysis and the second ‘effect’ prong.”). In this case, the court will incorporate the analysis of whether holding Enfield’s high school graduations at First Cathedral creates an “excessive entanglement” with religion into the second prong of the Lemon test.

Second, the Supreme Court has recognized that, “at a minimum, the Constitution guarantees that government may not coerce anyone to support or participate in religion or its exercise” because the “design of the Constitution is that preservation and transmission of religious beliefs and worship is a responsibility and a choice committed to the private sphere.” Lee, 505 U.S. at 589,112 S.Ct. 2649. Some courts have regarded the “coercion” test as one component of the second prong of the Lemon test. See, e.g., DeStefano v. Emergency Housing Group, Inc., 247 F.3d 397, 412 (2d Cir.2001). Other courts, however, have viewed the “coercion” test as established in Lee v. Weisman to require analysis separate and apart from the Lemon factors. See, e.g., Modrovich v. Allegheny County, 385 F.3d 397, 400 (3d Cir.2004) (explaining that the Supreme Court has articulated “three separate tests for determining whether governmental action violates the Establishment Clause” and viewing the coercion test as particularly applicable to government action in the context of public education). Both because it seems a more focused approach, and because it appears to be in accordance with the Second Circuit’s view, the court will address “coercion” as one indication of effect, i.e., under prong two of the Lemon test, and not as an entirely separate inquiry. However, whether or not the coercion test is regarded as a modification of or supplement to the Lemon test, it remains indisputable that “at the heart of Establishment Clause doctrine lies the principle that ‘government may not coerce anyone to support or participate in religion or its exercise.’ ” DeStefano, 247 F.3d 397 at 411 (citing Lee, 505 U.S. at 577, 112 S.Ct. 2649).

While these analytical frameworks assist courts in evaluating Establishment Clause claims, this court, and the parties, recognize that, “[i]n each case, the inquiry calls for line drawing; no fixed, per se rule can be framed,” as “[t]he purpose of the Establishment Clause ‘was to state an objective, not to write a statute.’ ” Lynch, 465 U.S. at 678, 104 S.Ct. 1355 (quoting Walz v. Tax Commission of City of New York, 397 U.S. 664, 668, 90 S.Ct. 1409, 25 L.Ed.2d 697 (1970)). Indeed, the Establishment Clause creates a “blurred, indistinct, and variable barrier depending on all the circumstances of a particular relationship.” Lemon, 403 U.S., at 614, 91 S.Ct. 2105 (emphasis added). With these observations regarding the current state of the Supreme Court’s Establishment Clause jurisprudence in mind, the court now proceeds to evaluate the constitutionality of the Enfield School Board’s decision to hold 2010 high school graduations at First Cathedral.

1. Purpose

“When government action interacts with religion, Lemon instructs that the government purpose must be ‘secular.’ ” Skoros, 437 F.3d at 18 (citing Lemon, 403 U.S. at 612, 91 S.Ct. at 2125). The Supreme Court “has invalidated legislation or governmental action on the ground that a secular purpose was lacking, but only when it has concluded there was no question that the statute or activity was motivated wholly by religious considerations.” Lynch, 465 U.S. at 680, 104 S.Ct. 1355 (citing cases); see also McCreary County, Ky., 545 U.S. at 862, 125 S.Ct. 2722 (observing that government action has been held unconstitutional under this prong of analysis “only because openly available data supported a commonsense conclusion that a religious objective permeated the government’s action.”). “Although a legislature’s stated reasons will generally get deference, the secular purpose required has to be genuine, not a sham, and not merely secondary to a religious objective.” McCreary, 545 U.S. at 864, 125 S.Ct. 2722.

In light of the evidence on the record at this stage of the case, plaintiffs concede, and the court agrees, that they have not met their burden of showing “a clear or substantial showing of a likelihood of success” that “there [is] no question that the ... [challenged] activity was motivated wholly by religious considerations.” D.D. ex rel. V.D., 465 F.3d at 510; Lynch, 465 U.S. at 680,104 S.Ct. 1355. Plaintiffs have therefore not carried their burden for obtaining a preliminary injunction with respect to the purpose prong of the Lemon analysis.

2. Primary Effect

“The second prong of the Lemon test mandates that the ‘principal or primary effect’ of the challenged government action’ must neither advance nor inhibit religion.’ ” Skoros, 437 F.3d at 29 (quoting Commack Self-Serv. Kosher Meats, Inc. v. Weiss, 294 F.3d 415, 430 (2d Cir.2002)). Depending on context, courts have applied a variety of more particular analytical frameworks in evaluating a particular government action’s “effect” for Establishment Clause purposes. Specifically, “endorsement,” “coercion,” and “entanglement” each play a role in determining if a governmental program has run afoul of prong two of the Lemon test. See County of Allegheny, 492 U.S. at 592-94, 109 S.Ct. 3086 (analyzing prong two of Lemon by addressing endorsement); Agostini, 521 U.S. at 232, 117 S.Ct. 1997 (entanglement); Altman v. Bedford Cent. School Dist., 245 F.3d 49, 75 (2d Cir.2001) (coercion).

a. Endorsement

“The concept of endorsement is not limited to government coercion or efforts at proselytization; it is intended to take account of ‘the numerous more subtle ways that government can show favoritism to particular beliefs or convey a message of disapproval to others.’ ” Skoros, 437 F.3d at 29 (quoting Allegheny, 492 U.S. at 627-28, 109 S.Ct. 3086, (O’Connor, J., concurring)). The endorsement test “seeks to ensure that government does not make a person’s religious beliefs relevant to his or her standing in the political community ... thereby sending a message to nonadherents that they are outsiders, not full members of the political community, and an accompanying message to adherents that they are insiders, favored members of the political community.” Id. (internal quotation marks and citations omitted). “Every government practice must be judged in its unique circumstances to determine whether it constitutes an endorsement or disapproval of religion.” Lynch, 465 U.S. at 694, 104 S.Ct. 1355 (O’Connor, J., concurring).

i. Reasonable Observer. A court evaluating whether or not a particular policy runs afoul of the endorsement test “considers whether a reasonable observer ... aware of the history and context of the community and forum in which the religious display appears, would understand it to endorse religion or ... one religion over another.” Skoros, 437 F.3d at 30 (citations omitted). A reasonable observer is not a particular individual, but is instead “a personification of a community ideal of reasonable behavior.” Id. (quoting Capitol Square Review and Advisory Bd. v. Pinette, 515 U.S. 753, 780, 115 S.Ct. 2440, 132 L.Ed.2d 650 (1995)).

Because this case involves the application of endorsement analysis within the public school context, a preliminary issue arises as to the identity of the reasonable observer. In the court’s view, the significanee of this issue is lessened by the fact that the government action affects mainly high school seniors of a similar age and their adult family members. Cf. Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe, 530 U.S. 290, 302, 120 S.Ct. 2266, 147 L.Ed.2d 295 (2000) (evaluating endorsement by reference to an “objective Santa Fe High School student”). However, to the extent that there is a “range” of those to whom the challenged actions apply, the court disagrees with plaintiffs’ suggestion that it should evaluate the challenged activity through the lens of multiple, objective observers. See Skoros, 437 F.3d at 24 (“Nor does Supreme Court precedent appear to contemplate multiple reasonable objective observers, for example, persons who believe in God as distinct from those who do not....”). Rather, this court follows the Second Circuit’s guidance that “the relevant objective observer ... is an adult who is aware of the history and context of the community and forum in which the religious display appears ... and who understands that the display of a religious symbol in a school context may raise particular endorsement concerns, because of the pressure exerted on children by the ‘law of imitation.’ ” Id. (internal quotation marks and citations omitted).

Upon consideration of the evidence from the perspective of such a reasonable observer, the court concludes that plaintiffs have made a substantial showing that they are likely to succeed on the merits of their claim that holding 2010 graduations at First Cathedral constitutes an impermissible endorsement of religion because it conveys the message that certain religious views are embraced by Enfield Schools, and others are not. The court bases its conclusion on both the character of the forum selected for the graduations and the history and context of Enfield Schools’ decision.

ii. Character of Forum. Based upon the experience of attending the 2010 graduation ceremonies at First Cathedral, a reasonable observer would conclude that Enfield Public Schools endorses religion, specifically the Christian faith. The strong impressions that were created during the court’s visit to First Cathedral provide support for that view. While the entirety of the description of First Cathedral provided supra, at 176-78, need not be repeated, some attributes of the facility deserve noting here, as they would be viewed by a reasonable observer.

As defendant’s counsel acknowledged at Oral Argument, attendees from Enfield would approach First Cathedral from the intersection of Blue Hills Avenue and Wintonbury Avenue, where there is a large sign that states “FIRST CATHEDRAL.” From this vantage point, the enormous cross on the top of the building’s roof, planted above a cupola with stained glass panels, is plainly visible. This is only the first of several encounters graduates and graduation attendees will have with this overtly religious symbol. After parking, students and guests will walk around the Cathedral to approach the entrance. They will then enter the facility, through that main entrance, over which there is a large cross within the window that is immediately discernible. They will pass through the main lobby, from which that same cross is visible. Enfield Schools does not contest that these crosses are visible to all attendees. Finally, upon entering the sanctuary, another large cross is readily identifiable behind the stage. The defendant does not contest that this cross will be in full view to the audience members throughout the ceremony, and to the graduates as they enter and later as they collect their diplomas.

A reasonable observer would perceive other religious objects, symbols, and messages besides these crosses. Surrounding the main entrance’s central cross is a stained glass window panel depicting people worshiping, with their hands in the air directed at light shining down from above. Numerous prints line the lobby and halls of the Cathedral, the majority of which either depict scenes from the Bible, contain religious imagery, or bear placards quoting biblical passages. One such print quotes the Lord’s Prayer. Contrary to Archbishop Bailey’s claims, a reasonable observer would not perceive these prints to be merely “eclectic;” instead, the reasonable observer would certainly discern their plainly religious meaning in the setting of a church. The carpet of the sanctuary contains images which include such Christian symbols as a chalice, a lamb, a shepherd’s hand and staff, and a lion. When viewed within a structure, with crosses, named “First Cathedral,” the reasonable observer would quickly understand the images to bear religious significance.

To be sure, the Enfield School Board has expressed an intention to reduce the number of religious symbols that will confront attendees of the 2010 graduations. See Exh. L (stating School Board’s commitment to making certain modifications to the Cathedral for the 2010 ceremonies and listing those modifications). The court does not doubt that the School Board’s commitment is sincere. Nonetheless, the failure of previous efforts by the School Board to modify the Cathedral’s religious symbols casts some doubt over the likelihood that the Board will be successful this year. See supra, at 178-79. In 2007, John Gallacher, Superintendent for the Enfield Schools, wrote to First Cathedral on behalf of the schools and two other districts, asking that the banners behind the stage be removed during graduations. See Exh. 145. Despite the request, the banners remained in place for all Enfield graduation ceremonies that have occurred at First Cathedral. See Exhs. 5, 118-121. Further, Enfield’s communications with the staff of First Cathedral regarding this year’s graduations prior to the Board’s resolution of May 25 had not yielded concrete agreement as to which items would be covered. Moreover, to the extent that Archbishop Bailey ultimately selects which items require covering, the record indicates that his views as to what objects contain religious meaning do not map onto the views of a reasonable observer. As a result, items with a plainly religious meaning would be left visible. See generally Bailey Dep. (claiming, inter alia, that image of chalice is not religious but instead represents “community;” that other images in carpet, including the lamb, lion, shepherd’s staff, fish, and fire are likewise non-religious; that majority of art in hallways is eclectic, but does not contain a religious meaning).

Setting aside these practical questions that loom over the Board’s resolution to cover some religious items within First Cathedral, the fact remains that, even if every modification identified in the May 25, 2010 resolution is implemented, those attending the graduation ceremonies at First Cathedral will still encounter: (1) the large cross on the Cathedral’s roof; (2) the large central cross at the Cathedral’s main entrance; (3) the stained glass depiction of worshipers in the Cathedral’s main entrance; (4) the large cross behind the stage that undoubtedly constitutes the focal point of the entire sanctuary. A reasonable observer attending the 2010 graduations would have no choice but to conclude that the message displayed on the jumbo-screens during the 2009 graduation ceremonies was exactly accurate: “This is God’s house where Jesus Christ is Lord.” Exh. 2-5. That message will continue to be transmitted, and received, even if the jumbo-screens will no longer display it at the 2010 ceremonies.

In this way, even if each of the alterations to the Cathedral identified in the May 25, 2010 Enfield Board of Education Motion are made in advance of the 2010 graduations, First Cathedral remains a far more “religious” environment than the vast majority of other publicly-leased religious spaces that have been the subject of Establishment Clause claims. Enfield Schools urges that this case is like Porta v. Klagholz, 19 F.Supp.2d 290 (D.N.J.1998), in which the court declined to find that a lease arrangement permitting the operation of a school on church property constituted an Establishment Clause violation. However, in PoHa, “[tjhere [were] no visible church signs or religious symbols, artwork, or literature within any classroom.” Id. at 299 (emphasis added). Here, such is not the case. In addition, the PoHa students came through a separate entrance signed as the school. Id. That is not the case here, either. Further, the challenged building in PoHa had a “secular appearance, being quite rectangular with a straight roofline.” Id. The exterior of First Cathedral, by contrast, is an unusual, essentially round shape, and dominated by an enormous cross.

First Cathedral more closely resembles the space that was the subject of a constitutional challenge in Spacco v. Bridgewater School Dep’t, 722 F.Supp. 834, 842-43 (D.Mass.1989), in which the district court held that students assigned to a public school facility leased from the Roman Catholic Church were entitled to a preliminary injunction requiring reassignment because of the religious character of the leased space. The Spacco court observed that, “in order to enter the building, the children and other individuals pass beneath a large cross beside the name St. Thomas Aquinas Parish Center.” Spacco, 722 F.Supp. at 842. The court concluded that there existed an Establishment Clause violation, even though by “[s]imply sitting in a classroom, a reasonable observer, including a reasonable child, would not receive any constitutionally impermissible message from his or her surroundings.” Id.

First Cathedral creates an environment even more overwrought with religious symbols than the venue challenged in Spacco. Similar to the Spacco students, in order to attend the 2010 graduations, the attendees will observe the large cross on the roof, would observe a sign that bears the name “First Cathedral,” and would have to pass beneath a large cross that is plainly visible above the main entrance. However, unlike the Spacco students (who sat in classrooms free from religious messages), attendees of the 2010 graduations would sit in a sanctuary focused on a large cross.

Upon attending graduation ceremonies, a reasonable observer would conclude that the Board’s April 13, 2010 decision to use First Cathedral sends the message that the Board embraces the religious values, symbols, and ideas present within First Cathedral. Cf. Spacco, 722 F.Supp. at 842 (relying on the religious symbols present within St. Thomas Aquinas Parish Center to conclude that the use of that center “conveys a number of related, impermissible messages,” including that “the public school and the Roman Catholic Church are closely linked” and that “Roman Catholic people are preferred”). The endorsement test “is intended to take account of ‘the numerous[,] more subtle ways that government can show favoritism to particular beliefs or convey a message of disapproval to others.’ ” Skoros, 437 F.3d at 29 (citations omitted). By choosing to hold graduations at First Cathedral, En-field Schools sends the message that it is closely linked with First Cathedral and its religious mission, that it favors the religious over the irreligious, and that it prefers Christians over those that subscribe to other faiths, or no faith at all.

iii. Context and History. In addition to the character of the forum, the history and context of the decision to hold the graduations at First Cathedral also support the conclusion that, in doing so, Enfield Public Schools has endorsed religion. The context of a challenged government action is relevant and useful to endorsement analysis. Zelman v. SimmonsHards, 536 U.S. 639, 655, 122 S.Ct. 2460, 153 L.Ed.2d 604 (2002) (“the reasonable observer in the endorsement inquiry must be deemed aware of the history and context underlying a challenged program”) (internal quotation marks and citations omitted). Therefore, a reasonable observer will be presumed to know a variety of contextual facts surrounding the April 13, 2010 Board decision, including the Board’s consideration of alternatives, the substance of Board deliberations at meetings leading up to the vote, statements by the Board, and FIC’s statements and lobbying efforts.

The Board’s evaluation of alternative venues in March and April 2010 does not appear to be an open-minded consideration of legitimate available alternatives. First Cathedral was never included in the written comparisons offered at either the March 23 or April 13, 2010 Board meetings, and the minutes of those meetings reflect no discussion as to First Cathedral’s actual price or amenities. Furthermore, the Board was aware that several locations offered similar accommodations for graduation ceremonies at a price less than the $32,000 budget. The rental fee for Symphony Hall, for example, totals $11,400 for both schools—a figure that is at least $5000 less than the rental fee charged by First Cathedral. See Exh. 52 at 3. Although the facility seats 2611 graduates and spectators would likely require Enfield Schools to limit each graduate to eight (8) tickets each, it was deemed “that should not be a huge issue.” Id.

Chairman Stokes noted that there were other ways in which Symphony Hall did not match First Cathedral in meeting particular criteria that the Board was looking for, but the Board never generated a concrete list of the precise criteria that needed to be met. Indeed, certain requirements that Chairman Stokes claims the Board believed a venue had to satisfy seem designed to eliminate First Cathedral’s competitors. During the May 24, 2010 hearing, for example, the court asked Stokes, “What size is a minimum size that you think makes a facility acceptable?” Tr. at 215. Chairman Stokes replied, “I think that being able to have unlimited seating where anybody can come in and celebrate with their families is probably where I have leaned to.” Id. When the court inquired further and asked what constitutes “unlimited seating,” Stokes replied, “In this case here it is about 3000 seats.” Id. First Cathedral’s seating capacity is 3000. Exh. 50 at l.

The court acknowledges that Symphony Hall does not match all that First Cathedral has to offer. Nonetheless, the record also reflects that, even accounting for the disparities, Symphony Hall was “priced right,” and was “suitable” if not preferable. Tr. at 66, 122. In terms of the critical budget concerns, Symphony Hall was substantially less expensive. Knowing that many other schools use Symphony Hall for graduation, Exh. 28 at 5, the reasonable observer would also note that, in an economic climate that will likely cause Enfield to close one high school and up to three elementary schools, any minor disparities with respect to offered amenities should not have been enough to outweigh the savings offered by Symphony Hall.

The reasonable observer is also aware that, between the February 23 and March 23 Board meetings, the decision process took place in the context of an intensified lobbying effort by the FIC of the Enfield School Board to move the high school graduations to First Cathedral for the sake of “religious liberty.” On March 9, 2010, FIC’s Executive Director, Peter Wolfgang, sent out an electronic action alert to its approximately 6000 members entitled, “In Enfield, A Call to Arms!” See Exh. 93. The alert implies that the ACLU was focused on the Enfield case because First Cathedral’s pastor (Archbishop Bailey) was “one of the most visible Protestant clergymen to oppose same-sex ‘marriage’ in our state.” Exh. 93. The message states that the American Center for Law and Justice (ACLJ) had offered to represent the Enfield Public Schools in any legal action that might result from the decision to hold graduations at First Cathedral, and urges members to lobby Board Members in advance of the March 23, 2010 Board Meeting because “[t]his is our only opportunity to ensure that religious liberty is not trampled by default!” Id. at 3.

After a series of exchanges that confirmed that the ACLJ had in fact agreed to represent Enfield Public Schools, Wolfgang and Stokes agreed to “be on the same page.” Exh. 151. Wolfgang also informed a lawyer from the ACLJ that Chairman Stokes had declared that, if the ACLJ publicly states it will defend Enfield pro bono, “[Stokes] can produce the votes to return graduation to First Cathedral.” Exh. 151. Lobbying efforts continued at the March 23, 2010 Board meeting, where Wolfgang personally implored Board members to “[s]tand up for religious rights.” Exh. 40 at 4. Graduations plans were still undetermined following the March 2010 Board Meeting, and FIC pressed on. Its efforts included “pumping” Chairman Stokes for information regarding the status of Board members, lobbying for Board members’ votes, and strategizing with Chairman Stokes as to how to achieve the necessary five votes to move the graduations to First Cathedral. See Exhs. 152, 153, 157. The record indicates that these efforts were successful, and that, but for FIC and Wolfgang, Enfield Public Schools would not have decided to hold the two graduations at First Cathedral. See Exh. 90 (“this was a dead issue until the Family Institute of Connecticut got involved .... ”). The court does not at this point conclude that Enfield Public Schools adopted the “purpose” of FIC in seeking to move graduations to First Cathedral. A legislature’s purpose need not be equated with a lobbying group’s purpose, even if those lobbying efforts succeeded. The issue here, however, is not Enfield Public Schools’ purpose, but instead the broader context within which a reasonable observer would understand the 2010 graduations. Given the unity of interest that developed between FIC and the Chairman, FIC’s agenda—and FIC and Chairman Stokes working together on that agenda—is clearly part of that context. After FIC and the Chairman began working together to hold graduations at First Cathedral, it is noteworthy that Chairman Stokes framed the decision facing the Board as one in which “[m]orally, ethically and spiritually each Board member will get their vote.” Exh. 40 at 8.

Enfield Schools agrees that the reasonable observer envisioned by relevant precedent would be aware of both the broader contextual background and the finer contextual details of the First Cathedral choice. See Transcript of Oral Argument (“Tr. of Oral Arg.”) at 80. For its part, Enfield Schools urges that the relevant context would lead a reasonable observer to believe that Enfield was not endorsing the views of First Cathedral. The Board did initially vote on January 26, 2010 to hold graduation ceremonies at the two high schools. Counsel for Enfield Schools specifically pointed out that a reasonable observer would be aware of this fact, and that