Full opinion text
MEMORANDUM OPINION ROYCE C. LAMBERTH, Chief Judge. Before the Court are Plaintiffs’ Motion [217] for Summary Judgment and Defendant’s Motion [211] for Summary Judgment. Also before the Court are two motions to strike: Plaintiffs’ Non-Consent Motion [271] to Strike “Defendant’s Notice Regarding Correction in Defendant’s Response to Plaintiffs’ Statement of Material Facts Not in Dispute, Document Number 228-7,” and Plaintiffs’ Non-Consent Motion [292] to Strike “Defendant’s Notice Regarding Filing Analysis of Late Releases, Document Number 244.” Finally, plaintiffs recently filed a document titled “Notice [sic] Plaintiffs’ Response to Discrepancy Reports Submitted by the District (docket #301).” Pis.’ Notice [306], Jun. 21, 2011. Having carefully considered the Motions, the Oppositions, the Replies, oral argument of counsel, the entire record in this case, and the applicable law, the Court will grant in part and deny in part Plaintiffs’ Motion for Summary Judgment, and grant in part and deny in part Defendant’s Motion for Summary Judgment. The Court will also deny both of plaintiffs’ motions to strike. A review of the background of the case, the governing law, the parties’ arguments, and the Court’s reasoning in resolving those arguments follows. 1. BACKGROUND This case involves overdetentions and strip searches at the District of Columbia’s jails. The District’s Department of Corrections has custody over thousands of prisoners serving time for various offenses, with jail sentences of varying lengths. To maintain security within its jails, the DOC strip searches inmates upon admission or commitment to its jail facilities. D.’s SMF [211-1] ¶ 3. Each day the DOC shuttles some of its inmates to courts in the District so they can be present at court appearances. At some of those court appearances inmates receive court orders from judges for their release from the DOC’s custody. At that point the DOC begins an administrative release process that results in the prisoner’s actual release from the DOC’s custody. The same release process is begun upon the expiration of an inmate’s prison sentence. While there is no set definition for an “overdetention,” it generally means that once a prisoner was entitled to release— because of a court order, the expiration of a sentence, or otherwise — the authority having custody over that person held them too long. This case involves a group of plaintiffs representing a class of prisoners who allege, in essence, that the DOC held them too long after they were ordered released by a court or their sentences expired. In addition, since inmates with release orders from courts in the District were often returned to the DOC’s jails while the administrative processing of their releases was undertaken by DOC staff, those inmates were strip searched again pursuant to the DOC’s policy. Therefore the overdetention problem and the strip search problem are interrelated, the one leading to the other. Since this case involves the DOC’s release process and whether it leads to over-detentions or is administered so poorly as to achieve the same result, the Court will first summarize that process. A 2008 report commissioned by the District’s Criminal Justice Coordinating Council supplies a helpful breakdown of the flow of paperwork between the various entities involved in the release of DOC inmates and a description of the steps taken by the DOC’s Records Office to process releases. Pis.’ Ex. 408 (“Schneider Report”). The Schneider Report notes that when a release order issues in a courtroom, “it travels through seven hands ... before reaching the DC Jail Records office where it is processed.” Id. at 1. Judges sign two original copies of release orders. Id. at 4. One copy is retained by the courtroom clerk and scanned sometime that day into a docket management program used by the Superior Court called “Court View.” Id. at 4-5. The other signed copy of the release order is given to the staff of the “Jail Board” at the courthouse, which holds onto all the inmates’ paperwork and coordinates with the DOC transportation staff to arrange the van or bus transport of inmates and their paperwork to the appropriate places. Id. at 5. Once an inmate’s paperwork has arrived at the DC Jail, it is brought to the Receiving and Discharge office, where jail records staff enter each order into a logbook, post each order in the DOC’s inmate-management program JACCS, and then send the orders via dumbwaiter to the DC Jail’s Records Office for release processing. Id. at 6. Records Office staff — unfortunately named “Legal Instrument Examiners” (“LIEs”) — then perform the final round of administrative steps that the DOC requires before releasing inmates. Id. A LIE first reviews the inmate’s actual file or “jacket” and confirms that the release orders match the inmate’s cases. Id. The DOC will not release an inmate unless it has an actual, signed copy of the release order. The LIE also looks for other pending cases or detainers in the file. Id. Next, the LIE checks the DOC’s own databases program, JACCS, to make sure that the JACCS data records coincide with the information in the physical file. Id. The LIE then checks other computer databases to see if there are any warrants out for the inmate’s arrest, and checks the Superi- or Court’s database, Court View, to check for any other cases requiring that the inmate be held in custody. Id. Once this first LIE determines that the inmate is eligible for release, a second, “senior” LIE performs all of the same steps — again reviewing the inmate’s physical file — and then signs off on the inmate’s release. Id. The process takes from 2 to 2.5 hours to complete. Simmons Dep. [228-2] 164:15-22. That the DOC’s release procedures, its implementation of them, or both, might be generating unacceptable numbers of over-detentions is something that the District has been aware of for years. This case is nearly identical to a prior case before this Court, Bynum v. District of Columbia, Civil Action No. 02-956(RCL). Bynum, filed in 2002, involved a class of about 4,000 former DOC prisoners who claimed they’d been detained by the DOC past the point when their releases had been ordered, “for periods ranging from an extra day to many days or even months on end.” Barnes v. District of Columbia, 242 F.R.D. 113, 115 (D.D.C.2007). In addition to this “overdetention” class, this Court in Bynum certified an overlapping “strip search” class. The District moved for summary judgment, the Court denied that motion, and shortly thereafter the parties settled the case. The class members in Bynum were unable to get through the DOC’s release process on the day that their releases were ordered, were held by the DOC past midnight, and overdetained. In addition, because — as stated above — the DOC’s policy is to strip search anyone who is returned to the general jail population, Def.’s SMF [211-1] ¶ 3, many of the Bynum class members were strip searched, in some cases multiple times. The Bynum litigation ended on January 25, 2006 pursuant to a settlement agreement that contained a number of components that were designed to remedy the overdetention and related strip search problems at the District’s jails. Bynum v. District of Columbia, 412 F.Supp.2d 73 (D.D.C.2006). Of the $12 million settlement amount agreed to by the parties in Bynum, $3 million was set aside “to build a state of the art Inmate Processing Center (IPC) within the foot print of the DC Jail site, which will be a project totaling $5 Million.” Id. at 83. The remaining $2 million was to be provided by the District government. Id. The purpose of the IPC was to create adequate processing facilities for both intake and release of inmates and for the processing of associated records. Id. Among the reforms associated with the IPC was the requirement that “[c]ourt ordered releases [would] be separated from inmates to be held in custody.” Id. This Court recognized that the settlement promised “significant policy changes in the operation of the Department of Corrections,” and noted that the DOC’s “policy of strip searching court returnees subject to release has been stopped as a direct result of this litigation.” Id. at 85. However, in the aftermath of Bynum, instead of a swift change to the status quo at the DOC, there were years where little if any substantive change was instituted. In fact, there isn’t much in the record indicating any significant reforms for well over a year after the close of the Bynum class period. With the exception of a DOC staff “tour” of “mega jail” facilities in October and November 2006, whose relationship to improving the DOC’s release process is entirely unclear from the record, the DOC appears to have done nothing concrete in response to the overdetention problems at its jails until 2007. The Inmate Processing Center, mandated by the Bynum settlement, remains to this very day unbuilt. According to the Interim Director of the DOC, the IPC has been “in the planning stages for several years.” Def.’s Mem. Opp’n Pis.’ Mot. Summ. J. [228] Ex. 1 at ¶ 17. As of March 2010, the District had spent only $788,222 on the project, which now has an estimated cost of $15 million, rather than the $5 million specified in the Bynum settlement agreement. The District hasn’t provided an explanation for the extended delay in the IPC project or its currently trebled price tag, although it appears that these may in part be due to the DOC’s decision to fold the IPC project into a number of others. Pis.’ Second Mot. Compel [180], July 28, 2010, Attachment 1 at 57-58. The District’s most recent hope is to begin construction of the IPC in January 2012, with a completion date of July 2018. Def.’s Mem. Opp’n Pis.’ Mot. Summ. J. [228] Ex. 1 at ¶ 18. However, since the District has pushed back the completion date repeatedly, there’s reason to doubt whether this facility will be up and running at that time. As to the DOC’s practice of strip-searching court returns entitled to release absent individualized suspicion, the DOC agreed in 2005, as part of the Bynum settlement negotiations, to send court returns who had received release orders not to the DC Jail — where they would be returned to the general jail population and subjected to blanket strip searches — but to a holding facility at the DC General Hospital called the Medical Holding Unit. Pis.’ Ex. 759 [214-12] 9:9-18. The administrative processing of those inmates’ releases could take place while they were housed at the MHU, and they could be released from that facility, without a strip search. Id. However, since that facility has nowhere for inmates to sleep in the event that their releases are delayed, Def.’s Ex. 1 at ¶ 39, such inmates have been returned to the Jail or Correctional Treatment Facility and subjected to blanket strip searches. Defi’s Resp. Pis.’ SMF [228-7] ¶ 509. So the persistence of the overdetention problems has led, it seems, to the continuing subjection of court releases entitled to release to blanket strip searches, despite the promises of the Bynum settlement. The DOC’s lack of action in the wake of Bynum combined with singularly unhelpful action by the DC Council to exacerbate the overdetention problem. In 2003, with the Bynum litigation pending in this Court, the Council passed an ordinance prohibiting the release of inmates between the hours of 10 p.m. and 7 a.m. under any circumstances, also known as the “10 p.m. cut-off” rule. D.C.Code § 24-211.02(b)(6). This ordinance was allegedly adopted in the best interests of inmates, to prevent “Releasing inmates at midnight out the back door of the jail, into a neighborhood where there is no transportation and no other facilities to assist inmates .... ” Pis.’ Ex. 207. However, whatever its intended purpose, the ordinance’s effect was to turn delayed releases into automatic, overnight overdetentions in cases where the Records Office was unable to complete the release process by 10 p.m. The District’s own Attorney General notified the DC Council’s Chairman in February 2009 that inmates were being overdetained “solely by operation of the cutoff provision” and that the provision was “unconstitutional as applied.” Pis.’ Ex. 206 [214-3], However, the Record does indicate that beginning in 2007 — more than a year after the instant case was filed — the DOC and the District began to take some steps to address the overdetention problem. In July 2007, the DOC instituted a “new training regime” for LIEs that spans “several months,” including 44 hours of “Records Office Overview Training” that “focuse[s] on the release process.” Def.’s Mem. [211] 16; Def.’s Ex. 1 at ¶ 9, 10. Also in 2007, the DOC began — for the first time — -to track overdetentions at its jails using “discrepancy reports,” providing the DOC with the means to both monitor and remedy overdetention problems. Perhaps the single most significant reform occurred on July 7, 2008, when the DOC instituted a “courthouse release” program, which permits inmates charged with misdemeanors to be released directly from the Superior Court, instead of transporting them back to the DC Jail or Correctional Treatment Facility for release processing. Pis.’ Ex. 211 at 77; Def.’s Ex. 1 at ¶32. Plaintiffs have “coneede[d]” that the District’s courthouse release program “solved a lot of the problems causing over-detentions and post release strip searches.” Pis.’ Opp’n Def.’s Mot. Summ. J. [229] 30. Plaintiffs’ counsel repeated at the June 2011 hearing on the parties’ motions for summary judgment that this change was significant, and that the number of overdetentions-even according to plaintiffs’ own numbers — have trickled off since then. A number of less significant, but noteworthy, reforms occurred between 2008 and 2010, including the centralization of the release process for the District’s inmates in the Records Office, the improvement of particular forms used by the DOC in the release process, and the institution of weekly audits of inmate-management data by the Records Office’s administrator. It is not surprising, given this absence of activity for well over a year followed by a gradual introduction of reforms in subsequent years of the class period, that the evidence shows a high number of overdetentions in the early part of the class period followed by a decline in the overdetention numbers in subsequent years. Plaintiffs’ numbers indicate thousands of overdetentions, particularly in the early years of the class period. Pis.’ Mem. [217-1] 3. Plaintiffs estimate that during the first year of the class period there were 3,092 overdetentions, and that another 1,902 occurred from September 2006 to February 2008. Pis.’ Ex. 192 [213-15] ¶ 17. These estimates are based upon an analysis performed by plaintiffs’ statistical expert. See Pis.’ Exs. 190, 192. His analysis took as its starting point a collection of data records from the DOC’s inmate-management program called the Jail and Community Corrections System, or “JACCS.” Pis.’ Ex. 190 ¶ 34. Using this JACCS data, plaintiffs’ expert generated an over-inclusive list of persons who were potentially overdetained during certain periods. Id. at ¶ 53. Then, a statistical method called “stratified random sampling” was used to estimate the number of overdetentions and overdetention hours during these periods. Id. at ¶ 58. In short, instead of physically inspecting every one of the many thousands of inmate files on the potential overdetentions list to confirm whether or not they were actual overdetentions, plaintiffs divided the list into groups, physically examined a random sample of files in each group, and then used those results to project an estimate of overdetentions across the whole population. Id. Plaintiffs do not have overdetention numbers more current than February 25, 2008. The District has no numbers at all that this Court can credit for the first 16 months of the class period. To account for the first year of the class period, the District provided a DOC report titled “Analysis of Releases between September 1, 2005 and August 31, 2006” which indicates that 444 “late releases” occurred. Def.’s Notice [244], Mar. 23, 2011, Attachment 1. While 444 is a lot of overdetentions in a year, it is significantly less than the 3,092 indicated by plaintiffs’ evidence for that same period. However, the District’s number is inscrutable because it cannot locate an attachment to that DOC report which contained the definition of “late release” used by the DOC to arrive at the report’s findings. Without that definition, it is impossible to determine whether what the DOC is calling a “late release” is consistent with the overdetention class definition or with plaintiffs’ overdetention definition. As already noted, the DOC didn’t begin tracking overdetentions in a systematic way until January 2007 — about 16 months into the class period. Def.’s Mem. [211] 25. DOC “discrepancy reports” provided to the Court by the District following the June 2011 hearing on the parties’ motions for summary judgment, which list individual overdetentions by month and note the reasons, show 302 overdetentions in 2007, 143 in 2008, 56 in 2009, 85 in 2010, and 22 in 2011 through the end of May. Def.’s Notice [302], Jun. 9, 2011. In contrast to the DOC’s “Analysis of Releases” report discussed above, the District did provide the definition of “overdetention” used to create these DOC discrepancy reports. The DOC listed as an overdetention “anyone released after 11:59 p.m. on the day they are ordered released, or alternatively, situations where the end of sentence calculation was computed incorrectly.” Souverain Decl. [301-2] ¶ 3. Clearly the District’s numbers for the period January 2007 forward show a significant drop in the number of overdetentions in recent years. Overdetentions appear to be occurring for a variety of reasons. The District suggests that human errors, the cause of many overdetentions, are inevitable in any complex system such as the DOC. The District emphasizes that four separate entities can authorize the release of an inmate from DOC custody, including the Superior Court, the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia, the U.S. Parole Commission, and the Federal Bureau of Prisons. Def.’s SMF [211-1] ¶4. The DOC processes between 15,000 and 17,000 releases each year — an average of between 41 and 47 each day. Id. at ¶ 2. As to specific reasons for particular overdetentions, some are caused by mistakes by the DOC calculating inmates’ jail sen-fences. Plaintiffs, summarizing a series of DOC reports, note that at least 79 overdetentions occurred during the class period because of sentence miscalculations. Pis.’ Ex. 902 ¶ 4. In ten of those cases misfiled or lost paperwork played a role. Id. At least 75 overdetentions resulted from a failure to calculate inmates’ sentences in a timely fashion, such that the release process could not be completed before the District’s 10 p.m. cutoff, resulting in over-detentions. Id. at ¶ 5. The District claims that some overdetentions were caused by factors “outside the control of the District,” including the failure of a federal authority, such as the Bureau of Prisons, to calculate an inmate’s sentence correctly. Def.’s Mem. [211] 27-28. The “10 p.m. cut-off’ rule appears to have resulted in a large number of overdetentions, at least according to plaintiffs. Analyzing and summarizing an “Audit Analysis” of thousands of potential over-detentions performed by the DOC during the first year of the class period, plaintiffs identified 1,244 overdetentions that the DOC itself said occurred because of the “10 p.m. cut-off’ rule. Pis.’ Ex. 99B [221— 9] ¶ 17. This indicates that between 3 and 4 persons were overdetained each day during the first year of the class period because of the District’s ordinance. The District disputes plaintiffs’ “10 p.m. cutoff’ number, citing its “Analysis of Releases” report as contrary evidence. Def.’s Resp. Pis.’ SMF [228-7] ¶ 200. But, as stated above, that DOC report doesn’t contain the definition of “late release” used by the DOC, making the District’s contrary numbers useless in terms of raising a genuine fact dispute. At least 124 persons were overdetained due to a lack of staff or a large volume of releases to be processed on a particular day. Pis.’ Ex. 99B [221-9] ¶ 30. At least 151 persons were overdetained due to “late paperwork.” Id. at ¶ 38. Problems transferring inmates, along with their paperwork, from the Correctional Treatment Facility to the DC Jail for release processing resulted in at least 68 overdetentions in the first year of the class period. Id. at ¶ 56. The named plaintiffs in this case — Carl Barnes, Dernard Hawkins, Toney Malloy, David Peterson, and Maurice Williams— are all former DOC inmates who claim that the DOC’s overdetention and strip-search problems remain widespread postBynum. Carl Barnes claims he was ordered released, strip searched, and then overdetained for at least 7 days. Pis.’ Ex. 5, Barnes Aff. 2. Dernard Hawkins claims that he was entitled to release by a court order, but nevertheless was strip searched and overdetained for 7 days. Pis.’ Ex. 18, Hawkins Aff. 2. David Peterson claims that he was held for 4 days after the expiration of his sentence. Pis.’ Ex. 3, Peterson Aff. 1. Maurice Williams claims he was ordered released, strip searched, and then held for 21 days. Pis.’ Ex. 4, Williams Aff. 2. Plaintiffs brought suit under 42 U.S.C. § 1983, alleging that their overdetentions violated the Fourth, Fifth, and Eighth Amendments, while the strip searches violated the Fourth and Fifth Amendments. Pis.’ Second Am. Compl. [12] ¶ 43, 44. Early on in the litigation, the District filed a Motion [14] to Dismiss, or, in the alternative, for Summary Judgment. Def.’s Mot. Dismiss [14], July 7, 2006. The Court denied the District’s motion. Barnes, 242 F.R.D. at 114. At that same time, the Court granted plaintiffs’ motion to certify two classes. The first is an “overdetention” class, defined as: Each person who has been, is, or in the future will be incarcerated in any District of Columbia Department of Corrections facility from September 1, 2005 forward; and who was not released, or, in the future, will not be released by midnight on the date on which the person is entitled to be released by court order or the date on which the basis for his or her detention has otherwise expired. Id. at 120. The second is a more complicated “strip search” class, defined as: Each person who was, or in the future will be, from September 1, 2005 forward: (i) in the custody of the Department of Corrections; (ii) taken to court from a Department of Corrections facility; (iii) ordered released by the court or otherwise became entitled to release by virtue of the court appearance because the charge on which he had been held was no longer pending or was dismissed at the hearing, was ordered released on his own recognizance, or had posted bail, was sentenced to time served, was acquitted or was otherwise entitled to release; (iv) was not the subject of any other pending cases or cases which imposed any condition of release other than personal recognizance; (v) was not the subject of any detainer or warrant; (vi) was returned from court to the DC Jail or CTF or other District facility, to be processed out of the Department of Corrections custody; and (vii) was subject to a strip search and/or visual body cavity search without any individualized finding of reasonable suspicion or probable cause that was concealing contraband or weapons; before being released, regardless of whether he was overdetained. Id. at 121. The Court later ordered that the case be bifurcated into liability and damages phases, with damages discovery to be conducted at a later time upon a further order of the Court. Order [65], Aug. 31, 2009. All liability phase discovery closed in January 2011. Soon after the parties filed motions for summary judgment. II. STANDARD OF REVIEW The Federal Rules of Civil Procedure state that “[t]he court shall grant summary judgment if the movant shows that there is no genuine dispute as to any material fact and the movant is entitled to judgment as a matter of law.” Fed. R.Civ.P. 56(a); Anderson v. Liberty Lobby, Inc., 477 U.S. 242, 247, 106 S.Ct. 2505, 91 L.Ed.2d 202 (1986). The standard requires more than the existence of some factual dispute: “the requirement is that there be no genuine issue of material fact.” Anderson, 477 U.S. at 247-48, 106 S.Ct. 2505 (1986) (emphasis in original). A fact is a material fact if, under the applicable law, it could affect the outcome of the case. Id. A dispute is a genuine dispute for summary judgment purposes if the “evidence is such that a reasonable jury could return a verdict for the nonmoving party.” Id. Also, because “[credibility determinations, the weighing of the evidence, and the drawing of legitimate inferences from the facts are jury functions, not those of a judge,” the “evidence of the nonmovant is to be believed, and all justifiable inferences are to be drawn in his favor.” Id. at 255, 106 S.Ct. 2505. A nonmoving party, however, must establish more than “the existence of a scintilla of evidence” in support of its position. Id. at 252, 106 S.Ct. 2505. In addition, the nonmoving party may not rely solely on allegations or conclusory statements. See Greene v. Dalton, 164 F.3d 671, 675 (D.C.Cir.1999). The nonmoving party must present specific facts that enable a reasonable jury to find in its favor. Id. If the evidence presented is “merely color-able, or is not significantly probative, summary judgment may be granted.” Anderson, 477 U.S. at 249-50, 106 S.Ct. 2505. III. ANALYSIS A. The Parties’ Motions for Summary Judgment Before the Court are plaintiffs’ Motion [217] for Summary Judgment and defendant’s Motion [211] for Summary Judgment. Plaintiffs, relying on expert analysis showing that the number of overdetentions have remained high throughout the class period, argue that the DOC and the District have continued to violate prisoners’ constitutional rights post-Bynum, and maintain that on a record of broken promises and stubborn inaction by the District, a reasonable jury could only find that the District has been deliberately indifferent to these issues, and is thus liable as a matter of law. In response and in support of its own motion, the District points to the falling number of overdetentions, the lack of any official policies that could cause overdetentions, and a number of reforms that have been enacted to argue that no reasonable jury could find that they have been indifferent to these issues, and thus the case must be dismissed. The Court will discuss these and other arguments in the context of each of the four remaining claims, which the Court shall address in turn. 1. Fourth Amendment violations for overdetentions Before examining whether the District is liable for any constitutional violations, plaintiffs must first demonstrate the existence of such violations in the first place. Collins v. City of Harker Heights, 503 U.S. 115, 120, 112 S.Ct. 1061, 117 L.Ed.2d 261 (1992). Plaintiffs bring a Fourth Amendment challenge to their overdetentions. The Fourth Amendment guarantees “[t]he right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures.” U.S. Const, amend. IV. Although neither party raised this argument in its papers, as is clear from the plain text of the Fourth Amendment, plaintiffs must show that their overdetentions constituted seizures of their persons to make out a violation of that amendment. See McCoy v. Harrison, 341 F.3d 600, 605 (7th Cir.2003). A “seizure” triggering the Fourth Amendment’s protections occurs when a person’s freedom of movement is terminated or restrained, either by physical force or a show of authority. Brendlin v. California, 551 U.S. 249, 254, 127 S.Ct. 2400, 168 L.Ed.2d 132 (2007). However, plaintiffs were already in custody at the time they were ordered released or their sentences expired. Their freedom of movement had already been terminated. See Goldhaber v. Higgins, 576 F.Supp.2d 694, 718 (W.D.Pa.2007); Ratigan v. Trogvac, No. 4:CV-08-1667, 2009 WL 648931, at *29 (M.D.Pa. Mar. 11, 2009). In addition, plaintiffs haven’t presented any facts suggesting that their overdetentions involved fresh “seizures” warranting a Fourth Amendment analysis. For these reasons, the Court will deny plaintiffs’ Motion for Summary judgment as to its claim that the overdetentions violated the Fourth Amendment, and will grant the District’s Motion for Summary Judgment as to that claim. 2. Fifth Amendment violations for overdetentions Plaintiffs also bring a Fifth Amendment challenge to their overdetentions. Plaintiffs argue that the DOC’s system for processing releases is outmoded, adding hours and often days to the release process, and thereby violating plaintiffs’ due process right to a “prompt” release. Pis.’ Mem. [217-1] 1-2. They claim that certain longstanding DOC practices, such as refusing to release an inmate until the Records Office receives the physical, signed court order, Def.’s Opp’n Pis.’ SMF [228-7] ¶ 328, and operation of a “split” inmate management system where the DOC’s and Superior Court’s computers cannot share information electronically, invite overdetentions. Pis.’ Mem. [217] 15-16. Plaintiffs ask the Court to impose a “bright line time limit” on the DOC’s release process, based upon evidence indicating that the DOC’s release process by itself takes no longer than 2.5 hours to complete. Id. at 15. The District focuses its argument on its contention that plaintiffs cannot show, as a matter of law, that the overdetentions were the result of either a municipal policy or practice or the District’s deliberate indifference, and that therefore plaintiffs cannot show that the District is liable under the Supreme Court’s framework for Section 1983 municipal liability as laid out in Monell v. Dep’t of Soc. Servs., 436 U.S. 658, 98 S.Ct. 2018, 56 L.Ed.2d 611 (1978). Def.’s Mem. [211] 10-11. The District claims that “proactive efforts” by the DOC post-Bynum have led to a dramatic reduction in the number of overdetentions, and that its very adoption of those practices “run[s] counter to any conceivable finding of deliberate indifference.” Id. at 13. To challenge plaintiffs’ contention that the DOC’s release procedures are problematic, the District offers the testimony of a correctional expert, who opines that the DOC’s release process is “effective and efficient, appropriately staffed, and indeed meets best practices.” Def.’s Ex. 6 at 5. a. Legal standard The Fifth Amendment states that “[n]o person ... shall be ... deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law....” U.S. Const, amend. V. Ordinarily claims of due process violations by State officials are analyzed under the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, which applies to the States. Butera v. District of Columbia, 235 F.3d 637, 646 n. 7 (D.C.Cir.2001). While the District of Columbia is not a state, it is subject to the almost identical provisions of the Fifth Amendment. Id. (citing Bolling v. Sharpe, 347 U.S. 497, 499, 74 S.Ct. 693, 98 L.Ed. 884 (1954)). Overdetentions potentially violate the substantive component of the Due Process Clause by infringing upon an individual’s basic liberty interest in being free from incarceration absent a criminal conviction. See Oviatt, 954 F.2d at 1474. This liberty interest is deeply rooted: “[fjreedom from bodily restraint has always been at the core of the liberty protected by the Due Process Clause from arbitrary governmental action.” Foucha v. Louisiana, 504 U.S. 71, 80, 112 S.Ct. 1780, 118 L.Ed.2d 437 (1992). Even if an inmate’s initial confinement was justified by a constitutionally adequate basis, that confinement cannot constitutionally continue once that basis no longer exists. See id. at 757,107 S.Ct. 2095. Temporarily retaining custody over an inmate who is entitled to release in order to accomplish administrative tasks incident to that release is not per se unconstitutional. Lewis v. O’Grady, 853 F.2d 1366, 1370 (7th Cir.1988) (“We recognize that the administrative tasks incident to a release of a prisoner may require some time to accomplish — in this case perhaps a number of hours.”). However, courts recognize that inmates’ due process rights may be violated if they are not released within a reasonable time after the reasons for their detentions have ended. Brass v. County of Los Angeles, 328 F.3d 1192, 1200 (9th Cir.2003); Golberg v. Hennepin County, 417 F.3d 808, 811 (8th Cir.2005). Courts have declined to adopt a bright-line rule for the maximum permissible delay in the overdetention context. Berry v. Baca, 379 F.3d 764, 771 (9th Cir.2004). This contrasts ’ with the Supreme Court’s approach, in the Fourth Amendment context, to detentions pending probable cause determinations after warrantless arrests, where the Court adopted a 48-hour rule. County of Riverside v. McLaughlin, 500 U.S. 44, 56, 111 S.Ct. 1661, 114 L.Ed.2d 49 (1991). In McLaughlin, the Court recognized that States “have a strong interest in protecting public safety by taking into custody those persons who are reasonably suspected of having engaged in criminal activity, even where there has been no opportunity for a prior judicial determination of probable cause.” Id. at 53, 111 S.Ct. 1661. On the other hand, the consequences of prolonged detention for the arrestee can be severe, potentially imperiling his or her job, source of income, and family relationships. Id. In the overdetention context, the potential consequences for overdetained inmates are similar, while the societal interests involved are very different. Here, there has already been a judicial determination that the inmate is entitled to freedom from imprisonment. In the eyes of the law, this person is no longer a prisoner. Sullivan v. County of Los Angeles, 12 Cal.3d 710, 117 Cal.Rptr. 241, 527 P.2d 865, 868 (1974). As a result, the jail has every reason to believe that the person’s continued detention is unlawful and no reason to believe that some other basis for the detention— for example, a warrant or detainer in a separate matter — exists, other than the fact that this person is being held by a correctional institution and at one point was legitimately incarcerated. While society has an interest in preventing the release of an inmate when an alternative basis for his confinement exists, and in administrative tasks aimed at preventing such releases, these interests are simply not as weighty as the interests involved in the probable cause context, where the individual who is subjected to administrative delays is personally suspected of criminal activity. Furthermore, the “administrative burden of accelerating the release process — in particular, running a computer check on wants and holds within less than forty-eight hours — does not seem as weighty as the burden of establishing probable cause under a tight timeline.” Berry, 379 F.3d at 772. This burden is even further reduced given that many, if not most, of the administrative tasks incident to an inmate’s release can be undertaken prior to the expiration of a sentence or before a jail’s receipt of a paper court order authorizing release — unlike in the probable cause context, where all of the administrative tasks must necessarily follow the detainee’s arrest. In recognition of these facts, courts appear to agree that the maximum permissible administrative delay in the overdetention context likely falls well short of the 48-hour horizon set out in McLaughlin. Berry, 379 F.3d at 771-72; Brass v. County of Los Angeles, 328 F.3d 1192, 1202 (9th Cir.2003). “[E]ven a thirty-minute detention after being ordered released could work a violation of a prisoner’s constitutional rights under the Fourteenth Amendment.” Davis v. Hall, 375 F.3d 703, 713 (8th Cir.2004). The Eighth Circuit has held that once a judge orders the release of a prisoner, any continued detention unlawfully deprives the prisoner of his liberty because “the state has lost its lawful authority” to hold him. Slone v. Herman, 983 F.2d 107, 110 (8th Cir.1993). Given that plaintiffs’ overdetention claims are brought under the substantive component of the Due Process Clause, to show a violation of their constitutional rights, they must demonstrate that the DOC’s conduct either interferes with rights “implicit in the concept of ordered liberty,” U.S. v. Salerno, 481 U.S. 739, 746, 107 S.Ct. 2095, 95 L.Ed.2d 697 (1987), or was “so egregious, so outrageous, that it may fairly be said to shock the contemporary conscience.” County of Sacramento v. Lewis, 523 U.S. 833, 847 n. 8, 118 S.Ct. 1708, 140 L.Ed.2d 1043 (1998); Cohen v. District of Columbia, 744 F.Supp.2d 236, 243 (D.D.C.2010). In the prison setting, where forethought about the welfare of inmates “is not only feasible but obligatory under a regime that incapacitates a prisoner to exercise ordinary responsibility for his own welfare,” “deliberate indifference can rise to a constitutionally shocking level....” Lewis, 523 U.S. at 851, 852, 118 S.Ct. 1708. The central question is whether the DOC’s conduct manifested deliberate indifference to plaintiffs’ and the class members’ constitutional rights. See Golberg v. Hennepin County, 417 F.3d 808, 811 (8th Cir.2005). Courts evaluating due process claims involving overdetentions have found various factors relevant to the analysis, including the delays associated with necessary administrative procedures, the total number of persons overdetained during the period, the rate of overdetentions given the total number of releases processed, and the duration of individual overdetentions. See Golberg, 417 F.3d at 812; Berry v. Baca, 379 F.3d 764, 769 (9th Cir.2004). i. Overdetentions caused by the DOC’s enforcement of the District’s “10 p.m. cut-off’ ordinance Plaintiffs argue that the due process rights of certain overdetained class members were violated as a direct result of the District’s “10 p.m. cut-off’ ordinance, calling the ordinance an “over-detention-making machine.” Pis.’ Mem. [217-1] 47. Plaintiffs have offered evidence showing that during just the first year of the class period, over a thousand persons were overdetained because of the DOC’s enforcement of that ordinance. Pis.’ Ex. 99B at ¶ 17. Overdetentions resulting from enforcement of the ordinance occurred throughout the class period, even according to the District’s evidence, Def.’s Notice [302], Jun. 9, 2011, until roughly March 2009, when the DOC ceased enforcement of it on the advice of the District’s Attorney General. Def.’s Ex. 1 at ¶ 43. The District refers only once to the “10 p.m. cut-off’ rule in its Memorandum, in the context of its discussion of the DOC’s strip search policy. Def.’s Mem. [211] 32. In its Memorandum in Opposition, the District argues that the ordinance’s requirement of mandatory overnight detentions for inmates whose releases could not be processed by the DOC by 10 p.m. is “neither unusual nor unreasonable.” Def.’s Mem. Opp’n Pis.’ Mot. Summ. J. [228] 24. The District cites for this proposition Holder v. Town of Newton, No. 08-cv-197-JL, 2010 WL 432357 (D.N.H. Feb. 3, 2010), which concerned a challenge to the detention of a person who was arrested late at night without a warrant. Id. at *1. Instead of being given an immediate bail hearing, Holder was held overnight at the county jail, which was located “in a rural area with dark roads and no taxi service at night.” Id. at *2. Holder, however, is clearly distinguishable from the facts of this case because not only did that detention involve an arrestee who was first arrested late at night and who did not acquire a release order from a court that evening, but the jail to which he was transported was a rural jail with no taxi service. In addition, the court in Holder specifically noted that if Holder could prove that “the bail commissioner ordered his release on the night of his arrest, but ... the county jail nevertheless continued to detain him until the next morning,” “he might be able to show a due process violation under the Fourteenth Amendment.” Id. at *10. In this case, unlike Holder, the District’s “10 p.m. cut-off’ rule operated to detain overnight individuals who already possessed court orders for release. Furthermore, given the urban location of the DC Jail and Correctional Treatment Facility— each very short walks from two subway stations and with access to taxi service— the Holder case provides no support for the District’s contention that the “10 p.m. cut-off’ rule is neither “unusual nor unreasonable.” In fact, the District’s ordinance was both unusual and unreasonable to the extent that it categorically prohibited releases after 10 p.m. The District has provided literally no examples of other urban jails that apply such a policy with inmates entitled to release by court order or otherwise. Nor has the District offered evidence suggesting that overdetentions caused by the DOC’s enforcement of the District’s “10 p.m. cut-off’ rule were the result of necessary administrative tasks or other reasonable delays. See Lewis v. O’Grady, 853 F.2d 1366, 1370 (7th Cir.1988) (accepting that delays in the release of inmates of some number of hours are permissible to perform administrative tasks). Indeed, the “10 p.m. cut-off’ rule categorically prohibited the release of a person with a court order entitling him to release, even if that release process was completed at 10:01 p.m. While the District contends that the rule was for inmates’ benefit, Def.’s Opp’n Pis.’ Mot. Summ. J. [228] 24, the District could have — and has, in later amendments to the ordinance — promoted this interest in inmate welfare while simultaneously respecting the entitlement of persons with court orders for release to a prompt release. The District’s interest in the welfare of former inmates, who must be released after 10 p.m. because of delays in the DOC’s release process, must not be permitted to completely overwhelm their basic right to be free from incarceration when there exists no legal basis whatsoever for the continued deprivation of their liberty. Once the basis for the person’s continued incarceration is gone, the District’s authority to simply continue holding them in prison — even to promote the District’s own sense of what’s good for them— is gone as well. The District’s legislative behavior is truly irrational in that the District had just been sued, in this very Court, the year before it enacted a rule that mandates overdetentions when the DOC — as was often the case — had failed to process inmates’ releases in a timely fashion. The District’s legislative act is therefore not only shocking to this Court, but has interfered with the fundamental liberty interests of class members overdetained on account of that ordinance. Therefore the Court concludes that the DOC’s enforcement of the District’s “10 p.m. cut-off’ rule violated the due process rights of class members who were overdetained, during all parts of the class period, because of that rule. ii. Overdetentions from September 1, 2005 to December 31, 2006 The Court will now consider whether the overdetentions that occurred during the first 16 months of the class period violated class members’ Fifth Amendment rights. Looking at the evidence, it is undisputed that the DOC’s release process should take from 2 to 2.5 hours to complete. Simmons Dep. [228-2] 164:15-22; Def.’s Response Pls.’s SMF [228-7] ¶ 87. Given the dozens of administrative steps involved in the DOC’s release process, the Court does not find it surprising that the process should take that long. However, according to plaintiffs, the DOC’s release process is both faulty and inefficiently implemented, frequently resulting in large numbers of overdetentions and significant delays beyond 2.5 hours. At least for the first 16 months of the class period, plaintiffs’ view is confirmed by the facts. In the case of the named plaintiffs, they show overdetentions ranging from 4 to 21 days. The District has not put forth any evidence disputing these individual overdetentions. Nor do they appear to be outliers. Plaintiffs have put forth evidence that, for the first 16 months of the class period, the DOC overdetained inmates in its custody on a routine basis and on an alarming scale. From September 1, 2005 until August 31, 2006 — the first year of the class period — there were 3,092 overdetentions. Pis.’ Ex. 192 [213-15] ¶ 17. Taking the District’s numbers indicating that it processes between 15,000 and 17,000 releases each year, Def.’s SMF [211-1] ¶ 2, the DOC was overdetaining about one out of every five inmates it processed for release. Dividing the number of overdetention hours found by the plaintiffs for that period (111,964) by the number of overdetentions (3,092) shows that on average these overdetained individuals spent an extra 36 hours at the DC Jail — more than 10 times longer than the release process is supposed to take. As stated above, the District’s only evidence contradicting plaintiffs’ overdetention numbers for this period — a DOC report titled “Analysis of Releases” — doesn’t raise a genuine issue of fact because that report fails to indicate what overdetention definition was used to create it. As such it is a conclusory allegation that the plaintiffs’ numbers for the first year of the class period are wrong, and nothing more. And the District has no overdetention figures at all for the 4 months following August 31, 2006. This roiling overdetention problem at the DOC during the first 16 months of the class period is all the more shocking when the Court considers that the DOC and the District were on notice, via the Bynum litigation, that the prevailing release practices were deeply inadequate, and that fundamental change was needed. The Court would have expected, given that lawsuit, a concerted effort on the part of the District and the DOC to identify and eliminate every major contributing factor to the overdetention problem. But that’s not what happened. Even when the facts are viewed in the light most favorable to the District, the DOC’s first meaningful change to the status quo didn’t come until July 2008, when it instituted the courthouse release program, permitting a subset of inmates to be released directly from the Superior Court. Both parties agree that this was a significant step toward reducing the number and duration of over-detentions. The District’s only evidence of steps taken during the first 16 months of the class period — an affidavit from former DOC Director Devon Brown, stating that the DOC assumed the responsibility for inmate court-to-jail transportation from the U.S. Marshals in 2005, Def.’s Ex. 1 at ¶ 33 — cannot be credited because Mr. Brown lacks personal knowledge of events prior to his assuming that position in January 2006. Id. at ¶ 2. Other major changes — such as the completion of the Inmate Processing Center, a move to a paperless system to process releases rather than a dogged insistence on releasing inmates only upon receipt of paper court orders, or simply permitting releases based upon faxed (or, to be even more futuristic, scanned and emailed) court orders — were either rejected by the DOC or remain, to this day, caught in a whirlpool of delays. In the meantime, free men and women were treated as prisoners, hoping the DOC’s paper-bound and Byzantine release process would favor them with an on-time release. This Court’s alarm at the DOC’s lack of urgency in responding to this disturbing pattern of overdetentions despite the notice provided by the Bynum litigation is further enhanced by the fact that this case deals with prisoners, outcasts in society. The full brunt of the harm for the DOC’s refusal to get its act together falls, not on District employees or influential citizens, but exclusively upon persons with little voice, who are shut away from public view. It is for these reasons that the Court finds that the DOC’s treatment of inmates entitled to release during the first 16 months of the class period is not merely alarming, and deliberately indifferent, but conscience-shocking. Therefore the Court finds that with respect to overdetentions during the first 16 months of the class period — September 1, 2005 to December 31, 2006 — the DOC violated the due process rights of the plaintiffs and the members of the overdetention class who were overdetained during that period by not releasing them by midnight on the day that they were entitled to release. No reasonable juror could find otherwise. Hi. Overdetentions from January 1, 2007 to February 25, 2008 However, for the period January 1, 2007 to February 25, 2008, the Court finds that there exists a genuine issue of material fact as to the number of overdetentions, precluding a finding of summary judgment for plaintiffs or the District as to that period. The District has produced its own overdetention figures from January 2007 to the present, which, if taken as true, suggest that the DOC has significantly reduced the number of overdetentions in the most recent years of the class period. See Def.’s Notice [302], Jun. 9, 2011. A reasonable jury, if it believes the District’s numbers, could find that the DOC has addressed the problems resulting in over-detentions on a routine basis. On the other hand, if the jury believes plaintiffs numbers, it could reasonably conclude that the number of overdetentions during that period — nearly 2,000 for the period September 2006 to February 2008, Pis.’ Mem. [217-1] 3; Pis.’ Ex. 192 [213-15] ¶ 17— indicate that the DOC was deliberately indifferent to the overdetention problem despite the District’s proffer of steps taken during that period to address the overdetention problem. In short, these factual disputes preclude a finding of summary judgment for plaintiffs or for the District as to due process violations for the overdetentions that occurred from January 1, 2007 to February 25, 2008. Therefore the Court will deny plaintiffs’ Motion for Summary Judgment as to its claim that overdetentions from January 1, 2007 to February 25, 2008 violate the Fifth Amendment, and will deny the District’s Motion for Summary Judgment as to that same period. iv. Overdetentions from February 26, 2008 to the present Plaintiffs have produced no evidence indicating the number of overdetentions that have occurred after February 25, 2008. See Pis.’ Ex. 192 [213-15] at B-1. Therefore the Court must consider as undisputed the District’s overdetention figures for the period February 26, 2008 to the present. These figures show only 121 overdetentions from March 2008 through the end of the year, 56 during all of 2009, 85 in 2010, and 22 in 2011 through the end of May. (D.’s Notice [302], Jun. 9, 2011). The District’s overdetention figures for this period, taking into account the number of releases processed by the DOC each year (15,000-17,000), show an overdetention rate that has been found acceptable in other courts that have considered overdetention problems at municipal jails. See Mortimer v. Baca, 478 F.Supp.2d 1171, 1179 (C.D.Cal.2007), aff'd, 594 F.3d 714 (9th Cir.2010); Avalos v. Baca, 596 F.3d 583, 588 n. 4 (9th Cir.2010). The significant reduction in the number of overdetentions as of February 2008, alongside the District’s implementation in 2008 of measures that even plaintiffs concede have “solved” much of the overdetention problem, leads this Court to the conclusion that the DOC, from February 2008 forward, could not reasonably be found to have been deliberately indifferent to the due process rights of overdetention class members during this period. No reasonable jury, considering these facts, could conclude that the DOC was aware of, but chose to do nothing about, the overdetention problem during this period. Therefore the Court will deny plaintiffs’ Motion for Summary Judgment with respect to overdetentions that occurred from February 26, 2008 forward, and will grant defendants’ Motion for Summary Judgment with respect to the same period. b. The District’s liability To summarize the above conclusions, the Court has determined, as a matter of law, that class members whose overdetentions were caused by the DOC’s enforcement of the District’s “10 p.m. cut-off’ rule have made out a violation of the Fifth Amendment. Furthermore, the plaintiffs’ and class members’ due process rights were violated for the period September 1, 2005 to December 31, 2006. The Court has found genuine issues of material fact precluding a finding of due process violations for overdetentions that occurred from January 1, 2007 to February 25, 2008. Finally, the Court has found, as a matter of law, that for the period February 26, 2008 to the present, Plaintiffs have failed to show a predicate constitutional violation. The Court will now consider the question of the District’s liability for the remaining periods: the period September 1, 2005 to December 31, 2006, and the period January 1, 2007 to February 25, 2008. The Court will also consider the District’s liability for due process violations that occurred throughout the class period as a result of its “10 p.m. cut-off’ rule. Plaintiffs’ overdetention and strip search claims are brought under Section 1983 of the Civil Rights Act of' 1871, which creates liability for “[e]very person who, under color of any statute, ordinance, regulation, custom, or usage, of any State or Territory or the District of Columbia, subjects, or causes to be subjected, any citizen of the United States or other person within the jurisdiction thereof to the deprivation of any rights, privileges, or immunities secured by the Constitution and laws.” 42 U.S.C. § 1983. Local governing bodies, such as the District of the Columbia, can be sued under Section 1983 when “the action that is alleged to be unconstitutional implements or executes a policy statement, ordinance, regulation, or decision officially adopted and promulgated by that body’s officers.” Monell v. Dep’t of Soc. Servs., 436 U.S. 658, 690, 98 S.Ct. 2018, 56 L.Ed.2d 611 (1978). “[T]he touchstone of the § 1983 action against a government body is an allegation that official policy is responsible for a deprivation of rights protected by the Constitution.” Id. However, “local governments ... may be sued for constitutional deprivations visited pursuant to governmental ‘custom’ even though such a custom has not received formal approval through the body’s official decisionmaking channels.” Id. There are several different ways that a plaintiff can demonstrate that a city is liable via Section 1983. The plaintiff can show (1) “the explicit setting of a policy by the government that violates the Constitution,” (2) “the action of a policy maker within the government,” (3) “the adoption through a knowing failure to act by a policy maker of actions by his subordinates that are so consistent that they have become ‘custom,’ ” or (4) “the failure of the government to respond to a need ... in such a manner as to show ‘deliberate indifference’ to the risk that not addressing the need will result in constitutional violations.” Baker v. District of Columbia, 326 F.3d 1302, 1306 (D.C.Cir.2003). i. The District’s liability for overdetentions caused by the DOC’s enforcement of the District’s “10 p.m. cut-off” rule The District's "10 p.m. cut-off' rule directly implicates the District’s government in the overdetention problem. That rule, although not enforced since March 2009, is clearly an example of an “express municipal policy” that could lead to Section 1983 liability for the District, whether or not the Distinct was “deliberately indifferent” to the overdetention problem. Section 1983 creates liability for a local government when “the action that is alleged to be unconstitutional implements or executes a[n] ... ordinance ... officially adopted and promulgated by that body’s officers.” Monell, 436 U.S. at 690, 98 S.Ct. 2018. “[E]ven a single decision by a [legislative body] unquestionably constitutes an act of official government policy.” Pembaur v. City of Cincinnati, 475 U.S. 469, 480, 106 S.Ct. 1292, 89 L.Ed.2d 452 (1986). Overdetentions caused by the District’s ordinance are clearly constitutional violations executed in accordance with District policy officially adopted and promulgated by the Council. See Monell, 436 U.S. at 690, 98 S.Ct. 2018. The District has failed to offer any argument contradicting this conclusion. Consequently, as to overdetentions that occurred at any time during the class period that were caused by the DOC’s enforcement of that ordinance, plaintiffs are entitled to summary judgment as to the District’s liability. Therefore the Court will grant plaintiffs’ Motion for Summary Judgment as to the District’s liability for any overdetentions that occurred during the class period that were caused by the DOC’s enforcement of the District’s “10 p.m. cut-off’ rule, and will deny the District’s Motion for Summary Judgment with respect to those particular overdetentions. ii. The District’s liability for overdetentions from September 1, 2005 to December 31, 2006 To show that the District is liable for due process violations during this period, plaintiffs must show that these violations were caused by a policy or custom of the District. Monell, 436 U.S. at 690, 98 S.Ct. 2018. Plaintiffs’ primary argument, repeated throughout its Memorandum in Support of its Motion for Summary Judgment, for why the District is liable for the overdetention problems at the DOC is that they were caused by the District’s deliberate indifference. In fact, both parties focus their efforts on this one basis for municipal liability in their motions and supporting documents. However, plaintiffs also claim, as a separate basis for Section 1983 liability, that the overdetention problem is the result of official “acquiescence in a longstanding practice or custom which constitutes the ‘standard operating procedure’ of the local government entity.” Pis.’ Mem. [217-1] 49 (quoting Jett v. Dallas Indep. Sch. Dist., 491 U.S. 701, 737, 109 S.Ct. 2702, 105 L.Ed.2d 598 (1989)). To show that the District had a deliberately indifferent policy or custom with respect to overdetention problems at the DOC, plaintiffs must demonstrate that the District failed to respond to a need in a manner that “amounts to ‘deliberate indifference’ towards the constitutional rights of persons in its domain.” Daskalea v. District of Columbia, 227 F.3d 433, 441 (D.C.Cir.2000). Plaintiffs do not have to show that the District subjectively knew about the overdetention problem: the question is whether “the [District] knew or should have known of the risk of constitutional violations, an objective standard.” Baker, 326 F.3d at 1307. Deliberate indifference means that, “faced with actual or constructive knowledge that its agents will probably violate constitutional rights, the city may not adopt a policy of inaction.” Warren v. District of Columbia, 353 F.3d 36, 39 (D.C.Cir.2004). Plaintiffs’ argument for the District’s deliberate indifference rests primarily on the following contentions: that the District was on notice as early as 2002, via the Bynum litigation, that the DOC had a serious overdetention problem; that the District failed to intervene in any significant way to respond to that problem; that when the District did turn to the DOC’s release process, in the form of the “10 p.m. cut-off’ rule in 2003, its actions in fact greatly exacerbated the overdetention problem; and that if the District were anything other than deliberately indifferent to the overdetention problem, the disturbing pattern of thousands of overdetentions during the class period would not show up in the evidence. There is no dispute that the District was aware, or at least should have been aware, of overdetention problems at i