Alfa International Seafood v. Ross (264 F. Supp. 3d 23, 2017)

United States District Court for the District of Columbia 2017-08-28

Conservation Food and Drugs Public Printing and Documents Government Organization and Employees

Citations

Full opinion text

MEMORANDUM OPINION

Amit P. Mehta, United States District Judge

“One fish two fish red fish blue fish. Black fish blue fish old fish new fish....

Say! what a lot of fish there are.”

—Dr. Seuss, One Fish Two Fish Bed Fish Blue Fish (1960)

I. INTRODUCTION

■ It turns out that there are a -lot more fish in the sea than even Dr. Seuss imagined. So many, in fact, that countries, including the United States, historically have had difficulty keeping track of the seafood that crosses their borders. This is increasingly problematic, as the United States consumes billions of pounds of seafood every- year and, as many U.S. consumers may be surprised to learn, more than 90% of that seafood is imported. Thus, the vast majority of seafood consumed ¿ach year in the United States either originates from waters far from home or is caught locally but passes through a foreign processing and distribution chain; Take, for example, a catch of king crab harvested off the'coast of Alaska. That crab may be sent from Alaska to South Korea or China for processing and packaging. The packaged crab meat, in turn,-is exported from Asia across the Pacific to the United States, to be combined with other ingredients into a crab cake, eaten by someone with little appreciation for the peripatetic journey that produced her meal. This multistage, multinational process means that the worldwide marketplace for séafood is big business. The United States alone imports more than $10 billion in seafood every year. ,

The complexity of this catch-to-table distribution chain, however, is rife with vulnerabilities. It is well documented that, at eách stage, opportunists seek to game the system, largely by circumventing laws or norms that regulate the manner in which the world seafood market operates. Such activities—known as “illegal, unreported, and unregulated” (“IUU”) fishing and “seafood fraud”—have had profound 'global and domestic economic and noneconomic consequences.

This case is about a U.S. federal government regulation, known as the “Seafood Import Monitoring Program” (the “Rule”), which aims to address the problem of IUU fishing and seafood fraud. Promulgated by the Department of Commerce (the “Department”) through its sub-agency, the National Marine Fisheries Service,' the Rule’s purpose is to protect U.S.-based fisheries and fishermen from unfair competition, as well as increase global food security and promote the sustainability of marine resources. Staffing on January 1, 2018, the Rule will require U.S.-based importers of seafood to collect information about each stage of the supply chain for certain types of seafood imported into the United States, starting from- the catch’s point of origin until its arrival to our shores. Importers also will have to identify the seafood species entering the United States, as well as obtain a permit from the Department to continue importing seafood into the United States. The agency anticipates that these requirements will increase the expense of importing seafood and, ultimately, may increase the cost of seafood to the consumer.

This case presents a challenge to the Rule. Plaintiffs include several U.S.-based seafood importers, processors, and harvesters who claim that the Department violated federal law in promulgating the Rule and that businesses will be harmed as a result. In broad strokes, Plaintiffs posit that the Department acted without proper authority, under both the relevant statutes and the Constitution, by issuing an overly expansive and highly burdensome regulatory regime and relying on insufficient evidence to do so. Specifically, Plaintiffs maintain that (1) the Rule was not issued by someone with either the statutory or constitutional authority to do so; (2) the Department acted outside its authority,under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (“MSA”), Pub. L. No. 94-266 (codified as amended at 16 U.S.C. §§ 1801-1891), in issuing regulations aimed at seafood fraud; (3) the Rule was promulgated in violation of the Administrative Procedure Act (“APA”), 5 U.S.C. § 551 et seq,, because it is based on undisclosed or insufficient supporting information; and (4) the Department failed to properly complete a Regulatory Flexibility Analysis concerning the Rule’s effect on small businesses, as required under the Regulatory Flexibility Act, 5 U.S.C. §§ 601-611. Plaintiffs urge the court to invalidate the Rule.

Before the court are the parties’ cross-motions for summary judgment. Having given careful consideration to the parties’ arguments and closely reviewed the extensive administrative record, the court finds that (1) the Rule’s issuance did not run afoul of the MSA, and the current Secretary of Commerce validly ratified the Rule, thereby curing any alleged constitutional defect in the Rule’s promulgation; (2) Congress granted the Department authority to issue regulations to combat seafood fraud, and the Department did not encroach upon another agency’s exclusive jurisdiction by so doing; (3) the Rule does not violate either the procedural or substantive requirements of thé APA; and (4) the Department did not transgress the requirements of the Regulatory Flexibility Act. Accordingly, the court denies Plaintiffs’ Motion for Summary Judgment and grants Defendants’ Cross-Motions for Summary Judgment.

II. BACKGROUND

A. Factual Background

1, Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated Fishing and Seafood Fraud '

“Illegal, unreported and unregulated” (“IUU”) fishing encompasses a broad range of illicit conduct. It includes (1) fishing in violation of national, regional, or international laws and regulations (“illegal”); (2) failing to report or misreporting fishing activities to proper authorities when required (“unreported”); and (3) fishing in areas or for fish stocks for which management measures are lacking (“unregulated”). See Admin. Rec., ECF Nos. 71-74, 77, 79 [hereinafter A.R.], at 013102.

IUU fishing has had tremendous economic, environmental, and health impacts. IUU-caught fish have flooded markets worldwide and eroded the profits of legitimate fishermen by undercutting their prices. Id. at 000001. One study, for instance, estimates that IUU fishing causes' annual worldwide economic losses between $10 billion and $23.5 billion. Id. at 000357. Another study found that between 20% and 32% of wild-caught seafood imported into the United States originates from IUU fishing, with an estimated value between $1.3 billion and $2.1 billion. Id. at 000360. IUU fishing also has environmental impacts. Illegal fishing often violates internationally established conservation and management measures, which in turn has adverse impacts on fisheries, marine ecosystems, and coastal communities worldwide. Id. at 013102-03. Finally, IUU fishing operations are unlikely to observe seafood health regulations, thereby passing health risks along to consumers. Id. at 013103. The scourge of IUU fishing is thus a problem of global concern.

A related problem to IUU fishing is “seafood fraud.” Generally speaking, seafood fraud is the practice of misleading consumers about the type or origin of seafood. Id. The most prominent seafood fraud practices are “species substitution”—i.e., falsely representing the type of fish being sold—and mislabeling—i.e., misrepresenting the seafood’s country of origin. Id. As a result of such behavior, for instance, consumers who purchase “wild-caught” salmon may actually be getting farm-raised salmon. Worse yet, a consumer who bites into a tuna sandwich may not be eating tuna at all, but instead, escolar, which is a less expensive species of fish potentially harmful to human health. Id. at 002459. Thus, seafood fraud not only denies the consumer the right to know what she is eating, but also can present latent health risks.

2. The IUU Task Force

To address these concerns, on June 17, 2014, President Obama established by Executive Order a “Presidential Task Force on Combating Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated Fishing and Seafood Fraud” (the “IUU Task Force” or “the Task Force”). See id. at 000001-04. The President established the IUU Task Force as a subcommittee reporting to the National Ocean Council and designated as its co-chairs the Secretaries of Commerce and State, or their designees. Representatives from 12 other federal agencies served as Task Force members. The President charged the Task Force with developing a comprehensive scheme to “combat IUU fishing and seafood fraud” by “implement[ing] existing programs, and, if appropriate, developing] ... new, voluntary or other, programs for seafood tracking and traceability.” Id. at 000002. The President directed the Task Force to make, within 180 days, “recommendations for the implementation of a comprehensive framework of integrated programs to combat IUU fishing and seafood fraud that emphasizes areas of greatest need.” Id.

The Task Force commenced its work immediately. It initiated a public process to solicit information and advice on recommendations to combat IUU fishing and seafood fraud. Id. at 013107. That process included inviting public comment through a notice in the Federal Register, holding public meetings, and hosting webinars. Id. The Task Force also analyzed the federal government’s existing enforcement authority with respect to IUU fishing and seafood fraud, including gaps in such authority, and examined areas for improved coordination among federal agencies. Id.

Six months later, in December 2014, the Task Force made 15 recommendations to the President for “the implementation of a comprehensive framework of integrated programs to combat IUU fishing and seafood fraud that emphasizes areas of greatest need.” Id, at 002665-69. Among the Task Force’s key recommendations was the creation of a seafood “traceability” program, under which seafood importers would be required to submit information documenting each link in the supply chain of the seafood they import, the first phase of which would apply to species with either a well-documented history of seafood iraud or a significant risk profile for IUU fishing. Id. at 002668-69. The Task Force determined that increasing transparency-in the supply chain would enable authorities to more effectively prevent illegally caught or misrepresented seafood from entering the supply chain and the U.S. market. This increased scrutiny, in turn, would reduce the incentives to engage in IUU fishing over time. Additionally, by reducing the amount of illegally caught seafood in the U.S. market, domestic fishermen would be able to compete on a level playing field and reap the attendant financial benefits. And, of course, reducing IUU fishing also would have positive environmental benefits, such as protecting overf-ished species and safeguarding sensitive marine ecosystems. Id. at 002670-73, 014046.

After seeking public comment, the IUÜ Task Force published an Action Plan to implement its 16 recommendations. Id. at 002666, 004465, 013102-40. The Action Plan identified the types of data that would need to be collected and set forth an implementation timeline, including for the traceability program, whereby certain “at risk,” or “priority,” species would be subject to the Rule’s information collection requirements before othér species. Id. at 006908, 013136-37. The Action Plan anticipated that, following a period of notice and comment, the final Rule would issue by August 2016 and become effective by September 2016. Id. at 013136.

3. The Department’s- Notice-and-Comment Rulemaking

Following publication of the Action Plan, the Task Force’s efforts continued under the direction of the National Ocean Council Committee on IUU Fishing and Seafood Fraud. Id. at 004465. That Committee, in turn, commissioned a Working Group, led by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and comprised of representatives from-the Departments of State and Homeland Security, the Food and Drug Administration, Customs and Border Protection, and the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative (collectively, the “Working Group”), to design and implement regulations to effectuate the Task Force’s Action Plan. Id. The Working Group acted under the auspices of the National Marine Fisheries Service, a sub-agency ■ within the Department of Commerce. For ease of reference, the court will refer to the various agencies, sub-agencies, and committees that worked on the Rule simply as the “Department,” except where greater specificity is needed for the court’s analysis.

Before issuing the Final Rule, the Department published multiple notices in the Federal Register. Id. First, in April 2015, the Department published a Notice calling for public comment on the principles it ought to use in developing the list of “priority” species to which the Rule would first apply. Id. at 002674-75. In July 2015, the Department published a second Notice soliciting public comment on the type of information and documentation the traceability program should collect. Id. at 003129. In August 2015, after receiving a substantial number of public comments in response to its earlier notices, the Department published a third Notice that contained seven principles for identifying “priority” species, provided an initial draft of the priority species list, and described the agency’s methodology for developing both lists. Id. at 003971-78. The August Notice also stated that the final traceability program and priority species list, would be developed pursuant to the agency’s rule-making authority under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery'Conservation-and Management Act, Id, at 003971.

In October 2015,- the Department published a final Notice of Determination, That Notice identified the final list of principles that the agency used to identify priority species, as well as the priority species that would be subject to the Rule. Id. at 004464-68. As to each selected species, the Notice included, a “[bjrief sum-mar[yj” of the Working Group’s “findings” that explained the rationale for the species’ designation. Those summaries did not, however, disclose the data that the Department had collected concerning incidents of IUU fishing and seafood fraud, or any related enforcement activities. The final Notice of Determination explained that a “[djetailed presentation of the data considered by the [Department] and its deliberations is protected from disclosure because óf data confidentiality and enforcement implications.” Id. at 004467; see also id. at 004469 (explaining that the “details of the results have not been included because much of the data reviewed are sensitive and/or confidential, and could compromise the integrity of individual businesses, systems or enforcement capability if released”). Id. The Department did- not further elaborate on the agency’s justification for non-disclosure.

k. The Proposed Rule

In February 2016, the Department published the Proposed. Rule in the Federal Register, pursuant to its authority under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (“MSA”). Id. at 004477-88. The agency explained that the Proposed Rule “implements MSA section 307(1)(Q), which makes it unlawful to import, export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase in interstate or foreign commerce any fish taken, possessed, transported, or sold in violation of any foreign law or regulation or any treaty or binding conservation measure to which the United States is a party.” Id. at 004478 (referencing 16 U.S.C. § 1857(1)(Q)). The Department thus -identified 16 U.S.C. § 1857(1)(Q) as the source of its authority to regulate TUU fishing and seafood fraud.

The Proposed Rule set forth the data-collection requirements of the traceability program and the species. that initially would be subject to those requirements. As a condition of importing both wild-caught and farm-raised seafood into the United States, the Proposed Rule required domestic importers of seafood to obtain a permit from the Department, collect and electronically report supply-chain data to the federal government, and maintain certain types of records for five years. Id. at 004477-79, 004484. The Proposed Rule made clear that .importing any priority species without a valid permit or submitting inaccurate or incomplete traceability data would constitute a violation of the MSA. Id. at 004479, 004484-86, 004489. It also subjected importers to periodic, at-will audits. Id. at 004484, 004489. The Proposed Rule also identified the priority species to which the traceability requirements would apply. See id. at 004480.

In conjunction with publishing the Proposed Rule, the Department prepared both a draft Regulatory Impact Review, in compliance with Executive Order 12866, and an initial Regulatory Flexibility Analysis, as required under the -Regulatory Flexibility Act, 5 U.S.C. § 604. Id. at 004486-87, 004498-620. The purpose of those analyses was to determine the economic impact of the Proposed Rule on U.S, consumers and businesses, including small entities. The Department estimated that the “industry-wide increase in annual costs to importers” would be $60,000 in permit fees, plus “incremental costs” of systems development, Id. at 004487. That conclusion was premised on the key assumption that, “to some extent,” seafood suppliers already were collecting the data required by the Proposed Rule in order to comply with existing traceability programs, such as the Européan Union’s Catch Documentation Program, whose data-collection requirements are similar to those of the Proposed Rule, or voluntary third-party verification schemes. Id. For instance, the agency reasoned that, because most foreign seafood suppliers that export to the United States had already incurred costs associated with the E.U. traceability program’s data-collection requirements, the Proposed Rule’s similar requirements would impose only “incremental” costs on those suppliers. Those incremental costs, the agency posited, might be passed onto U.S.-based importers, but would not materially increase their operational costs. Id. at 004487, 004502, 004504-06. The Department ultimately concluded that U.S. entities “would not be significantly affected by this action” and that there would be no “significant adverse or long-term economic impacts” on U.S. small businesses. Id. at 004486-87.

Also, as required by the Regulatory Flexibility Act, the Department evaluated “several alternatives” to the traceability program, including a “no-action alternative” and “various combinations of data reporting and recordkeeping.”' Id. at 004487. The agency concluded, however, that the Proposed Rule better carried out IUU Task Force’s seafood traceability recommendations and thus rejected the considered alternatives. Id. ■■ .

5. Th’e Final Rule

After a public comment period on the Proposed Rule, the Department published the Final Rule on December 9, 2016. Id. at 006907r-28. The Final Rule became effective as of January 9, 2017, but does not require importers to begin to collect and report traceability data for priority species until January 1, 2018. Id. at 006907. The agency explained that it set the Rule’s compliance date one year after its effective date in order to afford importers sufficient time to work with their suppliers to facilitate the requisite data collection and transfer. Id. at 006914-15.

In response to public comments, the Final Rule altered the Proposed Rule in several key respects. The Final Rule: (1) exempts importers from providing vessel information for small-scale fishing vessels, in an effort to ease the regulatory burden associated with tracking such information; (2) reduces from five years to two years the amount, of time importers will be. required to maintain supply-chain records; (3) eliminates several categories of required records to reduce redundancy; and (4) stays.indefinitely the Rule’s application to shrimp and abalone. Id. at 006920-21.

Also, in response to public comments, the Department dramatically revised upward the cost estimates of its Regulatory Impact Review and Regulatory Flexibility Analysis. The agency’s, new estimate of industry-wide compliance costs increased from $60,000 to $7,850,000 in the first year and $6,075,000 annually thereafter, with a possible “upper-bound” cost estimate of $20,315,225 in the first year and $18,515,225 for each year following. Id. at 006926. The agency attributed this significant cost increase to the fact that it had modified the “assumptions” and “methodology” used to calculate its cost estimates to reflect suggestions provided by Plaintiff National Fisheries Institute during the notice-and-comment period. Id. at 006925-26. Notwithstanding the significant increase in anticipated compliance costs, the agency did not deem those costs to be excessive. It reasoned that the industry-wide cost of compliance, even as revised, remained only a fraction (less than one half of one percent) of the $9 billion value of U.S. seafood imports. Id. Consistent with that rationale, the agency also found that the Rule’s recordkeeping requirements would not “pose significant adverse or long-term economic impacts on small entities.” Id.

B. Procedural Background

Plaintiffs in this action are U.S.-based harvesters, importers, processors, and purchasers of seafood, as well as a trade group representing such entities, whose businesses will be affected by the Rule. They filed suit on January 6, 2017, challenging the legality of the Rule under the Administrative Procedure Act and the Regulatory Flexibility Act and seeking an order vacating and permanently enjoining the Rule’s implementation. See Compl., ECF No. 1 [hereinafter Compl.]. In light of the Rule’s impending compliance date, and as required under the MSA, the court granted Plaintiffs’ Motion for Expedited Treatment of the case. See Pis.’ Mot. for Expedited Treatment, ECF No. 6; January 23,2017, Minute Order.

Before the start of summary judgment briefing, the court received two motions to intervene, filed by entities seeking to defend the Rule. See Oceana, Inc., Nat. Res. Def. Council, Inc., Ctr. for Biological Diversity’s Mot. to Intervene, ECF No. 24; Alaska Bering Sea Crabbers’ Mot. to Intervene, ECF No. 43. The court granted one of those motions, permitting Interve-nor-Defendant Alaska Bering Sea Crabbers to participate as a defendant in the litigation. See Mem. Op. & Order, ECF No. 50; see also Mem. Op. & Order, ECF No. 44.

The matter before the court is now fully briefed by the original parties and the Intervenor-Defendant. Plaintiffs filed their Motion for Summary Judgment on April 25, 2017. Pis.’ Mot. for Summ. J., ECF No. 48. Federal Defendants and the Interve-nor-Defendant followed with their separate Oppositions and Cross-Motions for Summary Judgment on May 9, 2017. See Fed. Defs.’ Cross-Mot. for Summ. J., ECF No. 56; Intervenor-Def. Alaska Bering Sea Crabbers’ Cross-Mot. for Summ. J., ECF, No. 57 [hereinafter ABSC Mot.]. The court heard argument on the parties’ motions on June 7, 2017, and now turns to resolving their competing contentions.

III. LEGAL STANDARD

Ordinarily, cross-motions for summary judgment are reviewed under the standard set forth in Rule 56 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure. Under Rule 56, a court may grant summary judgment when a party demonstrates that there is no genuine issue of material fact and shows it is entitled to judgment as a matter of law. Fed. R. Civ. P. 56. However, in cases such as this one that involve review of agency action under the Administrative Procedure Act, the Rule 56 standard does not apply. See Stuttering Found. of Am. v. Springer, 498 F.Supp.2d 203, 207 (D.D.C. 2007). Instead, “the district judge sits as an appellate tribunal” and “[t]he entire case on review is a question of law.” Am. Biosci, Inc. v. Thomp son, 269 F.3d 1077, 1083 (D.C. Cir. 2001) (internal quotation marks omitted). In this posture, the court must decide “whether as a matter of law the agency action is supported by the administrative record and is otherwise consistent with the APA standard of review.” See Se. Conference v. Vilsack, 684 F.Supp.2d 135, 142 (D.D.C. 2010).

IV. DISCUSSION

Plaintiffs seek to invalidate the Seafood Import Monitoring Program (the “Rule”) on several grounds. First, Plaintiffs contend that the Rule was promulgated in violation of the Secretary of Commerce’s (the “Secretary”) rulemaking authority under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (“MSA”) and the Appointments Clause of the United States Constitution. See Pis.’ Mot. for Summ. J., ECF No. 48, Mem. in Supp., ECF No. 48-1 [hereinafter Pis.’ Mot.], at 17-22. Second, Plaintiffs argue that Congress did not authorize the Department of Commerce (the “Department”) to regulate seafood fraud and, thus, the Department lacks the necessary statutory authority to issue the Rule. Id. at 13-17. Third, Plaintiffs assert that, even if the Department had the requisite rulemaking authority, the Rule is arbitrary and capricious, in violation of the Administrative Procedure Act (“APA”), because it was (1) formulated through the use of undisclosed data, and (2) based on insufficient, or contradictory, evidence. Id. at 22-33. Finally, Plaintiffs challenge the adequacy of the Department’s Regulatory Flexibility Analysis, which they charge fails to address both the increased costs associated with the Rule and the availability of less burdensome regulatory alternatives to combat IUU fishing. Id. at 34-37. The court addresses each claim in turn.

A. Was the Rule Properly Promulgated?

The court begins with Plaintiffs’ contention that the Department promulgated, or issued, the Rule in violation of both the MSA and the Appointments Clause of the Constitution. Id. at 17-22. That argument has three sub-parts. First, Plaintiffs contend that, although Congress properly delegated rulemaking authority to the Secretary of Commerce under the MSA, Congress did not grant the Secretary the power to sub-delegate that rulemaking authority to another agency official and, even if it did, the sub-delegation here was improper under the agency’s organizational policy. Second, Plaintiffs assert that any delegation of rulemaking authority was improper because the administrative record contains no notice of that delegation. Third, Plaintiffs maintain that the Rule was promulgated by a Department employee who did not have power under the Appointments Clause of the Constitution to engage in rulemaking. Under any of these theories, Plaintiffs contend, the Rule must be vacated.

1. Relevant Background Facts

Before addressing the merits of Plaintiffs’ arguments, the court sets forth the relevant background facts, some of which are in dispute. At the time the Rule was developed and promulgated, the Secretary of Commerce was Penny Pritzker. See Fed. Defs.’ Answer, ECF No. 21 [hereinafter Fed. Defs.’ Answer], ¶ 15. Per a Department of Commerce “Organizational Order,” dated December 12, 2012, Secretary Pritzker delegated all rulemaking authority vested in her under the MSA to the Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere/Administrator of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (the “Administrator of NOAA”), who at the time was Kathryn Sullivan. Id. ¶ 16. During the period Sullivan served as the Administrator of NOAA—NOAA is a sub-agency of the Department—Eileen So-beck served as the Assistant Administrator for Fisheries, which is the top official at the National Marine Fisheries ■ Service (“NMFS”), a “line office” within NOAA. Samuel D. Rauch III served as the Deputy Assistant Administrator for Regulatory Programs of NMFS. Id. ¶¶ 17-18.

Plaintiffs and Federal Defendants agree that neither Pritzker nor Sullivan promulgated the Final Rule. They disagree, however, as to who did. Federal Defendants assert that Sobeck “exercised lawfully delegated power to issue the Final Rule as the Secretary’s designee.” Fed. Defs.’ Cross-Mot. for Summ. J., ECF No. 56, Mem. in Supp., ECF No. 56-1 [hereinafter Fed. Defs,’ Mot.], at 43. In support, Federal Defendants point to an internal policy document, the “NOAA Organizational. Handbook Transmittal No, 61,” dated February 24, 2015, wherein the Administrator of NOAA (Sullivan) further sub-delegated the rulemaking authority under the MSA that she received from .Pritzker to the Assistant Administrator for Fisheries (Sobeck). Plaintiffs, on the other hand, contend that Sobeck did not issue the Final Rule. They insist that her subordinate, Rauch, promulgated the Rule based largely on the undisputed fact that Rauch, not Sobeck, signed the Final Rule, as published in the Federal Register on December 9, 2016. Pis.’ Mot. at 8; Pis.’ Combined Br, in Resp. to Cross-Mots, for Summ. J., ECF No. 62 [hereinafter Pis.’. Reply], at 5-6; Fed. Defs.’ Mot. at 41. Federal Defendants respond that Rauch’s signature does not mean he in fact “issued” the Rule; rather, they assert -that the same Handbook Transmittal that granted Sobeck power to issue the Rule delegated authority to Rauch to complete the ministerial task of signing the Final Rule. In other words, Federal Defendants argue that Rauch’s signing .of the Final Rule does not “constitute an exercise of rulemaking” and, thus, does not undermine their position that So-beck issued the Rule. Fed. Defs.’ Reply in Supp. of Cross-Mot. for Summ. J., ECF No. 65 [hereinafter Fed. Defs.’ Reply]? at 21,24.

This dispute over who promulgated, or issued, the Rule lies at the heart of Plaintiffs’ contention that the Department’s rulemaking violated both the MSA and the Appointments Clause. With this background in mind, the court now turns to those arguments.

2. Does the MSA Authorize the Sub-Delegation of Rulemaking Authority?

Plaintiffs first challenge the Secretary’s authority to sub-delegate her rulemaking authority to subordinate agency officials. Under the MSA, Congress vested in “[t]he Secretary” the “general responsibility to carry out any fishery management plan or amendment approved or prepared by him, in accordance with the provisions of this chapter.” 16 U.S.C. § 1855(d). It also authorized “[t]he Secretary” to “promulgate such regulations, in accordance with section 553 of Title 5, as may be necessary to discharge such responsibility or to carry out any other provision of this chapter.” M Notably, the MSA defines the term “Secretary” for purposes of the Act to mean “the Secretary of Commerce or his designee.” Id. § 1802(39) (emphasis added). Plaintiffs read these two statutory provisions in combination to permit the Secretary of Commerce to delegate her rulemaking authority under the MSA to a “designee,” but to prohibit that designee from, in turn, delegating rulemaking authority further down the chain of command, Pis.’ Mot. at 18-19. The statute does .not, .Plaintiffs maintain, “authorize successive delegations of. the sort that' would have had to have occurred here.” Id. at 18.

That argument is easily cast aside. The D.C. Circuit has held that where, as here, “a statute delegates authority to a federal officer or agency, sub-delegation to a subordinate federal officer or agency is presumptively permissible absent affirmative evidence of a -contrary congressional intent.” U.S. Telecom Ass’n v. FCC, 359 F.3d 554, 565 (D.C. Cir. 2004). Here, the MSA plainly delegates rulemaking authority to the Secretary of Commerce “or his designee,” 16 U.S.C. § 1855(d) (emphasis added). Consequently, at the time in question, the statute granted rulemaking authority to either Pritzker or Pritzker’s designee—Sullivan, the Assistant Administrator of NOAA—which means that, under U.S. Telecom Association, absent evidence of contrary congressional intent, either Pritzker or Sullivan presumptively could sub-delegate her rulemaking power to a subordinate. Plaintiffs point to no evidence of “contrary congressional intent” to rebut that presumption. Therefore, contrary to Plaintiffs’ contention, Sullivan’s decision to delegate her rulemaking power to Sobeck, a subordinate official within the agency, did not run afoul " of the MSA.

Plaintiffs also advance a fallback position. They maintain that, even if the MSA itself permits the Secretary’s desig-nee—the Assistant Administrator of NOAA—to sub-delegate rulemaking authority to a subordinate official, her sub-delegation to Sobeck was invalid because it violated NOAA’s internal policies. Plaintiffs base that contention on their interpretation of Section 26 of the NOAA. Organizational Handbook Transmittal No. 61 (the “NOAA Organizational Handbook” or “the Handbook”), which provides, in relevant part:

The Under Secretary/Administrator re-delegates to the Assistant Administrator for Fisheries, with noted conditions and reservations, the authority to perform functions relating to:

26. The Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act, 16 U.S.C. 1801-1882, with the following functions:

a. The Under Secretary must be advised before final action is taken with respect to the following functions:

iv. Approving, disapproving, partially disapproving, or issuing a fishery management plan or amendment, or issuing implementing or emergency regulations, if the Assistant Administrator considers the action to be controversial (1853 and 185b).

See U.S. Dep’t of Commerce, NOAA Organizational Handbook Transmittal No. 61, at Part II(C)(26) (Feb. 24, 2015), http:// www.corporateservices.noaa.gov/ames/ delegations_of_authority/transmittal-61.pdf [hereinafter NOAA Organizational Handbook] (emphasis added). Emphasizing Section 26(a)(iv)’s specific reference to sections 351 and 352 of the MSA, codified at 16 U.S.C. §§ 1853 and 1854, respectively, Plaintiffs posit that the NOAA Organizational Handbook allows the Assistant Administrator of NOAA to delegate rulemak-ing authority only as to those two code provisions, but not as to the Secretary’s general rulemaking authority under á different code section, 16 U.S.C. § 1855(d). Pis.’ Reply at 6-7. Based on that understanding of the Handbook, Plaintiffs’ argument continues, the assignment of authority to Sobeck that resulted in the Rule violated NOAA’s own internal policies because the sub-delegation of rulemaking authority at issue here arose under 16 U.S.C. § 1855(d), not § 1853 or § 1854. Id.

Plaintiffs read the NOAA Organizational Handbook far too narrowly. Section 26 of the Handbook expressly “redelegates to the Assistant Administrator of Fisheries, with noted conditions and reservations, the authority to perform functions relating to ... [t]he Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act, 16 U.S.C. [§§ ] 1801-1882.” NOAA Organizational Handbook (emphasis added). The' Handbook’s use of the words “relating to,” in combination with its citation to the full range of the MSA’s corresponding code sections, supports a broad delegation of rulemaking authority to the Assistant Administrator of Fisheries with respect to the MSA in its entirety, and not only those sections cited by Plaintiffs. Cf. Nat’l Fed’n of Fed. Emps. v. Cheney, 883 F.2d 1038, 1044 n.14 (D.C. Cir. 1989) (finding that Congress granted the General Accounting Office broad authority by delegating to it the responsibility to investigate “all matters relating to the receipt and disbursement of public funds” (emphasis added)); Adair v. Rose Law Firm, 867 F.Supp. 1111, 1115 (D.D.C. 1994) (finding that the Inspector General Act’s mandate that an Inspector General “conduct, supervise, and coordinate audits and investigations relating to the programs and operations of [the agency]” constituted a “broad grant of authority rather than a limitation” (alteration in original) (emphasis added)). Contrary to Plaintiffs’ interpretation, the Handbook only limits the authority of the Assistant Administrator of Fisheries insofar as she must advise the Under Secretary before taking particular final actions pursuant to 16 U.S.C. §§ 1821(h), 1851(b), 1852(b), 1853, and 1854, see NOAA Organizational Handbook, but does not limit her authority to take action under any particular provision of the MSA. Moreover, the Department issued the Rule pursuant to MSA § 307(1)(Q)—codified at 16 U.S.C. § 1857—and the Handbook does not purport to limit the authority of the Under Secretary or the Assistant Administrator of Fisheries with respect to that section in any way. Therefore, the Handbook, properly construed, clearly authorizes the transfer of rulemaking authority from Sullivan to Sobeck. Accordingly, neither the MSA nor NOAA’s organizational policy impedes the sub-delegation that resulted in the Rule.

3.Does the Absence of a Notice of Sub-Delegation in the Administrative Record Defeat the Rule?

Next, Plaintiffs contend that, even if the MSA permits sub-delegation, there is no indication in the administrative record that a sub-delegation actually occurred. See Pis.’ Mot. at 19. Plaintiffs, however, cite no authority for the proposition that such agency action must appear within the administrative record itself when the action is otherwise publicly documented. As already discussed, see supra Part IV.A.1, there exists a clear trail of official actions—available through the Department’s websites, see supra notes 5-6— establishing the delegation and sub-delegation of rulemaking authority under the MSA to the Assistant Administrator of NOAA (Sullivan) and the Assistant Administrator of Fisheries (Sobeck), respectively. Thus, the intra-Department delegations plainly occurred, and no statute or regulation required those delegations be written down within the administrative record to be deemed valid.

4. Did the Rule’s Promulgation Violate the Appointments Clause?

The court turns now to the heart of Plaintiffs’ delegation arguments: whether the Rule was promulgated in violation of the Appointments Clause. See Pis.’ Mot. at 20-22. The Appointments Clause of the Constitution provides that the President “shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint ... all other Officers of the United States ... but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone_” U.S. Const, art. II, § 2, cl. 2. As written, the clause distinguishes between principal and inferior officers. Tucker v. Comm’r of Internal Revenue, 676 F.3d 1129, 1132 (D.C. Cir. 2012). In light of that textual difference, the Supreme Court has interpreted the Appointments Clause to require that “[p]rincipal officers [be] selected by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate[, whereas] [i]n-ferior officers Congress may allow to be appointed by the President alone, by the heads of departments, or by the Judiciary.” Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1, 132, 96 S.Ct. 612, 46 L.Ed.2d 659 (1976). The Clause’s requirements do not apply to mere employees. See Tucker, 676 F.3d at 1132. Those classifications take on importance when it comes to rulemaking. The Supreme Court has held that, under the Constitution, only “Officers,” both principal and inferior, have the power to issue rules; employees do not. See Buckley, 424 U.S. at 141, 96 S.Ct. 612. Thus, as relevant here, only the President or the head of a department may appoint Officers with rulemaking authority.

In view of these constitutional principles, the central question-presented by Plaintiffs’ Appointments Clause challenge is whether the Rule was promulgated by an “Officer” with rulemaking authority. Pis.’ Mot." at 21-22. No one disputes that Rauch was an employee, not an Officer, and thus lacked rulemaking authority. ' Thus, if Rauch issued the Rule, its promulgation violated the Appointments Clause.

- Where the parties join issue, however, is with regard to Sobeck. As to her, there are disagreements over two ■ questions: (1) whether she was a duly appointed inferior Officer and, (2) if so, whether she, or Rauch,. actually promulgated the Rule. Plaintiffs -maintain that Sobeck was not appointed by either the President or the Secretary of Commerce, but rather, by a subordinate official and, thus, was not an inferior Officer with rulemaking authority. Pis.’ Reply at 13-14. They also assert that, even if Sobeck wap -an inferior Officer, -she did pot exercise rulemaking authority with regard to the Final Rule, as published on December 9, 2016. Id. at 7. Federal Defendants, on the other hand, insist that So-beck was “appointed by the Secretary of [Commerce], subject to approval .of the President” and,, therefore, was an inferior Officer who had the power to promulgate the Rule. Fed, Defs.’ Mot. at 43-44 (citing Reorganization Plan No. 4. of 1970, § 2(e)(1), 84 Stat. 2090, 2091 (1970)); Fed. Defs.’ Reply at 21-23. They also assert that Sobeck in fact issued the Final Rule because she “stayed involved in the . inter-agency discussions on the content of the Final Rule between August and late November 2016 and engaged with NOAA and NMFS leadership on the contents of the Final Rule.” Fed. Defs.’ Reply at 24.

Unfortunately, the administrative record presents a muddled picture. Plaintiffs advance two pieces of evidence' to support théir position- that Sobeck was not an inferior Officer. First, Plaintiffs cite to a NOAA press release announcing. Sobeck’s appointment, which' states: “Today, -Dr. Kathryn- Sullivan, acting NOAA administrator, appointed Eileen Sobeck as assistant administrator for NOAA Fisheries.” Second, they point to Federal Defendants’ Answer, in which Federal Defendants “admitted] that Ms. Sobeck was appointed by Dr. Sullivan.” Fed. Defs.’ - Answer ¶ 17. Plaintiffs maintain that the Department’s own press release and binding admission establish that Sobeck was appointed not by the President or the Secretary, but by an official (Sullivan) who did not have the authority to designate Officers. See Pis.’ Reply at 13. As to whether Sobeck actually exercised rulemaking authority even if she was an inferior Officer, Plaintiffs point out that Rauch, not Sobeck, signed the Final Rule. Id. at 7-8.

Federal Defendants. counter with their own evidence. They submitted two extra-record affidavits from Denise Yang, the Director of the Department’s Office of Executive Resources. In the.first, Yang attested that “Secretary of Commerce Penny Pritzker appointed Ms. Sobeck” with the approval of the President, see Fed. Defs.’ Reply,.Ex. 1,'ECF No. 66-1, ¶3, and in tjie second, she provided personnel records purporting to show that Sobeck’s appointment-was consistent with the process for Secretarial, appointments, Fed. Defs.’ Notice of Additional Info., EOF No. 80 [hereinafter Fed. Defs.’ Notice], Ex. 1, EOF No. 80-1, ¶¶ 6-8; Fed. Defs.’ Notice, Ex. 2, EOF No. 80-2. Federal Defendants also insist that the court should disregard the evidence cited by Plaintiffs, i.e., the NOAA press release and their Answer, because both are inaccurate and are the product of inadvertent errors. See Fed. Defs.’ Mot. at 44 n.3S (explaining the >NOAA press release contained a “misstatement” about who appointed Sobeck); Fed. Defs.’ Reply at 21; Fed. Defs.’ Mot. for Leave to Am. Answer, ECF No. 64, at 2-3 (explaining that their Answer was incorrect and seeking leave to amend). And, as to whether Sobeck actually exercised rulemaking power, Federal Defendants cite a series of emails in the administrative record, which they contend show that Sobeck stayed involved in the inter-agency discussions regarding the Final Rule, Fed. Defs.’ Reply at -24 (citing A.R. at 020614, 032610, 018203, 019884, 020288, 020308, 020350, 020521, 021122, 021875, 022043, 025289, 025301, ,032789). Upon closer inspection, however, those e-mails show Sobeck playing only a limited role in the Final Rule’s promulgation. Suffice it to say, this hodgepodge of misstatements, retractions, ambiguous record evidence, and untested extra-record evidence offers little clarity on whether the Rule was promulgated in violation of the Appointments Clause.

In light of this factual morass, this court embarked on a different course. After oral argument on the parties’ motions, in a Memorandum Opinion and Order issued on June 22, 2017, the court invited Federal Defendants to have the current Secretary of Commerce, Wilbur Ross, ratify the Rule. See.Mem. Op. & Order, ECF No. 83 [hereinafter. Mem. Op. & Order]. Federal Defendants accepted the court’s invitation by submitting a sworn affidavit from Secretary Ross. See Fed. Defs.’ Resp. to Order of the Court, ECF No. 84, Ex. 1, ECF No. 84-1 [hereinafter Ross Decl.]. Secretary Ross attested:

[T]o resolve this question, and in response to the Court’s Order, I state that I have knowledge of the contents, purpose, and requirements of the Final Rule and its supporting documents, and I hereby affirm and ratify the Final Rule as it was published in the Federal Register on December 9, 2016, including all regulatory analysis certifications contained therein.

Id. ¶ 4. In the court’s view, Secretary Ross’ under-oath ratification of the Rule cures any potential Appointménts Clause défects in its promulgation. See Mem. Op. & Order at 2-5. Because the court explained in its Memorandum Opinion its reasoning for that conclusion, the court does not repeat that reasoning here. See id.

Plaintiffs disagree that Secretary Ross’ declaration surmounts their Appointments Clause challenge for three reasons. See Pis.’ Resp. to Defs.’ June 30 Filing, EOF No. 85 [hereinafter Pis.’ Resp. to June 30 Filing]. First, Plaintiffs assert that “ratification does not apply retroactively to cure an Appointments Clause violation where, as here, the original Rule was issued by” Sobeck or Rauch, non-Officers who lacked the constitutional capacity to issue binding legislative rules. Id. at 1. Second, Plaintiffs maintain that accepting Secretary Ross’ ratification would be improper here because “it would undermine rights that existed prior to the ratification” of U.S.based harvesters that exported seafood for re-importation before the interim Rule was published. Id. at 1, 5. Third, Plaintiffs argue that, even if Secretary Ross could legally ratify the Rule, the form of his actual ratification—i.e., sworn affidavit—is insufficient because, like the Rule itself, that ratification had to be published in the Federal Register in order to be effective. Id.

The court finds none of these arguments persuasive. Plaintiffs’ first argument—that Secretary Ross’ ratification is ineffective because neither Sobeck nor Rauch possessed constitutional authority to make rules at the time the agency issued the Final Rule—rests on the definition of “ratification” found in the Restatement (Second) of Agency. Id. at 2. That definition provides: “Ratification is the affirmance by a person of a prior act which did not bind him but which was done or professedly done on his account, whereby the act, as to some or all persons, is given effect as if originally authorized by him.” Restatement (Second) of Agency § 82 (1958) [hereinafter Restatement]. Plaintiffs assert that, under that definition, ratification only applies when “the person performing the prior act, ie., the agent, had the requisite legal capacity and only lacked the required authorization.” Pis.’ Resp. to June 30 Filing at 2. Stated differently, Plaintiffs maintain that ratification does not apply where the person performing the prior act “initially lacked the legal capacity to take the action subject to the putative ratification.” Id. So, as applied here, Plaintiffs claim that Secretary Ross cannot ratify the Rule because neither Sobeck nor Rauch had the “legal capacity” to issue a binding rule in the first place.

Plaintiffs miss the mark for two reasons. First, the court is unconvinced that the Restatement definition of “ratification” applies to the question at hand. The Restatement makes clear that ratification, “as the word is here used, represents a legal concept in the law of agency describing the relations between the parties after affirmance by a person of a transaction done or purported to be done for him.” Restatement § 82, cmt. a (emphasis added). The question in this .case does not, however, arise under “the law of agency,” i.e., whether Sobeck’s or Rauch’s issuance of the rule was “done or purported to be done” for an Officer with rulemaking authority. Instead, the question presented is one of administrative law, i.e., whether the current Secretary can ratify a rule that his agency, under the stewardship of his predecessor, had the legal authority to promulgate. The Restatement of Agency seems ill-suited to answer that question. Second, even if the Restatement’s definition of ratification does apply by analogy in the administrative law context, Plaintiffs’ understanding of that definition is incorrect. Ratification is not, as Plaintiffs insist, limited only to those situations in which the original actor had requisite legal authority, but lacked the principal’s authorization, to perform the act that is later ratified. To the contrary, the Restatement is replete with illustrations showing that a principal may ratify an act performed by someone who acted both without legal authority and without authorization. See, e.g., id. § 84, cmt. a, illus. 2 (“In the absence of P, the owner and manager of a small newspaper, his friend, A, takes charge without authority and publishes several issues. In the course of these, he libels T. On P’s return, he affirms the publication. P is subject to liability to T.”); id. § 85 cmt. b, illus. 3 (“A forges P’s name to a note and, purporting to be the owner, sells it to T, saying it was signed by P. P affirms. There is ratification and P is liable to T.”). Moreover, the Restatement makes clear that an act that qualifies for ratification “may be the act of an agent authorized to do other acts, or it may be the act of a stranger.” Id. § 84, cmt. a (emphasis added); accord id. § 85 (“Ratification does not result from the affirmance of a transaction with a third person unless the one acting purported to be acting for the ratifier.” (emphasis added)). Considering that a stranger could never possess the “legal authority” to act on behalf of someone, Plaintiffs’ argument, taken to its natural conclusion, contradicts the Restatement definition on which it relies. Accordingly, even if the Restatement of Agency governs Sobeck’s or Rauch’s issuance of the Rule, it presents no barrier to Secretary Ross’ ratification of that act.

In addition to the Restatement of Agency, Plaintiffs cite two cases—Hardin County v. Trunkline Gas Company and Federal Election Commission v. NRA Political Victory Fund—to support their argument that the ratification here was ineffective. Pis.’ Resp. to Defs.’ June 30 Filing at 2 (citing 330 F.2d 789 (5th Cir. 1964) and 513 U.S. 88, 115 S.Ct. 537, 130 L.Ed.2d 439 (1994)). Those cases, however, stand for an inapposite proposition, namely, that a principal cannot ratify an act that the principal himself lacks the legal capacity or authority to carry out. In Hardin County, the Fifth Circuit considered whether, under Texas law, the state legislature could ratify a highway improvement contract between Hardin County—a political subdivision of the state—and a construction company. The court found that the contract was void as a matter of law because the County had entered into the highway improvement contract after the state legislature had passed a law divesting counties of the legal capacity to enter into such contracts. That new legislation vested contracting authority solely in the Texas Highway Department, and the Texas Constitution explicitly prohibited the legislature from authorizing any county payments made without legal authority. Thus, the court held, the state legislature could not “ratify” the contract because it lacked constitutional authority to authorize any county payments earmarked for highway improvement. Hardin Cty. v. Trunkline Gas Co., 311 F.2d 882, 884 (5th Cir. 1963), vacated by 375 U.S. 8, 84 S.Ct. 49, 11 L.Ed.2d 38 (1963), remanded to 330 F.2d at 792. Similarly, in Federal Election Commission v. NRA Political Victory Fund, the Supreme Court was faced with the question of whether the Solicitor General’s “‘after-the-fact’ authorization” of a petition for certiorari filed by the Federal Election Commission (“FEC”) was ineffective because the Solicitor General issued his “ratification” after the time for filing the petition had passed. 513 U.S. at 98,115 S.Ct. 537. The Court explained: “Here, the Solicitor General attempted to ratify the FEC’s filing on May 26, 1994, but he could not himself have filed a petition for certio-rari on that date because the 90-day time period for filing a petition had- expired on January 20, 1994. His authorization simply came too late in the day to be effective.” Id. In other words, as the Solicitor General lacks the authority to late-file a petition for certiorari, he likewise lacks the authority to ratify a petition late-filed by someone else. Here, in sharp contrast to the principals in both Hardin County (the Texas state legislature) and NRA Political Victory Fund (the Solicitor General), there is no dispute that Secretary Ross has the constitutional authority to do the very act he has ratified—promulgate the Rule. Thus, neither Hardin County nor NRA Political Victory Fund prevent the court from relying on Secretary Ross’ ratification of the Rule.

Having found ratification appropriate in this context, the court makes quick work of Plaintiffs’ remaining arguments. Plaintiffs’ second argument—that ratification would undermine the rights of Plaintiffs who exported seafood for re-importation before the Final Rule was'issued .or its effective date—is confusing. Plaintiffs have known since December 9, 2016, that the Rule’s traceability requirements would take effect on January 1, 2018, and thus were on notice of the need to coordinate the collection of traceability data for seafood, if any, that Plaintiffs intend to re-import after the Rule’s compliance date. How Secretary Ross’ recent ratification purportedly impairs that group’s interests is unclear. And, for reasons to be discussed, see infra Part IV.C.4, Plaintiffs fail to demonstrate that they will actually suffer any such harm.

Finally, Plaintiffs’ contention that Secretary- Ross’ ratification is insufficient because it lacks the formality of rulemak-ing—i.e., publication in the Federal Register—is unfounded. Plaintiffs again rely on the Restatement of Agency, which provides that “[w]here formalities are requisite for the authorization of ’an act, its affirmance must be by- thé same formalities in order to constitute a ratification.” Restatement § 93(2). As noted earlier, the court questions whether the Restatement of Agency controls ratification in this context. That is particularly true with regard to the methods of ratification, given that the Restatement’s illustrations of formalities involve those associated with commercial transactions, such as affixing a seal and the making of a writing, not agency rulemaking. See id. § 93(2) cmt. b. Moreover, at least one court in this District has found that an Officer can ratify an administrative action through a sworn declaration submitted in the course of litigation. See Huntco Pawn Holdings, LLC v. U.S. Dep’t of Def., No. 16-1433, 240 F.Supp.3d 206, 2016 WL 8738419 (D.D.C. Oct. 3, 2016)). In any .event, even if ratification requires publication in the Federal Register, cf. State Nat’l Bank of Big Spring v. Lew, 197 F.Supp.3d 177, 180 (D.D.C. 2016) (ratification published), Federal Defendants have ample time to take that step before the Rule goes into effect. Thus, non-publication at this juncture cannot form the basis for the remedy that Plaintiffs seek—i.e. nullifying the Rule.

To summarize, the court hold's that Secretary Ross’ sworn affidavit ratifies the Rule. Thus, even if Sobeck’s or Rauch’s issuance of the Rule violated the Appointments Clause, the Secretary’s ratification cures that infirmity. The same is true as to Sobeck’s alleged failure to exercise rule-making authority with respect to issuance of the Final Rule. Accordingly, the court rejects Plaintiffs’ contention that the Rule’s promulgation violates the Appointments Clause.

B. Does the Department Have the Statutory Authority to Issue the Rule?

Plaintiffs next urge the court to invalidate the Rule on the basis that the Department lacks the statutory authority to regulate seafood fraud. Plaintiffs assert, instead, that Congress vested sole authority to regulate seafood fraud in the Food and Drug Administration (“FDA”). Pis.’ Mot. at 13-14. Additionally, they maintain that, under the MSA, the Department’s rulemaking authority is restricted to addressing the problem of IUU fishing and that, by extending its regulatory authority to seafood fraud, the Department exceeded its jurisdiction under the statute. Id. at

13. The court addresses each argument in turn.

1. Does the FDA Have Sole Regulatory Authority over Seafood Mislabeling?

Plaintiffs’ first contention that the FDA has exclusive authority to regulate labeling is effectively foreclosed by Supreme Court precedent. In, POM Wonderful LLC v. Coca-Cola Company, the Court held that the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (“FDCA”) does not confer exclusive jurisdiction over food labeling to the FDA and, instead contemplates that the FDA -will work within “complementary” federal legal and regulatory frameworks to effectively address mislabeling concerns. 573 U.S. -, -, 134 S.Ct. 2228, 2241, 189 L.Ed.2d 141 (2014). In that case, POM Wonderful, a producer and- seller of pomegranate juices, sued Coca-Cola under the Lanham Act, which enables competitors to bring unfair competition lawsuits based on deceptive product labeling. POM Wonderful claimed that Coca-Cola’s- description of a juice blend it sold misled consumers to POM Wonderful’s detriment. Id. at 2235. The Supreme Court held that the FDCA did not preclude POM-Wonderful’s Lan-ham Act suit because the FDCA—which protects public health and safety—and the Lanham Act—which safeguards business interests against unfair competition—were complementary statutes tailored to address different aspects of the same problem: product mislabeling, id. at 2237-39. The Court began with the text of the statutes, noting first that the FDCA did not forbid, “in express terms,” mislabeling claims brought under the Lanham Act. Id. at 2238. The Court then proceeded to find that the purposes of the statutes were consistent with respect to both enforcement and remedies concerning mislabeling, describing the advantages of that relationship as follows:

Although both statutes touch on food and beverage labeling ... the Lanham Act protects commercial interests against unfair competition, while the FDCA protects public health and safety .. i [and] [t]he two statutes impose different requirements and protections[,] ,.. [thus] [allowing Lanham Act suits to take[ ] advantage of synergies among multiple methods of regulation. This is quite consistent with the congressional design to enact two different statutes, each with its own mechanisms to enhance the protection of competitors and consumers ... [and] if Lanham Act claims were to be precluded then commercial interests—and indirectly the public at large—could be left with less effective protection in the food and beverage labeling realm than in many other, less regulated industries.

Id. at 2238-39 (citations and internal quotation marks omitted). In other words, the Court held that the FDCA and Lanham Act were not in conflict, although directed at addressing the same problem (juice labeling), because the two statutes aimed to protect separate, and complementary, interests—public health (FDCA) and commercial trademarks (Lanham Act).

The FDCA and MSA are equally complementary. Much like the Lanham Act, the purposes of the MSA are consistent with, and do not contradict, those of the FDCA. As the Court noted in POM Wonderful, the primary concern of the FDCA is to “protect public health and safety.” Id. The MSA, on the other hand, protects a broad array of interests, including: (1) “existing fishing [stock]”; (2) “Commercial and recreatio