Am. Acad. Pediatrics v. Food & Drug Admin. (379 F. Supp. 3d 461, 2019)

United States District Court for the District of Maryland 2019-05-15

Food and Drugs Labor Government Organization and Employees

Citations

Full opinion text

Paul W. Grimm, United States District Judge

It was bound to happen. Just as email and text messages replaced "snail mail," social media made face-to-face communications passé, and the internet rendered libraries all but obsolete, it was only a matter of time before "electronic cigarettes" replaced combustible tobacco products as a desirable means of nicotine delivery. As it turns out, even addiction has become electronic. And not only among adults, but particularly for teenagers (and younger kids). Especially, as manufactures of e-cigarette products have learned, if they are fruit or dessert flavored, and marketed as cool and alluring. Stmt. of FBA Commissioner, ECF No. 43-2.

Since 2014, [e-cigarettes] have been the most popular nicotine product among American teenagers.

And e-cigarettes' popularity is accelerating: From 2017 to 2018, ...the number of high-school-age children reporting use of e-cigarettes rose by more than 75 percent. Use among middle-schoolers also increased nearly 50 percent. That is an epidemic.

The surge in e-cigarette use by teenagers is alarming because nicotine is highly addictive and can harm brain development, which continues into young adulthood. Worse, kids who start on e-cigarettes are actually more likely than non-user peers to migrate to smoking tobacco ….

It is crucial that e-cigarettes do not become an on-ramp for children to become addicted to nicotine.

...[N]early 90 percent of adult smokers started when they were teens.

Alex M. Azar & Scott Gottlieb, We cannot let e-cigarettes become an on-ramp for teenage addiction , Wash. Post (Oct. 11, 2018) ("Azar & Gottlieb Op. Ed.").

To address public health concerns associated with tobacco use, and use by minors in particular, Congress enacted the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act ("Tobacco Control Act"), Pub. L. No. 111-31, 123 Stat. 1776 (2009) (enacting 21 U.S.C. §§ 387 - 387u and amending and redesignating other statutes), which requires manufacturers of various nicotine products, now including e-cigarettes, to apply for and obtain premarket authorization before introducing new products into interstate commerce for commercial distribution. 21 U.S.C. § 387j(a)(1)-(2), (b)(1) ; see also Defs.' Mem. 1, ECF No. 36-1 ; Pls.' Mem. 3; Guidance 2, ECF No. 48-1, at 715, GAR 423. Yet, although it might come as a surprise to a reader of the Tobacco Control Act, currently, "certain e-cigarettes-particularly the products with flavors that might appeal to children -can remain on the market without submitting a premarket application to the FDA until 2022," id. , and some can remain on the market while their application is pending, Aug. 2017 Guidance 3, ECF No. 48-1, at 716, GAR 424 (emphasis added). This is because the Extension of Certain Tobacco Product Compliance Deadlines Related to the Final Deeming Rule: Guidance for Industry (Revised) ("August 2017 Guidance"), which the FDA issued in August 2017 regarding the statutory requirements for "newly deemed tobacco products" like e-cigarettes, provides that manufacturers of those products can continue to market and distribute these products while they seek FDA approval; they do not have to seek FDA approval until 2021 or 2022; and for some of the products, once the manufacturers have submitted their applications, they can continue to market and distribute the products until the FDA "renders a decision." Aug. 2017 Guidance 3, 8, ECF No. 48-1, at 716, 721, GAR 424, 429; see Compl. ¶¶ 1-3, ECF No. 1.

Alarmed by this exemption, the American Academy of Pediatrics; the Maryland Chapter - American Academy of Pediatrics; the American Cancer Society Cancer Action Network; the American Heart Association; the American Lung Association;

the Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids; the Truth Initiative; Dr. Leah Brash, MD; Dr. Cynthia Fishman, MD; Dr. Linda Goldstein, MD; Dr. Steven Hirsch, MD; and Dr. David Myles, MD filed a Complaint for Declaratory and Injunctive Relief against the FDA, then-Commissioner of Food and Drugs Scott Gottlieb, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, and Secretary of Health and Human Services Alex M. Azar II. Compl. 1. In Plaintiffs' view, the exemption violates the Tobacco Control Act's requirement of premarket review of newly deemed products before they are marketed or distributed to consumers. Id. They brought three claims for the same relief pursuant to the Administrative Procedure Act ("APA"), 5 U.S.C. § 701 et seq. Specifically, Plaintiffs ask the Court to vacate the August 2017 Guidance, claiming that it is unlawful in that it "exceeds the agency's statutory authority" and "is an express and deliberate abdication of FDA's responsibilities under the Tobacco Control Act" (Count I); "was not promulgated in accordance with the APA's notice and comment requirements," despite being a substantive rule (Count II); and "is arbitrary and capricious and not the product of reasoned decisionmaking" (Count III). Compl. ¶¶ 4-7, 92-118.

Plaintiffs filed a Motion for Summary Judgment, ECF No. 31, and Defendants filed a Motion to Dismiss or, in the Alternative, for Summary Judgment, ECF No. 36. Defendants argue that the Court lacks subject matter jurisdiction because (1) the August 2017 Guidance does not cause any cognizable harm to Plaintiffs and therefore they do not have standing to bring this lawsuit; (2) the FDA has unreviewable discretion in deciding how to enforce the Tobacco Control Act and its rules; and (3) the August 2017 Guidance is not final agency action, rendering it beyond the reach of judicial review. Defs.' Mem. 3-4. Alternatively, they contend that Plaintiffs' claims fail on the merits because the August 2017 Guidance does not conflict with the Tobacco Control Act; it is a policy statement, not a rule, and therefore is exempt from the notice and comment requirements; and the FDA provided a rational explanation for the policy. Id. at 4-5.

On March 13, 2019, while the motion remained pending, the FDA published draft guidance that, "if finalized, would modify the August 2017 Guidance challenged in this case." Mar. 26, 2019 Ltr. Order, ECF No. 62 ; see Defs.' Second Notice, ECF No. 59. Noting that the agency was "accepting public comments on the draft guidance for a 30-day period that closes on April 15, 2019," with the revisions intended to "take effect 30 days after the publication of a final guidance document," I denied the parties' motions without prejudice to renewal following the FDA's finalization or rejection of the draft guidance. Mar. 26, 2019 Ltr. Order; Defs.' Second Notice; see also FDA, Modifications to Compliance Policy for Certain Deemed Tobacco Products: Guidance for Industry: Draft (March 2019), ECF No. 59-1 ; Statement from FDA Commissioner Scott Gottlieb, M.D., on advancing new policies aimed at preventing youth access to, and appeal of, flavored tobacco products, including e-cigarettes and cigars 2 (Mar. 13, 2019), ECF No. 59-2.

Plaintiffs promptly moved for reconsideration, arguing that "[t]here is...no reason to expect that a final Guidance is imminent, and substantial reason to doubt that it will issue this year," and that having "the benefit of a ruling on [the August 2017] Guidance" would increase the FDA's "ability to issue a legally sustainable replacement" and "thus obviat[e] or at least simplify[ ] challenges to that replacement." Pls.' Ltr. Mot. 1, ECF No. 63. Defendants responded in favor of "postpon[ing] resolution of this case while the draft guidance is finalized, lest the Court unnecessarily expend resources-and potentially issues what could, in practical terms, largely amount to an advisory opinion-on a policy that is under revision and soon stands to change in material ways." Defs.' Ltr. Opp'n 1, ECF No. 71. They contend that, "[i]f finalized, the draft guidance would modify the deferred-enforcement policy set forth in the August 2017 Guidance challenged in this case with respect to...the[ ] same products [that] are the apparent focus of Plaintiffs' public-health concerns," that is, "e-cigarettes targeted to youth and flavored cigars." Id. at 1, 2. But, as Plaintiffs note in their reply, ECF No. 72, Defendants do not state, even generally, when the draft guidance will be finalized; they simply state that "the FDA has given every indication that it plans to finalize the draft guidance as quickly as possible," after it finishes reviewing the approximately 15,467 comments it received electronically and the additional comments it received via U.S. mail. Defs.' Ltr. Opp'n 5. Given the pace at which the FDA has implemented the premarket review provisions of the Tobacco Control Act, its notion of "as quickly as possible" must be taken with a grain of salt.

Upon further review of their briefing of Plaintiffs' letter motion for reconsideration, as well as their briefing of their cross-motions for summary judgment, I am persuaded that Plaintiffs have standing and that this Court has jurisdiction to review the August 2017 Guidance, which was not a nonreviewable discretionary decision and which qualifies as final agency action for purposes of the APA. Moreover, the undisputed evidence establishes that Defendants were required to, but did not, follow the APA's notice and comment requirements issuing the August 2017 Guidance, and therefore Defendants violated the APA by issuing it. Accordingly, I will grant Plaintiffs' motion for reconsideration and reopen the parties' cross-motions. Having done so, I deny Defendants' motion, which I treat as a motion for summary judgment; grant Plaintiffs' motion for summary judgment; and order supplemental briefing on an appropriate remedy.

Background

Congress enacted the Tobacco Control Act in 2009 to "protect the public health and to reduce tobacco use by minors." Guidance 2, ECF No. 48-1, at 715, GAR 423. The Act "granted FDA the authority to regulate the manufacture, marketing, and distribution of cigarettes, cigarette tobacco, roll-your-own tobacco (RYO), and smokeless tobacco products...." Id. Additionally, pursuant to the Act the FDA can "deem[ ] other products that meet the statutory definition of a tobacco product" to be subject to the Act. Id. These products are referred to as "new tobacco products." 21 U.S.C. § 387j(a)(1). On May 10, 2016, the FDA issued the "Deeming Rule," bringing approximately 25,000 new tobacco products, including various cigars, e-cigarettes, pipe tobacco products, and hookah within the purview of the Act. Defs.' Mem. 1; Pls.' Mem. 6; Guidance 2, ECF No. 48-1, at 715, GAR 423. The Deeming Rule went into effect 90 days after its publication. Deeming Rule, 81 Fed. Reg. 28,974 -01, 28,976 (May 10, 2016).

The Act requires "[m]anufacturers of products subject to the Act [to] generally register with the FDA, submit lists of their products and ingredients, obtain premarket authorization before marketing new products, and include health warnings on packaging and advertisements." Defs.' Mem. 1. To obtain premarket authorization, a manufacturer must submit to the FDA either

(1) a "premarket tobacco application" demonstrating that the product would be appropriate for the protection of the public health, [ 21 U.S.C.] § 387j(b) - (c) ; (2) a "report" establishing that the product is "substantially equivalent" to a predicate product, id. §§ 387j(a)(2)(A)(i), 387e(j)(1) ; or (3) a request for an "exemption" from the substantial equivalence requirement, id. §§ 387j(a)(2)(A)(ii), 387e(j)(3).

Id. at 5.

If products are marketed without adhering to these requirements, they may be considered "adulterated" and seized, and the manufacturers, distributors and retailers may be subject to civil injunctions and/or criminal prosecutions. 21 U.S.C. §§ 331(a) - (c) (prohibited acts), 332 (court jurisdiction to issue injunction), 333(a) (criminal penalties), 334 (seizure), 387b(6) ("A tobacco product shall be deemed to be adulterated if...it is required by section 387j(a)...to have premarket review and does not have an order in effect under section 387j(c)(1)(A)(i) ; or...it is in violation of an order under section 387j(c)(1)(A).").

Initially, the Act required the FDA to permit the four products then subject to the Act to remain on the market during premarket review so long as their manufacturers submitted premarket applications by March 2011. But there is no statutory grace period for products later deemed subject to the Act. Thus, when the deeming rule took effect in August 2016, all newly deemed products then on the market were suddenly noncompliant with the statute.

Defs.' Mem. 1.

It is undisputed that the FDA has some "discretion to adapt those provisions to the special circumstances of products that become subject to the TCA [Tobacco Control Act] by virtue of deeming" and, to that end, to "[p]ermit[ ] a compliance period for newly deemed products." Id. at 2 (quoting Organizational Plaintiffs' comments on the proposed deeming rule, AR 145,551, 145,607, ECF No. 48-1, at 566, 622 ). And, when it published the Deeming Rule, the FDA, in what it called an "exercise of enforcement discretion," stated that "newly deemed, new tobacco products" would not "be subject to enforcement" during "compliance period[s]" that the Deeming Rule established. Deeming Rule, 81 Fed. Reg. at 28,978. Specifically, the Deeming Rule "establish[ed] staggered initial compliance periods based on the expected complexity of the applications to be submitted, followed by continued compliance periods for FDA review," with the FDA's "exercise of enforcement discretion [set to] end twelve months after each initial compliance period." Id. Thus, the Deeming Rule provided that

manufacturers of all newly deemed, new tobacco products [would] have a 12-, 18- or 24-month initial compliance period in which to prepare applications for marketing authorization, as well as a 12-month continued compliance period after those dates in which to obtain authorization from FDA (resulting in total compliance periods of 24, 30, or 36 months).

Id.

The FDA established these specific compliance periods because it "determined that exercising enforcement discretion indefinitely could put youth and young adults at risk for tobacco-related death and disease." Id. at 28,977 ; see also Aug. 2017 Guidance 3, ECF No. 48-1, at 716, GAR 424 ("Unless FDA has issued an order denying or refusing to accept the submission, products for which timely premarket submissions have been submitted will be subject to a continued compliance period for 12 months after the initial compliance period described previously. For such products, FDA does not intend to initiate enforcement for failure to have premarket authorization during this continued compliance period." (quoting 81 Fed. Reg. at 29,011 )). The "compliance policy did not apply to any new tobacco product that was not on the market on August 8, 2016." Aug. 2017 Guidance 3, ECF No. 48-1, at 716, GAR 424.

In May 2017, the FDA extended the compliance deadline by three months. Three-Month Extension of Certain Tobacco Product Compliance Deadlines Related to the Final Deeming Rule: Guidance for Industry (May 2017), GAR 206, ECF No. 48-1, at 687. Specifically, it provided that

• the "compliance period for manufacturers to submit a substantial equivalence exemption request" was November 8, 2017;

• the "compliance period for manufacturers that have submitted substantial equivalence exemption requests by November 8, 2017 (unless they have received an order denying, or FDA has refused to accept their submission)" was one year later, November 8, 2018;

• the "compliance period for manufacturers to submit a substantial equivalence report" was May 8, 2018;

• the "compliance period for manufacturers that have submitted substantial equivalence reports by May 8, 2018 (unless they have received an order denying, or FDA has refused to accept their submission)" was one year later, May 8, 2019;

• the "compliance period for manufacturers to submit a premarket tobacco product application (PMTA)" was November 8, 2018;

• the "compliance period for manufacturers that have submitted PMTAs by November 8, 2018 (unless they have received an order denying, or FDA has refused to accept their submission)" was one year later, November 8, 2019.

May 2017 Guidance 7-8, GAR 214-15, ECF No. 48-1, at 695-96.

Then, in August 2017, without allowing for a notice and comment period, Pls.' Mem. 7, the FDA issued the August 2017 Guidance (which revised its May 2017 Guidance), "announc[ing] that it would further defer enforcement of the premarket review provision with respect to combustible products (like cigars) until 2021, and noncombustible products (like most e-cigarettes) until 2022-but only for products that were on the market when the deeming rule took effect in August 2016." Defs.' Mem. 2; see Aug. 2017 Guidance 8, GAR 429, ECF No. 48-1, at 721. The August 2017 Guidance explained that the FDA had set "compliance date[s]...as a matter of enforcement discretion, stating that it does not intend to enforce [ ] particular requirement[s] that [were] already in effect for a period of time in order to give industry more time to comply." Aug. 2017 Guidance 4, ECF No. 48-1, at 717, GAR 425. Notably, pursuant to the August 2017 Guidance, "there will be a continued compliance period pending review of [certain] applications," and "[t]his compliance period will continue until the agency renders a decision on an application (i.e., issuance of: a Marketing Order; a No Marketing Order; a Refuse to File; or Refuse to Accept) or the application is withdrawn." Id. at 3, GAR 424, ECF No. 48-1, at 716 (emphasis added). The chart of compliance deadlines only identified the end of the compliance periods for manufacturers to make their submissions; it no longer included a deadline for the compliance period for manufacturers that had made their submissions. Id. at 8, GAR 429, ECF No. 48-1, at 721.

During the compliance period, "the agency plans to issue regulations governing the information to be included in premarket applications, to develop standards that certain products must meet, and to publish additional guidance explaining what applications should contain and how they will be reviewed." Defs.' Mem. 2.

The effect of this deferred enforcement is that the products subject to the Act pursuant to the Deeming Rule may remain on the market until 2021 or 2022 without submitting an application or having it reviewed and approved. These products include e-cigarettes. As noted, youth use of e-cigarettes has reached epidemic proportions. Azar & Gottlieb Op. Ed. The FDA recognizes this and professes to be "deeply concerned about the risks that e-cigarettes pose for children, given how quickly teenage use of these products has accelerated." Id. It also "believe[s] e-cigarettes can be an important off-ramp for adults who are addicted to combustible cigarettes," but asserts that "[t]he technology that might help adults end one addiction cannot [be permitted to] pull a generation of kids into a new one." Id. In fact, the FDA has stated that it is "actively reconsidering our policy under which certain e-cigarettes - particularly the products with flavors that might appeal to children - can remain on the market without submitting a premarket application to the FDA until 2022," noting that "products such as e-cigarettes need to be put through an appropriate regulatory process. Under the most likely path for marketing authorization, they must show that their marketing is appropriate for protecting the public health, taking into account their risks and benefits to the population as a whole," and that "[r]ising e-cigarette use by children makes the marketing of this product especially deserving of close attention." Id.

Standard of Review

Defendants challenge this Court's subject matter jurisdiction based on Plaintiffs' purported lack of standing and their view that the August 2017 Guidance is not subject to judicial review because it was an action within agency discretion and not a final agency action. They also move to dismiss under Fed. R. Civ. P. 12(b)(6) for failure to state a claim. When a defendant moves to dismiss pursuant to Fed. R. Civ. P. 12(b)(1) for lack of subject matter jurisdiction, asserting a facial challenge that "a complaint simply fails to allege facts upon which subject matter jurisdiction can be based," as Defendants do here, "the facts alleged in the complaint are assumed to be true and the plaintiff, in effect, is afforded the same procedural protection as he would receive under a 12(b)(6) consideration." Adams v. Bain , 697 F.2d 1213, 1219 (4th Cir. 1982) ; see Lujan v. Defs. of Wildlife , 504 U.S. 555, 561, 112 S.Ct. 2130, 119 L.Ed.2d 351 (1992) (noting that, on a motion to dismiss, a plaintiff's pleading of the elements of standing are "presum[ed] [to] embrace those specific facts that are necessary to support the claim" (quoting Lujan v. Nat'l Wildlife Fed'n , 497 U.S. 871, 889, 110 S.Ct. 3177, 111 L.Ed.2d 695 (1990) )). But when, as here, a motion is styled in the alternative as one for summary judgment, both parties file their briefs along with evidence that is not integral to the pleadings, and the Court considers that evidence in reaching a decision, the Court must treat the motion as one for summary judgment. See Fed. R. Civ. P. 12(d) ; Laughlin v. Metro. Wash. Airports Auth., 149 F.3d 253, 261 (4th Cir. 1998) (observing that, while the parties must have notice that a motion will be treated as one for summary judgment, the styling of a motion in the alternative, as well as the filing of evidence in support of the parties' arguments, provides sufficient notice).

Summary judgment is proper when the moving party demonstrates, through "particular parts of materials in the record, including depositions, documents, electronically stored information, affidavits or declarations, stipulations...admissions, interrogatory answers, or other materials," that "there is no genuine dispute as to any material fact and the movant is entitled to judgment as a matter of law." Fed. R. Civ. P. 56(a), (c)(1)(A) ; see Baldwin v. City of Greensboro , 714 F.3d 828, 833 (4th Cir. 2013). If the party seeking summary judgment demonstrates that there is no evidence to support the nonmoving party's case, the burden shifts to the nonmoving party to identify evidence that shows that a genuine dispute exists as to material facts. See Matsushita Elec. Indus. Co. v. Zenith Radio Corp. , 475 U.S. 574, 585-87 & n.10, 106 S.Ct. 1348, 89 L.Ed.2d 538 (1986). When considering cross-motions for summary judgment, "the court must view each motion in a light most favorable to the non-movant." Linzer v. Sebelius , No. AW-07-597, 2009 WL 2778269, at *4 (D. Md. Aug. 28, 2009) ; see Mellen v. Bunting , 327 F.3d 355, 363 (4th Cir. 2003).

Standing

This Court may "adjudicate only actual cases and controversies." Zaycer v. Sturm Foods, Inc. , 896 F.Supp.2d 399, 407 (D. Md. 2012) (citing U.S. Const. art. III, § 2; O'Shea v. Littleton , 414 U.S. 488, 493, 94 S.Ct. 669, 38 L.Ed.2d 674 (1974) ; Bishop v. Bartlett , 575 F.3d 419, 423 (4th Cir. 2009) ). This "constraint of Article III" has two distinct but overlapping facets that must be satisfied for a federal district court to have subject matter jurisdiction: standing (which addresses who may sue and which is at issue here) and ripeness (which addresses when a party may bring a suit). See South Carolina v. United States , 912 F.3d 720, 730 (4th Cir. 2019) (quoting Scoggins v. Lee's Crossing Homeowners Ass'n , 718 F.3d 262, 269 (4th Cir. 2013) ).

A plaintiff has standing if

(1) [the plaintiff] has suffered an "injury in fact" that is (a) concrete and particularized and (b) actual or imminent, not conjectural or hypothetical; (2) the injury is fairly traceable to the challenged action of the defendant; and (3) it is likely, as opposed to merely speculative, that the injury will be redressed by a favorable decision.

Zaycer , 896 F.Supp.2d at 408 (quoting Bishop, 575 F.3d at 423 )); see also Lujan , 504 U.S. at 560-61, 112 S.Ct. 2130 (same). Notably, while a plaintiff must plead these elements to allege standing, these elements are more than "mere pleading requirements"; they are "an indispensable part of the plaintiff's case," and "each element must be supported in the same way as any other matter on which the plaintiff bears the burden of proof, i.e. , with the manner and degree of evidence required at the successive stages of the litigation." Lujan , 504 U.S. at 561, 112 S.Ct. 2130. In response to Defendants' Motion for Summary Judgment, Plaintiffs cannot "rest on...'mere allegations' " of injury resulting from Defendants' conduct. Id. Rather, they have to " 'set forth' by affidavit or other evidence 'specific facts.' " Id. (citing Fed. R. Civ. P. 56 ). If one of multiple plaintiffs has standing for a claim, then the claim can proceed. Kenny v. Wilson , 885 F.3d 280, 287 (4th Cir. 2018). Here, the three claims are each brought by all Plaintiffs. Compl. ¶¶ 92-118.

Injury in Fact

The Fourth Circuit has held that, where an organization's "efforts to carry out its mission" are impeded, that impediment is a concrete and particularized injury. Lane v. Holder , 703 F.3d 668, 674 (4th Cir. 2012). Likewise, "an organization suffers an injury in fact when it is deprived of information integral to its core activities." Pub. Citizen Health Research Grp. v. Acosta , 363 F.Supp.3d 1, 12 (D.D.C. 2018) (finding that plaintiffs alleged injury in fact sufficiently by "alleg[ing] that [their] 'activities [are] impeded' when [they] cannot rely on the information OSHA would ordinarily collect under the Electronic Reporting Rule"). The Supreme Court refers to this as an "informational injury." Dreher v. Experian Info. Sols., Inc. , 856 F.3d 337, 345 (4th Cir. 2017) (quoting Fed. Election Comm'n v. Akins , 524 U.S. 11, 24, 118 S.Ct. 1777, 141 L.Ed.2d 10 (1998) ).

For a plaintiff to have standing based on an informational injury, the plaintiff must "lack access to information to which he is legally entitled and ...the denial of that information [must] create[ ] a 'real' harm with an adverse effect." Id. (quoting Spokeo, Inc. v. Robins , --- U.S. ----, 136 S.Ct. 1540, 1549, 194 L.Ed.2d 635 (2016) (internal quotation marks omitted)). Thus, "a plaintiff suffers a concrete informational injury where he is denied access to information required to be disclosed by statute, and he 'suffers, by being denied access to that information, the type of harm Congress sought to prevent by requiring disclosure.' " Id. (quoting Friends of Animals v. Jewell , 828 F.3d 989, 992 (D.C. Cir. 2016) (emphasis supplied)). In Spokeo , the respondents' injury in fact " 'consist[ed] of their inability to obtain information...that...[a] statute require[d] [to be] ma[d]e public' where that information 'would help them...evaluate candidates for public office.' " Id. (quoting Spokeo , 136 S.Ct. at 1548 ).

The injury also must be "imminent," that is "not too speculative"; in other words, it must be "certainly impending." Lujan v. Defs. of Wildlife , 504 U.S. 555, 564, 112 S.Ct. 2130, 119 L.Ed.2d 351 (1992) (quoting Whitmore v. Arkansas , 495 U.S. 149, 158, 110 S.Ct. 1717, 109 L.Ed.2d 135 (1990) ). Injury cannot be predicted "at some indefinite future time" or expected to result from acts "partly within the plaintiff's own control." Id.

Six Plaintiffs are "Organizational Plaintiffs": American Academy of Pediatrics ("AAP"), the American Cancer Society Cancer Action Network ("ACS CAN"), the American Heart Association ("AHA"), the American Lung Association ("ALA"), the Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids ("CTFK"), and the Truth Initiative. Pls.' Rely & Opp'n 3. Plaintiffs assert that the Organizational Plaintiffs' "missions center on educating the public about the dangers of [new tobacco products]" and "advancing the public health." Id. at 6, 7. To this end, the Organizational Plaintiffs "work daily on the front lines of a multi-faceted effort to eradicate tobacco addiction and to avert the creation of new generations of addicted children and adults." Id. at 2.

Plaintiffs offer evidence that,

[a]s implemented by the Deeming Rule, the Act would have enabled sustained progress toward that goal by subjecting hazardous and addictive products such as cigars and e-cigarettes to premarket review-requiring manufacturers to supply data and other information to FDA showing that the products they seek to market advance the public health, directing FDA to issue public orders determining whether the statutory public health standard has been met, and prohibiting the marketing of those products for which premarket orders have not been issued.

...

...Were FDA performing its statutorily required premarket review responsibilities, FDA would be disclosing to the public significant information about new tobacco products that Organizational Plaintiffs would use to further their missions.

Id. at 2-3 (citing Myers (CTFK) Decl. ¶¶ 10-17, ECF No. 39-1 ); see also, e.g. , Myers (CTFK) Decl. ¶ 11 (noting that one FDA "premarket review order disclosed a wealth of information that aid[ed] Tobacco-Free Kids in understanding and educating about the risks of tobacco products and the relative risk among products," such as "how standards in [one producer]'s manufacturing process help ensure lower levels of certain carcinogens; the relative disease risk of [its product] vs. cigarettes and other forms of smokeless tobacco; and the contribution of various harmful and potentially harmful constituents to disease risk"). Plaintiffs assert that they suffered informational injury because

FDA's suspension of premarket review requirements for approximately 25,000 new tobacco products deprives Organizational Plaintiffs of access to vital scientific and health information necessarily generated as a part of that process-information Plaintiffs need to carry out their missions.

Pls.' Reply & Opp'n 3.

Additionally, Plaintiffs argue, "the Guidance interferes with Organization Plaintiffs' missions of advancing the public health by allowing nearly 25,000 unreviewed products to remain on the market-requiring Plaintiffs to expend more resources to monitor the marketplace and to counsel and educate the public about e-cigarettes, cigars, or both." Id. at 7. Specifically,

Plaintiff AAP, for instance, has expended "approximately 2000 hours on e-cigarette work" since FDA issued the Guidance, AAP Decl. ¶ 15-hours spent updating and offering educational programs focused on e-cigarettes, id. ¶¶ 16-25; developing and issuing educational curricula and clinical materials, id. ¶¶ 30-34; and researching and publishing a policy statement on e-cigarettes, id. ¶¶ 35-44. The "massive increase in time that [AAP has] had to spend on e-cigarette work in light of the proliferation of products without premarket review" has required the organization to reduce staffing on other projects, postpone new initiatives, spend funds that it would not have otherwise had to, and forgo grant funding-all as a direct result of the Guidance. Id. ¶¶ 45-51. Other Organizational Plaintiffs attest to similar resource expenditures. See, e.g. , ALA Decl. ¶¶ 11-14; ACS CAN Decl. ¶ 15; AHA Decl. ¶¶ 15, 17.

Id. ; see also, e.g. , Phillips (ACS CAN) Decl. ¶ 15, ECF No. 39-3 ("Without a prohibition on marketing newly deemed products until review is complete, hundreds of products in thousands of flavors are currently being sold without a decision from FDA on those products' effect on public health. This situation forces ACS CAN to invest considerably more resources in monitoring the market and the products in the market so that we can determine where the greatest risks to public health are arising. This work hinders ACS CAN from working on other priorities in our evidence-based tobacco prevention and control efforts.").

Notably, the Tobacco Control Act is quite clear that its purpose is, in part, "to ensure that consumers are better informed," and, to that end, it "require[s]

tobacco product manufacturers to disclose research which has not previously been made available...relating to the health and dependency effects or safety of tobacco products." Pub. Law. 111-31, at § 3(6), 123 Stat 1776, 1782. It recognizes that "the use of tobacco by young people and dependence on tobacco" are "of particular concern to public health officials." Id. § 3(2), 123 Stat. 1776, 1781. And, the Act unambiguously established the public's right to the information by requiring the FDA to disclose products' "detailed information regarding data concerning adverse health effects...within 30 days" of any substantial equivalence determination. 21 U.S.C. § 387j(a)(4)(B).

The August 2017 Guidance's provisions, which do not require manufacturers to submit their applications (accompanied by research in support) for five or more years and announce that the FDA will defer enforcement during that period, deny the Organizational Plaintiffs "access to information required to be disclosed by statute." Dreher , 856 F.3d at 345 ; Friends of Animals , 828 F.3d at 992 ; see, e.g. , Phillips (ACS CAN) Decl. ¶¶ 12-13 ("When FDA does not conduct premarket review, it is far more difficult for ACS CAN to advocate effectively for its members. Scientific data on the contents of novel tobacco products and their physiological consequences are crucial to ACS CAN's ability to identify effective and feasible product standards. Without such data, designing and proposing a product standard is akin to building a highway without knowing how to make asphalt. And such data largely comes from FDA, because tobacco manufacturers typically release as little information about their products' specific contents and interactions as possible. For example, JUUL, currently one of the most popular e-cigarettes among school-aged youth, has not gone through the premarket review process. If it did, it would have to provide information to FDA about its contents and their effects, and FDA would make that information public if it approved JUUL. Having that information would allow ACS CAN to determine whether there were specific aspects of JUUL that were troublingly carcinogenic and determine whether there are product standards that would minimize the carcinogenic effects of all e-cigarettes. Without premarket review, however, that information is simply unavailable."). Further, Congress intended for the research provided pursuant to the Tobacco Control Act to be publicly available promptly after product approval. 21 U.S.C. § 387j(a)(4)(B) ; Pub. Law. 111-31, at § 3(2), (6), 123 Stat 1776, 1781, 1782. Therefore, through this deprivation of information, Plaintiffs are suffering "the type of harm Congress sought to prevent by requiring disclosure." Dreher , 856 F.3d at 345 ; Friends of Animals , 828 F.3d at 992.

Moreover, this injury to the organizations' daily operations due to agency action limiting their access to the information is the type of injury that courts have recognized as both concrete and particularized. E.g. , Acosta , 363 F.Supp.3d at 12 ; People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals v. U.S. Dep't of Agric. (PETA) , 797 F.3d 1087, 1095 (D.C. Cir. 2015) ("Because PETA's alleged injuries-denial of access to bird-related AWA information including, in particular, investigatory information, and a means by which to seek redress for bird abuse-are 'concrete and specific to the work in which they are engaged,' we find that PETA has alleged a cognizable injury sufficient to support standing." (citation omitted)); see id. at 1094 (noting that, when "the challenged regulations den[ied] the [organization plaintiffs] access to information and avenues of redress they wish to use in their routine information-dispensing, counseling, and referral activities," that "inhibition of [plaintiff organizations'] daily operations" is "an injury both concrete and specific to the work in which they are engaged"); Lane , 703 F.3d at 674 ("An organization may suffer an injury in fact when a defendant's actions impede its efforts to carry out its mission.").

Further, the injury is not speculative, as the FDA currently is not requiring applications for new products and therefore is not making available the information it otherwise would make available. Additionally, Plaintiffs already have spent time and resources researching and educating the public on e-cigarettes due to the dearth of such information from the FDA. See Phillips (ACS CAN) Decl. ¶ 15 ("Without a prohibition on marketing newly deemed products until review is complete, hundreds of products in thousands of flavors are currently being sold without a decision from FDA on those products' effect on public health. This situation forces ACS CAN to invest considerably more resources in monitoring the market and the products in the market so that we can determine where the greatest risks to public health are arising."); Schoeberl (AHA) Decl. ¶¶ 15-16, ECF No. 39-4 ("In lieu of premarket review, AHA must do its own research and review published research on e-cigarettes and cigars. But due to the paucity of published information, the variable contents of the unregulated products, and the sheer number of products on the market, this endeavor is not only a completely inadequate substitute for premarket review, but also expensive. Similarly, AHA develops resources for individuals, including its 40 million volunteers and supporters. It is currently developing or updating materials on topics such as resources to help quit smoking, whether vaping is safer than smoking, common products such as JUUL, and the public health implications of e-cigarettes. All of this material is more costly to develop-and less complete-due to the absence of premarket review and the information it would provide, as well as the immense diversity of products in the absence of premarket review.").

This Court has held that an organization has standing where, as here, "the defendants' actions 'have caused the organization to divert resources to identify and counteract the defendants' unlawful practices,' and thereby impede[d] and frustrate[d] its core mission." Equal Rights Ctr. v. Equity Residential , 483 F.Supp.2d 482, 487 (D. Md. 2007) (plaintiff's mission was "through 'education, counseling, advocacy, enforcement, and referral services to aid protected individuals' "); see also Equal Rights Ctr. v. Abercrombie & Fitch Co. , 767 F.Supp.2d 510, 519-20 (D. Md. 2010) ("[D]iversion of funds and frustration of an organization's missions are injuries sufficient to establish standing under Article III...."); Shield Our Constitutional Rights & Justice v. Hicks , No. DKC-09-940, 2009 WL 3747199, at *5 (D. Md. Nov. 4, 2009) (noting that "Plaintiffs' complaint [wa]s devoid of any facts...similar to those in Equity Residential ," and concluding that plaintiffs failed to establish organizational standing). Therefore, Plaintiffs have demonstrated a concrete, non-speculative injury. See PETA , 797 F.3d 1087, 1094-95 ; Lane , 703 F.3d at 674 ; Acosta , 363 F.Supp.3d at 12 ; Abercrombie & Fitch Co. , 767 F.Supp.2d at 519-20 ; Equity Residential , 483 F.Supp.2d at 487.

Traceable Injury

If "the alleged injury is solely 'th[e] result [of] the independent action of some third party not before the court,' " then the "plaintiff may not have standing." Kravitz v. U.S. Dep't of Commerce , 336 F.Supp.3d 545, 559 (D. Md. 2018) (quoting Lujan v. Defs. of Wildlife , 504 U.S. 555, 560, 112 S.Ct. 2130, 119 L.Ed.2d 351 (1992) ). But, "[f]or an injury to be 'fairly traceable' to the defendant, the defendant's actions need not be 'the very last step in the chain of causation.' " Id. (quoting Bennett v. Spear , 520 U.S. 154, 168-69, 117 S.Ct. 1154, 137 L.Ed.2d 281 (1997) ). Rather, "the causation element of standing is satisfied...where the plaintiff suffers an injury that is 'produced by [the] determinative or coercive effect' of the defendants' conduct 'upon the action of someone else.' " Id. (quoting Lansdowne on the Potomac Homeowners Ass'n, Inc. v. OpenBand at Lansdowne, LLC , 713 F.3d 187, 197 (4th Cir. 2013) (quoting Bennett , 520 U.S. at 169, 117 S.Ct. 1154 )).

Here, Plaintiffs' injuries result from the FDA's actions to exempt certain products from premarket review for years. Certainly, the FDA's actions arguably are not "the very last step in the chain of causation," as the manufacturers theoretically could have chosen to submit applications promptly or to remove their products from the market in response to the August 2017 Guidance stating that they were exempt from premarket review and enforcement for five or six years or more. But theory and reality are not always in harmony, and the record before me contains no facts to suggest that manufacturers actually have done so, nor would it be the slightest bit surprising to learn that they have not. And, it is telling that the FDA has not issued any orders on premarket tobacco product applications since 2015 or taken any final action on any premarket tobacco product applications since June 2017. See FDA, Summary of Premarket Tobacco Product Application Final Actions, https://www.fda.gov/tobacco-products/market-and-distribute-tobacco-product/tobacco-product-marketing-orders; see also Fed. R. Evid. 201(b)(2). Under these circumstances, the injury is undeniably traceable to Defendants' August 2017 Guidance. See Pub. Citizen Health Research Grp. v. Acosta , 363 F.Supp.3d 1, 12 (D.D.C. 2018) ("Here, the causal relationship is quite clear. Plaintiffs allege that OSHA, in violation of the APA, indefinitely suspended the Electronic Reporting Rule without following proscribed statutory procedures and without adequate justification. As a result of that suspension, employers are not required to submit Forms 300 and 301, nor will OSHA even accept those forms if submitted, and thus OSHA no longer collects the occupational health and injury data on which Plaintiffs profess to rely.").

Redressability

A plaintiff's allegations satisfy the redressability prong if it is "likely, and not merely speculative, that a favorable decision will remedy the injury." Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Gaston Copper Recycling Corp. , 204 F.3d 149, 154 (4th Cir. 2000). Here, if the Court vacated the August 2017 Guidance as Plaintiffs request, then the manufacturers would be required to submit their applications immediately (as the deadlines in the Deeming Rule and the May 2017 Guidance have passed) or by a reasonable date proposed by FDA, if the Court orders supplemental briefing on a remedy, and then imposes one. See Pls.' Reply & Opp'n 40 n.14. Either way, the deadline would be sooner than under the August 2017 Guidance. Once applications are submitted, the FDA would have to respond in 180 days. 21 U.S.C. § 387j(c)(1)(A). This would generate the information Plaintiffs seek and eliminate the need for them to expend time and resources obtaining the information and educating the public. Thus, it is likely that a decision in Plaintiffs' favor would redress their injury. See Friends of the Earth , 204 F.3d at 154.

Therefore, the Organizational Plaintiffs have standing. See Lujan , 504 U.S. at 560-61, 112 S.Ct. 2130 ; Bishop , 575 F.3d at 423. Because these Plaintiffs have standing, I need not consider whether the other Plaintiffs have standing. See Kenny v. Wilson , 885 F.3d 280, 287 (4th Cir. 2018) ; see also Pub. Citizen Health Research Grp. v. Acosta , 363 F.Supp.3d 1, 11 (D.D.C. 2018) ("Since Plaintiffs' organizational standing alone would suffice to satisfy Article III's requirements, however, the Court will focus its analysis there." (citing Bowsher v. Synar , 478 U.S. 714, 721, 106 S.Ct. 3181, 92 L.Ed.2d 583 (1986) )).

Judicial Review of Nonenforcement Decision

The actions of an agency such as the FDA "are presumptively subject to judicial review." Elecs. of N.C., Inc. v. Se. Power Admin. , 774 F.2d 1262, 1266 (4th Cir. 1985) (citing Abbott Labs. v. Gardner, 387 U.S. 136, 140-41, 87 S.Ct. 1507, 18 L.Ed.2d 681 (1967) ). Two exceptions exist. First, "where Congress manifests its intent to preclude such review," the action is nonreviewable. Id. ; see 5 U.S.C. § 701(a)(1). Second, if the agency's action "is 'committed to agency discretion by law,' " then it is nonreviewable. Id. (quoting 5 U.S.C. § 701(a)(2) ). For this second "very narrow exception" to apply, the statute must be "drawn in such broad terms that in a given case there is no law to apply." Id. (quoting Citizens to Preserve Overton Park, Inc. v. Volpe, 401 U.S. 402, 410, 91 S.Ct. 814, 28 L.Ed.2d 136 (1971) (quoting legislative history of the APA, S. Rep. No. 752, 79th Cong., 1st Sess., 26 (1945))). That is, under § 701(a)(2), "review is not to be had if the statute is drawn so that a court would have no meaningful standard against which to judge the agency's exercise of discretion." Heckler v. Chaney, 470 U.S. 821, 830, 105 S.Ct. 1649, 84 L.Ed.2d 714 (1985).

Further, because an agency's "[r]efusal to take enforcement steps" is "generally...precisely the opposite" of an agency's actions in accordance with "a statute that set[s] clear guidelines for [such actions]," the "presumption of reviewability" does not apply to that refusal. Chaney, 470 U.S. at 831, 105 S.Ct. 1649. Indeed, "in that situation...the presumption is that judicial review is not available." Id. ; see also Elecs. of N.C. , 774 F.2d at 1266.

Relying on the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia's decision in National Association for the Advancement of Colored People v. Trump , 298 F.Supp.3d 209 (D.D.C. 2018), Defendants insist that "a 'general enforcement policy,' " such as an agency's decision not to enforce a statute, "is reviewable only where it announces an agency's 'legal interpretation' of a statute." Defs.' Reply 7 (quoting Nat'l Ass'n for the Advancement of Colored People v. Trump , 298 F.Supp.3d 209, 231 (D.D.C. 2018), adhered to on denial of reconsideration, 315 F.Supp.3d 457 (D.D.C. 2018) ) (emphasis added). Indeed, Trump held that "legal interpretations couched as broad enforcement policies...are reviewable,...individual enforcement decisions...are presumptively unreviewable,...and discretionary enforcement policies...are presumptively unreviewable ...." Trump , 298 F.Supp.3d at 231 (emphasis added). Significantly, however, this holding defines the applicable presumption ; the Trump Court also noted that the presumption of unreviewability of agency discretionary enforcement policies is rebuttable under two circumstances. Trump , 298 F.Supp.3d at 234 ; see also Chaney , 470 U.S. at 832-33, 105 S.Ct. 1649 (discussing when presumption of unreviewability of broad refusal to take enforcement action can be rebutted).

First, while "an agency's decision whether to take an enforcement action is presumptively unreviewable,...that presumption can normally be rebutted...by pointing to statutory language that constrains the agency's exercise of its enforcement discretion." Trump , 298 F.Supp.3d at 234 (citing Chaney , 470 U.S. at 832-33, 105 S.Ct. 1649 ). In other words, the presumption that "an agency's decision not to take enforcement action [is] immune from judicial review under § 701(a)(2)...may be rebutted where the substantive statute has provided guidelines for the agency to follow in exercising its enforcement powers." Chaney , 470 U.S. at 832-33, 105 S.Ct. 1649. To determine whether this exception to the presumption of unreviewability applies, the court considers whether Congress "has indicated an intent to circumscribe agency enforcement discretion, and has provided meaningful standards for defining the limits of that discretion." Chaney , 470 U.S. at 834-35, 105 S.Ct. 1649. If so, "there is 'law to apply' under § 701(a)(2), and courts may require that the agency follow that law." Id. If Congress has not demonstrated such an "intent to circumscribe agency enforcement discretion,...then an agency refusal to institute proceedings is a decision 'committed to agency discretion by law' " and is not reviewable in court. Id. Second, the Chaney "presumption of unreviewability does not apply to 'an agency's announcement of its interpretation of a statute even when that interpretation is advanced in the context of a decision not to take enforcement action.' " Trump , 298 F.Supp.3d at 228 (quoting Edison Elec. Inst. v. EPA , 996 F.2d 326, 333 (D.C. Cir. 1993) (citations and internal quotation marks omitted)).

Additionally, if the agency's decision is " 'tantamount to amending or revoking a rule,' " then it "amounts to substantive rulemaking subject to the APA's constraints and generally reviewable by courts." Public Citizen Health Research Group v. Acosta , 363 F.Supp.3d 1, 18 (D.D.C. 2018) (quoting Clean Air Council v. Pruitt , 862 F.3d 1, 6 (D.C. Cir. 2017) (per curiam)). Thus, an agency enforcement decision, including a refusal to take enforcement action, may be reviewed in court (1) if the agency's decision is a statement of statutory interpretation, albeit couched as an exercise of enforcement discretion; (2) if Congress indicated, such as through the language of the statute itself, that it intended to circumscribe the agency's enforcement discretion, see Trump , 298 F.Supp.3d at 228, 234 ; Chaney , 470 U.S. at 832-35, 105 S.Ct. 1649, or (3) if it amounts to a rule amendment or revocation, see Acosta , 363 F. Supp. 3d at 18.

In Chaney (on which the FDA heavily relies), prison inmates who had been sentenced to death by lethal injection asked the FDA to "take various enforcement actions" regarding the use of drugs for lethal injection; the inmates asserted that the use violated the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, 21 U.S.C. § 301 et seq. ("FDCA"), but the FDA refused to take action. 470 U.S. at 823, 105 S.Ct. 1649. The inmates filed suit, and the Supreme Court considered "the extent to which a decision of an administrative agency to exercise its 'discretion' not to undertake certain enforcement actions is subject to judicial review under the Administrative Procedure Act, 5 U.S.C. § 501 et seq. (APA)." 470 U.S. at 823, 105 S.Ct. 1649.

Specifically, the Chaney Court considered the language of the FDCA, noting that one part "provide[d] only that [t]he Secretary is authorized to conduct examinations and investigations" and did not give any "indication of when an injunction should be sought," and another was "framed in the permissive." Id. at 835, 105 S.Ct. 1649. Also, while "[t]he section on criminal sanctions state[d] baldly that any person who violates the Act's substantive provisions 'shall be imprisoned...or fined,' " the Court was "unwilling" to construe that language to "mandate[ ] criminal prosecution of every violator of the Act...particularly since the Act charges the Secretary only with recommending prosecution; any criminal prosecutions must be instituted by the Attorney General." Id. (emphasis added). It concluded that "[t]he Act's enforcement provisions thus commit complete discretion to the Secretary to decide how and when they should be exercised." Id. The Court also stated that "the Act's substantive prohibitions of 'misbranding' and the introduction of 'new drugs' absent agency approval" were "simply irrelevant to the agency's discretion to refuse to initiate proceedings." Id. at 836, 105 S.Ct. 1649. And, it rejected the argument that another provision of the act, stating that nothing in the act would "be construed as requiring the Secretary to report for prosecution...minor violations of this chapter" gave "rise to the negative implication" that "the Secretary is required to report for prosecution all 'major ' violations of the Act." Id. at 837, 105 S.Ct. 1649 (some emphases added).

In sum, the Court "conclude[d] that the presumption that agency decisions not to institute proceedings are unreviewable under 5 U.S.C. § 701(a)(2) is not overcome by the enforcement provisions of the FDCA," such that "[t]he FDA's decision not to take the enforcement actions requested by [the inmates] is therefore not subject to judicial review under the APA." Id. at 837-38, 105 S.Ct. 1649. But, as Plaintiffs are quick to point out, Chaney is not the last word on how to interpret an agency's professed reliance on the presumption of judicial unreviewability of its exercise of enforcement discretion, because the Circuit and District Courts have examined this subject extensively. Pls.' Reply & Opp'n 28-29.

For example, Public Citizen Health Research Group v. Acosta , 363 F.Supp.3d 1 (D.D.C. 2018), has a fact pattern that is quite similar to the facts in this case. There, the District Court for the District of Columbia considered the justiciability of an action that the Occupational Safety and Health Administration ("OSHA") took that set the requirements for "qualifying employers to record work-related injuries and illnesses on a set of standardized forms." 363 F.Supp.3d at 6.

Initially, OSHA only occasionally collected these forms from employers, either during on-site inspections or as part of broader industry surveys. But in May 2016, OSHA issued a new rule requiring employers to submit them-three in total-electronically each year. In May 2018, however, and after the first filing deadline had passed, OSHA announced employers were only required to submit one of the three forms while it considered revising or rescinding the existing rule, citing privacy and waste concerns. In fact, OSHA stated that, until it completed its review, it would not accept two of the three forms from employers at all.

Id. Three public-health advocacy groups that "view[ed] these forms as valuable sources of workplace health data, and...allege[d] that they intended to use that data in their research and advocacy efforts once OSHA collected it," filed suit pursuant to the APA, claiming that OSHA's conduct "unlawfully deprived them of access to an important source of workplace health data." Id. at 6-7. They asked the court to "require[ ] OSHA to lift its suspension of the filing deadlines and to accept all three forms." Id. at 7.

The court concluded that the plaintiffs sufficiently alleged that "OSHA did not simply exercise its discretion not to enforce the Rule, but suspended its reporting requirement entirely such that covered employers are not legally obligated to submit the forms, regardless of whether OSHA decides to take action against them for not doing so." Id. at 18 ("Plaintiffs' complaint plausibly alleges that the May 2018 OSHA action they challenge was a wholesale suspension of the Electronic Reporting Rule, not merely a policy statement regarding OSHA's enforcement discretion."). It noted that, in the District of Columbia Circuit, "[s]uch decisions...'are tantamount to amending or revoking a rule,' " which "amounts to substantive rulemaking subject to the APA's constraints and generally reviewable by courts." Id. (quoting Clean Air Council v. Pruitt , 862 F.3d 1, 6 (D.C. Cir. 2017) (per curiam)). Therefore "OSHA's action d[id] not warrant a presumption against reviewability." Id.

The court also considered the mandatory requirements within the statutory language of the Occupational Safety and Health Act ("OSH Act"). Specifically,

Section 673(a) of the OSH Act mandates that OSHA "shall develop and maintain an effective program of collection, compilation, and analysis of occupation safety and health statistics." 29 U.S.C. § 673(a). Similarly, § 657(c)(2) mandates that OSHA "shall prescribe regulations requiring employers to maintain accurate records of, and to make periodic reports on, work-related deaths, injuries and illnesses." Id. § 657(c)(2). And § 673(e) further provides that "[o]n the basis of the records made and kept pursuant to section 657(c)..., employers shall file such reports with [OSHA] as [it] shall prescribe by regulation, as necessary to carry out [its] functions under this chapter." Id. § 673(e).

Id. at 19 (emphases added). The court concluded that these provisions "do not rest unfettered discretion with OSHA to promulgate-or not promulgate-regulations concerning reporting requirements and data compilation. OSHA must issue regulations necessary to fulfilling the purposes of the OSH Act and its administrative functions." Id.

Here, the parties agree that, pursuant to the August 2017 Guidance, the FDA currently does not have to undertake premarket review for e-cigarettes, cigars, and other newly deemed tobacco products, and manufacturers currently do not have to file applications with the FDA for those products to remain on the market. Pls.' Mem. 1; Defs.' Mem. & Opp'n 2. Defendants acknowledge that Congress did not establish a statutory grace period for new tobacco products as it did "for originally regulated products," but they argue that the inclusion of such a provision in another section of the Act "in no way curtails the agency's inherent discretion to extend a similar grace period to newly deemed products-if anything, it shows that deferring enforcement of this provision for newly regulated products is entirely sensible." Defs.' Mem. 4. But, "[w]here Congress includes particular language in one section of a statute but omits it in another section of the same Act, it is generally presumed that Congress acts intentionally and purposely in the disparate inclusion or exclusion." Nat'l Ass'n of Mfrs. v. Dep't of Def. , --- U.S. ----, 138 S.Ct. 617, 631, 199 L.Ed.2d 501 (2018) (quoting Russello v. United States, 464 U.S. 16, 23, 104 S.Ct. 296, 78 L.Ed.2d 17 (1983) (internal quotation marks and brackets omitted)).

In Defendants' view, the August 2017 Guidance is a nonenforcement decision that is "committed to agency discretion, and thus presumptively immune from judicial review," as explained in Chaney . Defs.'

Mem. 21. Certainly, the parties agree that the FDA has some discretion to allow for a compliance period for new tobacco products, and the FDA did just that in the Deeming Rule. But, Plaintiffs insist that "Congress cabined any FDA discretion under the [Tobacco Control] Act," and therefore the Court may review the August 2017 Guidance. Pls.' Reply & Opp'n 23 (quoting Citizens to Preserve Overton Park, Inc. v. Volpe , 401 U.S. 402, 410, 91 S.Ct. 814, 28 L.Ed.2d 136 (1971) ). As Plaintiffs see it, "[t]he Tobacco Control Act plainly makes premarket review mandatory, not discretionary, for both regulated entities and FDA." Pls.' Mem. 9.

The extent of the FDA's discretion under the Tobacco Control Act is a matter of statutory interpretation.

"The 'first step' of statutory interpretation 'is to determine whether the language at issue has a plain and unambiguous meaning' by looking to 'the language itself, the specific context in which that language is used, and the broader context of the statute as a whole.' " Orquera v. Ashcroft , 357 F.3d 413, 418 (4th Cir. 2003) (quoting Robinson v. Shell Oil Co. , 519 U.S. 337, 340-41, 117 S.Ct. 843, 136 L.Ed.2d 808 (1997) ). When the words of the statute are "sufficient in and of themselves to determine the purpose of the legislation" and do not produce unreasonable results "plainly at variance with the policy of the legislation as a whole," courts must follow their plain meaning. United States v. Am. Trucking Ass'ns , 310 U.S. 534, 60 S.Ct. 1059, 84 L.Ed. 1345 (1940) (quoting Ozawa v. United States , 260 U.S. 178, 194, 43 S.Ct. 65, 67 L.Ed. 199 (1922) ). Indeed, "[t]here is...no more persuasive evidence of the purpose of a statute than the words by which the legislature undertook to give expression to its wishes." Am. Trucking Ass'ns , 310 U.S. at 543, 60 S.Ct. 1059.

Nat'l Ass'n for the Advancement of Colored People v. U.S. Dep't of Homeland Sec. , 364 F.Supp.3d 568, 574-75 (D. Md. 2019).

Plaintiffs rely on 21 U.S.C. § 387j(a)(2) and (c)(1)(A)(i), which provide:

(a) In general

...

(2) Premarket review required

(A) New products

An order under subsection (c)(1)(A)(i) for a new tobacco product is required unless--

(i) the manufacturer has submitted a report under section 387e(j) of this title; and the Secretary has issued an order that the tobacco product--

(I) is substantially equivalent t