Carthan v. Snyder (In re Flint Water Cases) (384 F. Supp. 3d 802, 2019)

JUDITH E. LEVY, United States District Judge This is a class action lawsuit that is part of the litigation collectively referred to as the Flint Water Cases. To those following these cases, the facts are by now well known. Plaintiffs, residents and property owners in Flint, Michigan, were exposed to lead, legionella, and other contaminants within the municipal water supply. They allege that defendants, a collection of government officials and private parties, caused or prolonged this exposure, injuring them and damaging their property. In this opinion and order, the Court will address the following: plaintiffs' motion for leave to file a fourth amended complaint and defendants' motions to dismiss the entire case.

Table of Contents

I. Procedural History...823

II. Motion for Leave to Amend the Complaint...824

a. Background...824

b. Standard of Review...837

c. Threshold Issues...837

d. Main Analysis...838

1. Bodily Integrity...839

2. Equal Protection...842

3. Elliott Larsen Civil Rights Act...849

4. Conspiracy...851

5. Gross Negligence...852

6. Res Judicata and Statute of Limitations...854

e. Conclusion...854

III. Motions to Dismiss...854

a. Background...854

b. Standard of Review...855

c. Threshold Issues...855

d. Main Analysis...857

i. Federal Claims...857

1. Bodily Integrity...857 2. Equal Protection...861

3. Conspiracy...862

4. State-Created Danger...862

5. Monell Liability...865

ii. State Claims...866

1. ELCRA...866

2. Professional Negligence...866

3. Fraud...866

4. Negligent Infliction of Emotional Distress...869

5. Negligence...871

6. Gross Negligence...871

7. Exemplary Damages...872

e. Conclusion and Order...873

I. Procedural History

Although this lawsuit is still in its early phases, its procedural history is complicated. This case was consolidated with eight other Flint water class action complaints on July 27, 2017. (Dkt. 173.) In September 2017, plaintiffs filed their first amended consolidated class action complaint. (Dkt. 214.) A second amended complaint followed less than a month later. (Dkt. 238.) Then, plaintiffs filed a third amended complaint on January 25, 2018. (Dkt. 349.)

Defendants filed motions to dismiss the complaint under Federal Rules of Civil Procedure 12(b)(1) and (6). (Dkts. 273, 274, 276-79, 281-83, 294.) On August 1, 2018, after hearing oral argument on the motions to dismiss, the Court issued an opinion and order granting defendants' motions in part and denying them in part. Carthan v. Snyder (In re Flint Water Cases) , 329 F.Supp.3d 369 (E.D. Mich. 2018), vacated , No. 16-cv-10444, 2018 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 192371 (E.D. Mich. Nov. 9, 2018). Several defendants appealed part of the ruling to the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals (Dkts. 570, 573, 575, 579, 589); others filed motions for reconsideration. (Dkts. 560-61.) And under the prevailing rules, the Sixth Circuit awaited the resolution of the motions for reconsideration prior to taking jurisdiction. Carthan v. Snyder , No. 18-1967 (6th Cir. Aug. 28, 2018).

Plaintiffs filed a motion for leave to amend the complaint for a fourth time before the Court had resolved the pending motions for reconsideration. (Dkt. 620.) The Court granted leave for plaintiffs in other Flint water lawsuits to file similar motions, and, as a result, there was a significant risk that the Flint Water Cases would proceed in a piecemeal fashion. (Dkt. 670.) The Court was managing filings from more than 150 lawyers and coordinating with related federal and state cases. Having different lawsuits proceed on divergent allegations and differing claims would further complicate the case. Such a scenario would also burden defendants, who would be unable to wage consistent defenses. In the interest of handling the cases in a consistent manner, the Court interpreted plaintiffs' motion as a joint motion for relief from judgment and a motion for leave to file an amended complaint. Finding just cause, the Court vacated its August 1 decision on November 9, 2018, so that it could consider plaintiffs' motion for leave to amend. (Id. )

To fulfill its duty to ensure that the litigation proceeds efficiently, the Court adopted an unorthodox but necessary plan. Noting that there was significant overlap between the proposed fourth amended complaint and the third amended complaint, and that a motion for leave to amend and a motion to dismiss turn on substantively the same standard, the Court determined that it would treat defendants' responses to the motion for leave to amend as addenda to their previously filed motions to dismiss. (Dkt. 714.) The Court would then issue an omnibus opinion and order, adjudicating plaintiffs' motion for leave to file a fourth amended complaint, and, if successful, defendants' motions to dismiss it in a single decision. Mindful of the parties' rights, the Court also gave plaintiffs and defendants the opportunity to file supplemental briefing. (Id. )

The Court now addresses plaintiffs' motion for leave to amend the complaint and defendants' motions to dismiss. Accordingly, this opinion and order will proceed as follows: Part II will address plaintiffs' motion for leave to file a fourth amended complaint, and, for the reasons set forth below, the Court will grant it in part and deny it in part. In Part III, rather than wait for plaintiffs to file their amended complaint, the Court will adopt the fourth amended complaint as the operative complaint and rule on defendants' motions to dismiss it. The Court's ruling in Part II will be preclusive, so any claim found lacking there will not be addressed separately in Part III. The result will be that the fourth amended complaint, to the extent permitted below, will become the operative complaint for the purposes of this litigation.

II. Motion for Leave to Amend the Complaint

a. Background

i. The Parties

There are three types of named plaintiffs. First, the following Flint residents claim personal injury and property damage: Elnora Carthan, a seventy-two year old African American woman; Rhonda Kelso, a fifty-four year old African American woman who also represents the interests of her minor child; Darrell and Barbara Davis, both African Americans; Marilyn Bryson, a fifty-eight year old African American woman; and David Munoz, a Hispanic man.

Next, the following Flint residents only claim personal injury: Michael Snyder, the personal representative of the estate of John Snyder, who received medical treatment in Flint before his death; Tiantha Williams, a forty-year old African American woman and her minor child; and Amber Brown and her minor child.

Finally, the following individuals only claim property damage: Frances Gilcreast, on behalf of her Flint real estate partnership FG&S Investments; EPCO Sales, a domestic limited liability company located in Flint; and Angelo's Coney Island Palace, a Michigan corporation located in Flint.

The named defendants can be separated into two groups: government and private defendants. First, the government defendants include the state defendants Rick Snyder, the former Governor of Michigan;

the State of Michigan; Andy Dillon, then-Treasurer for the State of Michigan; Nick Lyon, the previous Director of the Michigan Department of Health and Human Services (MDHHS); and Nancy Peeler, former MDHHS Director for the Program for Maternal, Infant, and Early Childhood Home Visiting.

The government defendants also include the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality (MDEQ) defendants Daniel Wyant, Director of the MDEQ; Liane Shekter-Smith, MDEQ Chief of the Office of Drinking Water and Municipal Assistance; Adam Rosenthal, an MDEQ Water Quality Analyst; Stephen Busch, an MDEQ District Supervisor; Patrick Cook, an MDEQ Water Treatment Specialist; Michael Prysby, an MDEQ Engineer assigned to MDEQ District 11 (where Flint is located); and Bradley Wurfel, the MDEQ Director of Communications.

Additionally, the government defendants include the city defendants Edward Kurtz, Flint's Emergency Manager from August 2012 to July 2013; Darnell Early, Emergency Manager from September 2013 to January 2015; Gerald Ambrose, Emergency Manager from January 2015 to April 2015; Dayne Walling, Mayor of Flint from August 2009 to November 2015; Howard Croft, Flint's former Director of Public Works; Michael Glasgow, Flint's former Utilities Administrator; Daugherty Johnson, another former Utilities Administrator; and the City of Flint.

Finally, Jeffrey Wright is also a government defendant. Wright is the Genesee County Drain Commissioner and current Chief Executive Officer of the Karegnondi Water Authority (KWA).

The private defendants include Lockwood, Andrews & Newman, PC, Lockwood Andrews & Newman, Inc., and the Leo. A. Daly Company (collectively "LAN"); and Veolia, LLC, Veolia, Inc., and Veolia Water (collectively "Veolia"). LAN performed consultancy work in Flint related to the water supply transition to the Flint River, whereas Veolia performed consultancy work in Flint after the transition, in February and March 2015.

ii. Facts As Pleaded in the Third Amended Complaint

What follows is a summary of the facts set forth in the third amendment complaint, as summarized in the Court's vacated August 1, 2018, opinion and order:

An 1897 city ordinance required that all water pipes in Flint be made of lead. (Dkt. 349 at 38.) In 1917, the Flint Water Treatment Plant (FWTP) was constructed, and drew water from the Flint River as Flint's primary water source until 1964, when it went dormant. (Id. ) From 1964 through 2014, users of municipal water in Flint, Michigan received their water through the Detroit Water and Sewerage Department (DWSD). (Id. at 38.) In 2014, Flint's water supply switched back to the Flint River, and the water was treated at the FWTP. (Id. at 54.) This case concerns the decision to return to the Flint River as Flint's primary water source in 2014, and the alleged injuries that arose from that switch.

Beginning in the 1990s, Flint, along with other local governments relying on the DWSD water supply, had concerns about the cost of that supply, and began studying the viability of alternative water supplies. (Id. at 38.) In 2001, Michigan's Department of Natural Resources noted that businesses along the Flint River had permits to discharge industrial and mining runoff, as well as petroleum and gasoline cleanups. (Id. at 39.) In 2004, a study by the United States Geological Survey, the [MDEQ], and the Flint Water Utilities Department determined that the Flint River was a highly sensitive drinking water source susceptible to contamination. (Id. ) In 2006 and 2009, Flint and other local governments commissioned a study from LAN regarding the viability of continuing to purchase water from the DWSD or constructing a new pipeline, which would be administered by what would later be known as the [KWA]. (Id. )

In 2011, Flint commissioned a study by Rowe Engineering and LAN to determine if the Flint River could be safely used as a water supply. (Id. ) The study determined that water from the Flint River would require more treatment than water from Lake Huron, and that proper treatment for Flint River water would require upgrades to the FWTP. (Id. ) The report included an addendum that set forth over sixty-nine million dollars in improvements that would be necessary to use Flint River water through the FWTP, including the use of corrosion control chemicals. (Id. at 40.)

In August 2012, Michigan Governor Rick Snyder appointed Edward Kurtz as Flint's Emergency Manager, following the declaration of a financial emergency in Flint. (Id. at 40.) Emergency managers may be appointed by the governor of Michigan "to address a financial emergency within" a local government, subject to the limitations in Michigan Public Act 436 of 2012. M.C.L. § 141.1549(1).

Upon appointment, an emergency manager shall act for and in the place and stead of the governing body and the office of chief administrative officer of the local government. The emergency manager shall have broad powers in receivership to rectify the financial emergency and to assure the fiscal accountability of the local government and the local government's capacity to provide or cause to be provided necessary governmental services essential to the public health, safety, and welfare. Following appointment of an emergency manager and during the pendency of receivership, the governing body and the chief administrative officer of the local government shall not exercise any of the powers of those offices except as may be specifically authorized in writing by the emergency manager or as otherwise provided by this act and are subject to any conditions required by the emergency manager.

M.C.L. § 141.1549(2).

In November 2012, Kurtz suggested to State of Michigan Treasurer Andy Dillon that Flint join the proposed KWA under the belief that doing so would save money over continuing to purchase water from the DWSD. (Dkt. 349 at 40.) The KWA was to be an administrative body overseeing a pipeline that would use Lake Huron water for the areas it serviced. (Id. at 39.) Genesee County Drain Commissioner Jeff Wright had encouraged the formation of the KWA in 2009. (Id. at 40.)

DWSD argued throughout 2012 that Flint should not join the KWA based on cost and reliability projections. (Id. ) It made these arguments to Governor [Snyder], Wright, Kurtz, Dillon, and then-Mayor of Flint Dayne Walling. (Id. ) During that period, Wright consistently argued to Kurtz, Dillon, and Governor Snyder that the DWSD studies were wrong. (Id. at 41.) In late 2012, Dillon requested that an independent engineering firm assess the cost effectiveness of joining the KWA. (Id. ) The firm concluded that remaining with DWSD was more cost-effective both in the short and long term. (Id. ) On March 17, 2013, Dillon e-mailed Governor Snyder and stated that the KWA advocates were misrepresenting the benefits of a switch, and that the "[r]eport I got is that Flint should stay w [sic] DWSD." (Id. )

On March 26, 2013, MDEQ District Supervisor Stephen Busch sent an e-mail to MDEQ Director Daniel Wyant and MDEQ Chief of the Office of Drinking Water and Municipal Assistance Liane Shekter-Smith setting forth risks associated with using the Flint River as Flint's drinking water source. (Id. ) The e-mail stated that the water posed increased health risks, including a microbial risk, a risk of trihalomethane (known as "Total Trihalomethanes" or "TTHM") exposure, and would come with additional regulatory requirements, including significant upgrades to the FWTP. (Id. at 41-42.)

On March 27, 2013, MDEQ officials acknowledged that the decision to stay with the DWSD or switch to the Flint River was not based on the scientifically determined suitability of the water, but instead that it was "entirely possible that they will be making decisions relative to cost," in the words of MDEQ Deputy Director Jim Sygo. (Id. at 42.)

On March 28, 2013, Dillon e-mailed Governor Snyder and other officials, and recommended that the state "support the City of Flint's decision to join the KWA," and that all relevant officials supported the move. (Id. at 42-43.) During this period, Governor Snyder was personally involved in the decision-making process. (Id. at 43.) On April 4, 2013, Governor Snyder's Chief of Staff Dennis Muchmore informed Governor Snyder that "[a]s you know, the Flint people have requested Dillon's ok to break away from the DWSD." (Id. ) Governor Snyder then instructed his Chief of Staff, Dillon, the Emergency Manager of Detroit Kevin Orr, DWSD, and Kurtz to solicit an additional offer from the DWSD before permitting the transition away from the DWSD. (Id. )

DWSD submitted its final proposal later in April. (Id. ) Kurtz and Orr, according to an e-mail from a Senior Policy Advisor in the Michigan Department of Treasury, determined that Flint would not accept the DWSD offer. (Id. at 44.) Governor Snyder's Executive Director forwarded the e-mail to Governor Snyder on April 29, 2013, and stated that it "[l]ooks like they adhered to the plan." (Id. )

Following this communication, Governor Snyder authorized Kurtz to enter into a contractual relationship with the KWA beginning in mid-2016. (Id. ) At the time Governor Snyder authorized the switch, he did so knowing the Flint River would be used as an interim source. (Id. ) In June 2013, Dillon, Kurtz, Wright, and Walling developed an interim plan to govern the provision of water to Flint between April 25, 2014, and October 2016. (Id. )

On June 10, 2013, LAN submitted a proposal to Flint for upgrading the FWTP. (Id. at 48.) The proposal included a "Scope of Services" section that proposed upgrades to the FWTP that would permit "use of the Flint River as a water supply," and a "Standards of Performance" section that promised LAN would "exercise independent judgment" and "perform its duties under this contract in accordance with sound professional practices." (Id. at 49.) Flint retained LAN to advise it on the water source transition through 2015. (Id. at 49-50.)

On June 29, 2013, LAN met with representatives from Flint, the Genesee County Drain Commissioner's Office, and MDEQ to discuss logistics related to the transition to the Flint River as Flint's primary water source. (Id. at 50.)

At that meeting, the participants determined that the Flint River was a viable water source, if more difficult to treat, and that upgrades could be made to the FWTP to properly treat the water. (Id. ) The parties also determined that it was possible to conduct proper quality control with LAN's assistance, the FWTP did not have the capacity to meet the needs of both Flint and Genesee County, and the transition could occur by April or May of 2014. (Id. at 51.) LAN agreed to present a comprehensive project proposal with cost estimates. (Id. ) LAN ultimately provided engineering services for the transition from July 2013 until the transition occurred on April 25, 2014, including creating the plans and specification for the transition. (Id. at 53-54.)

Kurtz resigned from his Emergency Manager position effective July 2013. (Id. at 45.) Following Michael Brown serving as Emergency Manager for two months, Darnell Earley was appointed as Emergency Manager for Flint in September 2013. (Id. ) Part of Earley's job included making sure Flint was in compliance with state and federal laws governing safe drinking water. (Id. )

The transition to the Flint River continued. On March 14, 2014, Brian Larkin, then associate director of the Governor's Office of Urban and Metropolitan Initiatives, sent an e-mail to others in the Governor's office stating that the timeframe for switching water supplies was "less than ideal and could lead to some big potential disasters down the road." (Id. at 45-46.)

On March 20, 2014, MDEQ Chief of the Office of Drinking Water and Municipal Assistance Liane Shekter-Smith ensured that the City of Flint received an Administrative Consent Order requiring use of the FWTP, mandating Flint take steps to continue use of Flint River water or take steps to join the KWA, and attempting to prevent Flint's return to use of the DWSD. (Id. at 46.) Shekter-Smith had been warned nearly a year earlier about the potential dangers of switching Flint's water supply to the Flint River. (Id. )

In April 2014, LAN, Flint, and MDEQ officials discussed optimization for lead in the water supply, and decided to seek more data before implementing an optimization method. (Id. at 52.)

On April 16, 2014, former Flint Utility Administrator Michael Glasgow had informed MDEQ Water Analyst Adam Rosenthal that he would like additional time to ensure the FWTP was meeting requirements before giving the okay to distribute water from it. (Id. at 46.) On April 17, 2014, Glasgow informed MDEQ that the FWTP was not fit to begin operation, and that "management" refused to listen to his warnings. (Id. ) On April 18, 2014, Glasgow wrote to Busch and MDEQ Engineer Michael Prysby and informed them that although he was receiving pressure to begin distributing water, he would not give the okay to do so, because he did not feel that staff was trained or proper monitoring was in place. (Id. at 46-47.) Glasgow felt that "management" had its "own agenda." (Id. at 47.) Glasgow later told investigators that former Flint Director of Public Works Howard Croft and former Flint Utilities Administrator Daugherty Johnson pressured Glasgow to approve and begin the switch to Flint River water. (Id. )

At some point in 2014, MDEQ Water Treatment Specialist Patrick Cook signed the final permit necessary to restart use of the FWTP with the Flint River as the city's primary water source. (Id. at 48.) The FWTP officially went into service and began delivering Flint River water to Flint water users on April 25, 2014. (Id. )

When the transition occurred, Flint's water treatment system was not prepared to safely deliver Flint River water to users. The river was contaminated with rock-salt chlorides from treatment of roads in and around Flint during past winters. (Id. at 52.) Chlorides are corrosive, and water must be treated to neutralize their corrosive properties. (Id. ) This is particularly true in a city like Flint, where most of Flint's water mains are over seventy-five years old and made of cast iron, leaving them subject to internal corrosion called "tuberculation." (Id. at 57.) Tuberculation leads to the development of "biofilms," which are layers of bacteria attached to the interior pipe wall. (Id. ) Although LAN provided professional engineering services related to the transition, and those services included ensuring the safety of the water from the Flint River, it did not recommend treatment of the water to prevent corrosion of the pipes. (Id. at 53.)

Within weeks of the transition to Flint River water, residents of Flint began complaining about the smell, taste, and color of the drinking water. (Id. at 54.) Shekter-Smith received many of those complaints, including one forwarded from an Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) employee regarding rashes linked to the Flint River water. (Id. ) Complaints and symptoms related to consumption of the water continued, and, on August 14, 2014, Flint water tested above legal limits for coliform and E. coli bacteria. (Id. at 55.) Flint issued boil water advisories on August 16, 2014, and September 5, 2014. (Id. )

In response to these issues, Flint treated the water with additional chlorine. (Id. ) However, because Flint's old water lines were corroded, chlorine attacked the bare metal, rather than the bacteria, leading to further corrosion and the release of TTHM into the water supply. (Id. ) A PowerPoint presentation circulated among MDEQ officials in March and April 2015, including Busch, Prysby, and Rosenthal, showed that MDEQ officials knew as early as May 2014 that Flint water contained elevated levels of TTHM. (Id. )

In the summer of 2014, MDHHS reported an outbreak of Legionnaires' disease in Flint. (Id. at 56.) Legionnaires' disease infects humans when water droplets containing legionella bacteria are inhaled or legionella-contaminated water is consumed. (Id. ) Legionella can enter a water supply when the biofilm attached to a water pipe is stripped away, as happened when the Flint River water entered the city's pipes, and more chlorine was added to treat the water. (Id. )

On October 3, 2014, Flint's Public Information Officer informed Earley and Ambrose about the spike in Legionnaires' cases via e-mail. (Id. ) Earley responded by denying any connection between Flint water and the outbreak, and stated that the city's message should be that the outbreak was an internal issue at McLaren Hospital. (Id. ) MDHHS personnel did not agree with Earley's message. (Id. at 57.)

In September 2014, elevated blood lead levels were beginning to be noted in children under the age of sixteen who were living in Flint. (Id. ) By October 1, 2014, it was known that the iron pipes making up most of Flint's water distribution system [were] one of the causes of the contamination of the water. (Id. )

On October 13, 2014, General Motors stopped the use of Flint River water at its engine plant due to the corrosive nature of the water. (Id. ) Governor Snyder's executive staff was immediately aware of the problem, and on October 14, 2014, Governor Snyder's Deputy Legal Counsel and Senior Policy Advisor Valerie Brader wrote an e-mail in which she suggested asking Earley to "consider coming back to the [DWSD] in full or in part as an interim solution to both the quality, and now the financial, problems that the current solution is causing." (Id. ) Brader intentionally did not distribute this message to MDEQ officials so that it would be exempted from the Freedom of Information Act [ (FOIA) ], but she did coordinate discussions with Earley and officials at MDEQ. (Id. at 58.) In response to this e-mail, Earley rejected the idea of returning to the DWSD on October 14, 2014. (Id. ) On October 15, 2014, Governor Snyder's Legal Counsel, Michael Gadola, stated that use of the Flint River as a water source was "downright scary," and that Flint "should try to get back on the Detroit system as a stopgap ASAP before this thing gets too far out of control." (Id. at 59.)

By November 2014, LAN knew of the need to analyze the cause of the high TTHM levels in Flint water. (Id. at 60.) On November 26, 2014, LAN issued a twenty-page Operational Evaluation Report regarding the transition, which addressed compliance with EPA and MDEQ regulations, but did not address the potential for lead contamination resulting from the corrosive water flowing through the lead pipes in Flint's water system. (Id. )

By December 31, 2014, lead monitoring showed water testing results exceeding the federal Lead and Copper Rule's action level for lead, which is 15 parts per billion (ppb). (Id. at 59.) On January 9, 2015, University of Michigan - Flint water tests revealed elevated lead levels in two locations on campus, which led the University to turn off certain water fountains. (Id. ) On January 9, 2015, Earley again refused to return Flint to the DWSD. (Id. )

On January 13, 2015 Earley resigned as Emergency Manager for Flint, and was replaced by Gerald Ambrose. (Id. at 78.) On January 29, 2015, DWSD offered Ambrose an opportunity to reconnect to the DWSD water supply, with the re-connection fee waived. Ambrose rejected the offer. (Id. at 79.)

In January 2015, LeeAnn Walters, a Flint homeowner, contacted the EPA regarding complaints that Flint River water was making her and her family physically ill. (Id. ) On January 21, 2015, the State of Michigan ordered water coolers to be installed in state buildings operating in Flint, but did not share this information with the public. (Id. at 78.) On January 27, 2015, Flint received notice from the Genesee County Health Department that it believed the spike in Legionnaires' disease cases was linked to the switch to Flint River water. (Id. ) On January 28, 2015, MDHHS Director Nick Lyon received materials from an MDHHS epidemiologist showing the 2014 outbreak of Legionnaires' disease in Genesee County. (Id. )

On February 26, 2015, Jennifer Crooks, an EPA employee, e-mailed MDEQ and EPA employees regarding Walters' complaints of black sediment in her water. (Id. at 80.) The e-mail noted very high testing results for iron contamination, and noted that Glasgow suggested testing for lead and copper, which resulted in test findings of 104 ppb, well over the federal action levels of 15 ppb. (Id. ) The e-mail also noted that the high presence of lead was a sign that there were other contaminants in the water, as well. (Id. ) That day, Crooks also sent an e-mail to MDEQ and EPA representatives, opining that the black sediment from Walters' water was actually lead, and questioning whether the issue was more widespread. (Id. at 80-81.) Crooks also wondered if Flint was using optimal corrosion control. (Id. at 81.) On February 27, 2015, Busch told [Miguel] Del Toral [at the EPA] that Flint was using corrosion control, which was false. (Id. )

At some point, Flint issued a request for proposals for engineering companies to serve as a water quality consultant to the city. (Id. at 60-61.) Flint sought a consultant who could review and evaluate the City's water treatment process and its procedures to maintain and improve water quality, to recommend ways to maintain compliance with state and federal agencies, and to assist Flint in implementing those recommendations. (Id. at 61.) In February 2015, Veolia was hired to be Flint's water quality consultant. (Id. ) The contract retaining Veolia stated that Flint would rely on the "professional reputation, experience, certification, and ability" of Veolia. (Id. at 62.)

On February 10, 2015, Veolia and Flint issued a joint press release that touted Veolia's expertise in "handling challenging river water sources," and notifying the public of Veolia's role in evaluating Flint's water treatment processes. (Id. ) On February 10 and 12, 2015, executives at Veolia made statements professing the expertise of the companies and promising to address the issues with Flint's water. (Id. at 62-63.)

On February 18, 2015, Veolia made an interim report to Flint's City Council. (Id. at 63.) The report indicated that Flint's water was "in compliance with drinking water standards," but that the discoloration of the water "raises questions." (Id. ) The report also stated that medical issues arising from consumption of the water were explained by the fact that "[s]ome people may be sensitive to any water." (Id. at 64.) LAN also released a report addressing TTHM concerns, but that report did not analyze the causes of the high TTHM levels. (Id. at 66.)

On March 12, 2015, Veolia issued a final Water Quality Report. (Id. at 64.) That report was based on a 160-hour assessment of the FWTP, Flint's distribution system, and related administrative and financial aspects of Flint's water system. (Id. ) The report found that Flint water was in compliance with state and federal water quality regulations, despite public concerns about the color and quality of the water. (Id. ) The report also recommended that Flint add polyphosphates to the water supply to minimize the discoloration from iron in the pipes, but that discoloration might happen because of regular breaks and maintenance on the pipes. (Id. at 64-65.) But polyphosphates only addressed issues with the iron pipes, and were not a solution to the issues with the lead pipes. (Id. at 65.)

Meanwhile, Cook told the EPA that Flint was using corrosion control with Flint River water, and forwarded information he knew to be false to the EPA to back up the contention. (Id. at 81.) On January 27, 2015, James Henry, Environmental Health Supervisor at the Genesee County Health Department, filed a [FOIA] request with Flint to obtain information about Flint's water supply. (Id. ) Johnson stated on February 5, 2015, that he had not received the request and would fulfill it as soon as possible. However, he had not done so by March 2015. (Id. at 82.) On March 10, 2015, Henry expressed public concern that Flint and the State of Michigan were stonewalling his requests for information. (Id. )

On March 12, 2015, Shekter-Smith e-mailed Wurfel and MDEQ employees Jim Sygo and Sarah Howes to discuss a FOIA request related to legionella and stated that although the switch to the Flint River may have created conditions that supported legionella growth, there was no evidence that legionella was coming directly from the FWTP or Flint's water distribution system at the time. (Id. at 83.) On March 13, 2015, Busch made statements that denied any provable connection between the switch to Flint River water and the presence of legionella bacteria in that water supply, and Shekter-Smith approved them. (Id. ) During March, members of Governor Snyder's office were aware of mobilization by Flint area pastors focused on the odor and appearance of Flint water, and of a request by those pastors for water filters. (Id. at 84.)

On March 25, 2015, the Flint City Council voted to reconnect to the DWSD, but Ambrose rejected that vote. (Id. ) On April 24, 2015, almost exactly one year after the switch to Flint River water, Cook e-mailed ... Del Toral ... and informed him, in contradiction of Cook's earlier representations, that Flint was not practicing corrosion control at the FWTP. (Id. ) On June 24, 2015, Del Toral issued a report noting high lead levels in Flint and the State of Michigan's complicity in both the high lead levels and the failure to inform users of Flint's water supply. (Id. at 84-85.) The report was shared with Shekter-Smith, Cook, Busch, and Prysby, but neither they nor any other public official named as a defendant in this lawsuit took measures to effectively address any danger identified in the report. (Id. at 85.)

Between June 30, 2015, and July 2, 2015, Walling and EPA Region 5 Director Dr. Susan Hedman discussed the report, and Hedman stated that it was a preliminary draft from which it would be premature to draw any conclusions. (Id. )

On July 9, 2015, Glasgow sent an e-mail to Rosenthal describing the clear and undeniable issues that Flint's lead-and bacteria-tainted water was causing. (Id. at 86.) On July 10, 2015, Wurfel appeared on public radio and made knowingly false statements asserting that Flint River water was safe and causing no "broad problem[s]" with elevated lead levels in the water. (Id. at 85-86.) On July 22, 2015, Governor Snyder's Chief of Staff wrote to Lyon and stated that the concerns of Flint water users were being "blown off" by the defendants. (Id. at 87.) On July 24, 2015, Wurfel again falsely stated that there were no worries about lead or copper contamination in Flint's water supply. (Id. )

In that July 24, 2015 statement, Wurfel referenced sampling of the water supply by MDEQ, but that sampling was skewed, and did not resample most lower-lead homes between 2014 and 2015, or any high-lead homes between 2014 and 2015. (Id. ) The sampling actually covered up high-lead samples. (Id. at 88.) Glasgow ultimately pleaded no contest to willful neglect of duty after being accused of distorting the water test results by asking residents of Flint to run or flush their water before testing, and of failing to obtain water samples from certain houses. (Id. )

During this time period, Glasgow also stated that Busch and Prysby directed him to alter water quality reports to remove the highest lead levels. (Id. ) Rosenthal also allegedly manipulated test results, including a July 28, 2015 report from which Rosenthal excluded high lead-level tests. (Id. at 88-89.)

In August 2015, Professor Marc Edwards of Virginia Tech, who had been testing Flint River water, announced that he believed there was serious lead contamination of the Flint water system, which constituted a major public health emergency. (Id. at 89.) In response, Wurfel attempted to discredit Edwards' statements by calling the testing "quick" and implying that it was irresponsible. (Id. )

By late 2014 or early 2015, Lyon also knew about the increase in children with elevated blood lead levels and Legionnaires' disease cases, but did not report these findings to the public or other government officials, or take any steps to otherwise intervene. (Id. at 89-90.) In the summer of 2015, Dr. Mona Hanna-Attisha used data from Hurley Hospital in Flint to note a rise in the number of Flint children with elevated blood lead levels in the second and third quarters of 2014 to publish a study, the purpose of which was to alert Flint water users about the health risks associated with the water. (Id. at 90.) The governmental defendants immediately accused Dr. Hanna-Attisha of providing false information to the public. (Id. ) On September 28, 2015, Lyon directed his staff to provide an analysis rebutting Dr. Hanna-Attisha's findings and portraying the rise in elevated blood lead levels as normal results corresponding to seasonal fluctuations. (Id. at 90-91.) Throughout September 2015, Wurfel and the MDEQ continued to issue false statements claiming the water in Flint was safe, and that the people sounding alarms about Flint's water quality were mistaken or "rogue." (Id. at 91-92.)

On October 2, 2015, the State of Michigan announced that it would create a Flint Water Advisory Task Force and provide water filters to Flint water users. (Id. at 92.) On October 8, 2015, Governor Snyder ordered Flint to reconnect to the DWSD, and that reconnection took place on October 16, 2015. (Id. ) On October 18, 2015, Wyant e-mailed Governor Snyder and admitted that MDEQ made a mistake in not implementing optimized corrosion control from the beginning. (Id. at 93.) On October 19, 2015, the City of Flint Technical Advisory committee listed LAN as the "owner" of the "corrosion control" issue. (Id. )

Current Flint Mayor Karen Weaver declared a state of emergency in Flint on December 14, 2015. (Id. at 94.) On January 4, 2016, the Genesee County Commissioners likewise declared a state of emergency; Governor Snyder did so on January 5, 2016, and activated the Michigan National Guard to assist Flint on January 13, 2016. (Id. )

Carthan , 329 F.Supp.3d at 382-89.

iii. Additional Allegations in the Proposed Fourth Amended Complaint

The proposed fourth amended complaint adds new factual allegations as follows. During the middle of the twentieth century, Flint's water supply was taken from the Flint River and was of poor quality due to the presence of fecal coliform bacteria and contaminants. (Dkt. 620-3 at 38-39.) Because of these environmental concerns, Flint began evaluating different water sources in the 1960s. (Id. ) Flint eventually mothballed the FWTP around 1965, and entered into an agreement to receive its water from DWSD. (Id. ) This agreement gave Flint the exclusive right to sell DWSD water to the remainder of Genesee County. (Id. ) And the Genesee County Drain Commission (GCDC) contracted with Flint to buy DWSD water in order to resell it to local customers. (Id. )

In 1973, the GCDC updated its contract with Flint. (Id. at 39.) The GCDC had to accept water from Flint as delivered, so long as it met "all requirements of the various State Regulatory Agencies." (Id. at 39-40.) In return, Flint was required to sell water "generally sufficient to supply the County's system use." (Id. at 40.) In 2003, the contract was again updated. (Id. ) It similarly required the "City ... to sell water to the [GCDC] in such quantities as will meet the demands of the County Agency's customers" and "the [GCDC] agree[d] to purchase water exclusively from the City[.]" (Id. ) This was the situation until 2014, when Flint transitioned back to the Flint River as its source of water. (Id. at 52-53.)

Flint was not the only municipality looking to switch its water supply in the early 2000s. Various communities in the same region had formed the KWA in 2009 to explore this possibility. (Id. at 42.) Specifically, the KWA was aiming to construct a new water pipeline connected to Lake Huron. (Id. ) Walling was elected as the KWA's chair, and Wright was elected its Chief Executive Officer. (Id. ) Wright later stated that he was motivated to establish the KWA at least in part because DWSD was "the poster child for Detroit corruption." (Id. at 43.)

To be viable, the KWA would have to construct a water intake at Lake Huron and sixty-three miles of pipeline. (Id. ) The system would have to supply sixty million gallons of water each day. (Id. ) It was estimated that Genesee County would require forty-two million gallons a day and Flint eighteen. (Id. ) The projected capital cost ran to approximately $ 300 million, of which Flint would shoulder eighty-five million and serve 34.2% of the debt. (Id. ) Unlike the treated water supplied by DWSD, the KWA water would be raw and would require considerable treatment before use. (Id. )

By 2013, Wright had secured long-term commitments from most of its members to purchase their future water from the KWA. (Id. at 46.) The commitments were necessary to fund the bonds required to finance the project. (Id. ) However, at that time, Flint had not committed to the KWA. (Id. ) And Wright knew that it was doubtful the financing would be successful without Flint's backing. (Id. at 46-47.) So beginning in March and April of that year, Wright aggressively argued the case for Flint joining the KWA. (Id. ) All officials involved in the decision knew that the FWTP would have to be upgraded to process the future supply of raw water. (Id. at 47.)

Yet there was a problem with Flint's participation in the KWA: how would it pay for its share of the costs? Under state law, Flint could not issue new bonds because it was in financial receivership. (Id. at 55.) An Administrative Consent Order (ACO) would permit Flint to circumvent this problem. (Id. at 129-32.) But the only way Flint could obtain an ACO was from a state agency as a result of an emergency. (Id. at 132.) Accordingly, Flint began pursuing an ACO from the MDEQ. (Id. at 133.) And although initially hesitant, the MDEQ began to help with the ACO even though there was no prerequisite emergency. (Id. at 133-34.) The MDEQ executed the ACO on March 20, 2014. (Id. at 136.) Pursuant to its terms, Flint was bound to adopt the interim plan to use the Flint River as its water source. (Id. ) The bond issue that followed allowed the KWA project to move forward. (Id. )

When developing the interim plan, a group of people including defendants Wright, Dillon, and Walling recognized that the FWTP could not process enough water for all of Genesee County. (Id. at 53.) So together with other officials, these defendants eventually planned for Flint to receive Flint River water while Genesee County would continue to receive DWSD water. (Id. ) This was despite evidence that the use of the Flint River would "[p]ose an increased microbial risk to public health," "an increased risk of disinfection by-product (carcinogen) exposure," and "[r]equire significant enhancements to treatment [sic] at the [FWTP.]" (Id. at 131.)

As a necessary part of the interim plan, MDEQ officials issued an operating permit for the FWTP in April 2014. (Id. at 52.) However, they did so without following the required procedures. (Id. at 126.) Federal law requires states to "review and approve the addition of a new source or long-term change in water treatment[.]" (Id. at 136.) In turn, Michigan law regulates the MDEQ's authority to issue permits that impact the State's water systems. Before issuing a permit for certain water sources, the MDEQ is required to provide a public comment period of "not less than 45 days." (Id. at 136-37.) This regulation applied to the FWTP permitting process. (Id. at 137.) Publicly, the MDEQ stated that "the city would just continue to buy water from [DWSD]" if no permit was issued in time. (Id. at 138.) And Flint officials assured people that there would be a series of open forums to permit public questions. (Id. ) But when Flint eventually submitted its permit application on March 31, 2013, it was approved in a matter of days, without an opportunity for public comment. (Id. at 138-39.)

Flint transitioned to the Flint River on April 25, 2014. (Id. at 62.) And in the months that followed, members of Governor Snyder's senior staff began to discuss the possibility of lead contamination. (Id. at 104-05.) In March 2015, a Flint resident wrote an open letter to Walling stating that "the water is dangerous to our health!" (Id. at 158.) Ambrose eventually received the letter, forwarding it to Flint's public relations firm simply stating, "[w]elcome to Monday." (Id. ) Civic groups tried to get the government defendants to take the issue seriously. (Id. at 158-59.) But officials dismissed their concerns as unwarranted. (Id. )

Even as the EPA continued to uncover evidence of lead contamination and some senior members of Governor Snyder's administration voiced the view that the problem was not being taken seriously (id. at 159-60), many officials continued to deny that anything was wrong. (Id. at 160-62.) Instead, they put it down to "old time negative racial experiences." (Id. at 161.) Several officials recommended that more money be spent on public relations to combat the issue, rather than looking to resolve the underlying problem. (Id. at 159.)

On April 28, 2015, Governor Snyder received an e-mail from his chief of staff advising him that the water issue in Flint continued to be a "danger flag" for the administration. (Id. at 92.) Later that summer, the Governor's Director of Urban Initiatives discussed with him the growing concerns among Flint residents that they were being exposed to contaminated water. (Id. at 94.) And on September 25, the Governor's chief of staff again e-mailed the Governor to discuss the issue of lead exposure and the potential political implications. (Id. at 103.) In the same communication, the chief of staff opined that the residents of Flint were having their concerns about water quality inappropriately dismissed. (Id. at 104.) The Governor received this e-mail almost a week before he publicly acknowledged in October 2015 that Flint's water was contaminated with lead. (Id. 103.) In the meantime, MDEQ officials continued to tell the public that "the drinking water distributed to city customers currently meets all drinking water standards[.]" (Id. at 162.)

Following his public acknowledgment of the crisis in October 2015, the Governor was told in December that in addition to elevated lead levels, Flint residents were also at risk of legionella exposure. (Id. at 101.) Despite all this knowledge, Governor Snyder did not disclose this risk when he declared a state of emergency on January 5, 2016. (Id. at 102.) It was not until January 13 that he publicly admitted that Flint's water contained legionella bacteria. (Id. ) He did this while activating the Michigan National Guard to assist the people of Flint. (Id. ) On January 14, Governor Snyder asked the federal government to issue an emergency declaration. (Id. ) The federal government did so two days later. (Id. )

In the aftermath of the crisis, facts about how the MDEQ dealt with the disaster came to light. For example, the MDEQ failed to comply with various rules and regulations. (Id. at 126.) State law requires the MDEQ to notify the public if a source of water is found to be out of compliance. (Id. at 142.) In August 2014, MDEQ officials discussed whether a Flint boil water advisory was caused by a sampling error in a test or a high fecal coliform result. (Id. ) It was far from certain that sampling error was the culprit. (Id. ) And although the MDEQ suspected that the water was contaminated, no one made an effort to investigate the issue or notify the public. (Id. at 143-44.)

Additionally, the MDEQ lacked a nondiscrimination policy required by federal law. (Id. at 126.) In 1992, the EPA found that the MDEQ had discriminated against Flint's majority African American population in the public participation processes for a power station permit. (Id. at 145-46.) In conducting its investigation, the EPA concluded that the MDEQ had insufficient formalized safeguards to protect against operational discrimination as required by federal regulations. (Id. at 146.) In 2014, the EPA informed the MDEQ that it was still not in compliance and needed to have in place a non-discrimination policy. (Id. at 147.) And even when the MDEQ provided the EPA with a written policy, the EPA determined that it was legally insufficient. (Id. ) The same defective policy remains in place. (Id. )

Throughout the crisis and its aftermath, the concerns and fears of the people of Flint were not taken seriously. In the opinion of some government officials, residents "making noise about civil unrest, violence, [Michigan State Police] shootings and an [emergency manager], [were] the naysayers[.]" (Id. at 156.) These officials believed that too many of them had "their handout [sic] and their voices raised," and caving to their demands was part of the reason that Flint had been "placed in receivership twice in the past decade." (Id. at 156-57.) In the view of these officials, the problem an "entitlement mentality." (Id. at 157.) Ultimately, the Task Force charged with investigating the causes of the crisis summed it up: "Flint residents, who are majority Black or African American and among the most impoverished of any metropolitan area in the United States, did not enjoy the same degree of protection from environmental and health hazards as that provided to other communities." (Id. at 165.)

iv. Prior Flint Water Cases

Litigation from the Flint Water Cases has already resulted in several opinions from the Sixth Circuit. The Court must follow these as they are binding precedent, including Guertin v. Michigan , 912 F.3d 907 (6th Cir. 2019) ; Boler v. Earley , 865 F.3d 391 (6th Cir. 2017) ; and Mays v. City of Flint , 871 F.3d 437 (6th Cir. 2017). Other decisions have been issued by this Court, which will be adhered to where appropriate. This includes Guertin v. Michigan , No. 16-cv-12412, 2017 WL 2418007, 2017 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 85544 (E.D. Mich. June 5, 2017), and the Court's vacated August 1, 2018 opinion in the present case. 329 F.Supp.3d 369.

b. Standard of Review

Plaintiffs seek leave to amend the complaint under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 15(a)(2). Rule 15(a)(2) states that "a party may amend its pleading only with ... the court's leave." However, "court[s] should freely give leave when justice so requires." Fed. R. Civ. P. 15(a)(2) ; see also Leisure Caviar, LLC v. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Serv. , 616 F.3d 612, 615 (6th Cir. 2010) (noting that Rule 15(a) requests are normally liberally granted). And when evaluating the interests of justice, courts consider various factors. These include " '[u]ndue delay in filing, lack of notice to the opposing party, bad faith by the moving party, repeated failure to cure deficiencies by previous amendments, [and] undue prejudice to the opposing party[.]' " Wade v. Knoxville Utils. Bd. , 259 F.3d 452, 458-59 (6th Cir. 2001) (quoting Head v. Jellico Hous. Auth. , 870 F.2d 1117, 1123 (6th Cir. 1989) ). Mere delay on its own is insufficient to warrant denial. Oleson v. United States , 27 F. App'x 566, 569 (6th Cir. 2001). Instead, courts examine the competing interests of the litigants and the likelihood of prejudice to the non-moving party. See Morse , 290 F.3d at 799.

Yet regardless of the equities, leave must be denied if an amendment would be futile. Parchman v. SLM Corp. , 896 F.3d 728, 736, 738 (6th Cir. 2018) (citing Foman v. Davis , 371 U.S. 178, 182, 83 S.Ct. 227, 9 L.Ed.2d 222 (1962) ). And a "proposed amendment is futile if [it] could not withstand a Rule 12(b)(6) motion[.]" Beydoun v. Sessions , 871 F.3d 459, 469 (6th Cir. 2017). Under Rule 12(b)(6), the Court must "construe the complaint in the light most favorable to the plaintiff and accept all allegations as true." Keys v. Humana, Inc. , 684 F.3d 605, 608 (6th Cir. 2012). "To survive a motion to dismiss, a complaint must contain sufficient factual matter, accepted as true, to state a claim to relief that is plausible." Ashcroft v. Iqbal , 556 U.S. 662, 678, 129 S.Ct. 1937, 173 L.Ed.2d 868 (2009). A plausible claim need not contain "detailed factual allegations," but it must contain more than "labels and conclusions" or "a formulaic recitation of the elements of a cause of action." Bell Atl. Corp. v. Twombly , 550 U.S. 544, 555, 127 S.Ct. 1955, 167 L.Ed.2d 929 (2007). Ultimately, a claim is only facially plausible "when the plaintiff pleads factual content that allows the court to draw the reasonable inference that the defendant is liable for the misconduct alleged." Iqbal , 556 U.S. at 678, 129 S.Ct. 1937.

c. Threshold Issues

i. Jurisdiction

Several parties question the Court's jurisdiction to rule on plaintiffs' motion. (Dkt. 635 at 4-5; Dkt. 650 at 1-2; Dkt. 653 at 12-13; Dkt. 655 at 12-14; Dkt. 657 at 11-12.) They argue that the Court was divested of jurisdiction by appeals filed in response to its August 1, 2018 opinion and order. (Id. ) However, as explained in its November 9, 2018 order, the Court retained jurisdiction. (Dkt. 670.) And the Sixth Circuit recently affirmed this position, dismissing defendants' appeals in the process. Carthan v. Snyder , No. 18-1967 (6th Cir. Feb. 19, 2019). As such, the Court retains the authority to rule on the present motion.

ii. Class Definitions

Plaintiffs seek leave to amend the class definitions. The third amended complaint broadly defined the class as including all individuals and entities who were exposed to Flint's contaminated water and who experienced injuries or damages to their persons or property. (Dkt. 349 at 112-13.) The fourth amended complaint keeps this general definition but adds a subclass of African Americans. (Dkt. 620-3 at 167-68.) Plaintiffs also further divide the proposed classes into a series of even smaller subclasses based on property damage, personal injury, injunctive relief, and a set of common issues relating to liability and causation. (Id. at 167-72.)

Class certification should occur "at an early practicable time." Fed. R. Civ. P. 23(c)(1)(A). The Court is currently preparing a comprehensive case management order that will set forth the timeframe for consideration of class definitions and certification. Therefore, plaintiffs may amend the complaint to include the amended class definitions with the understanding that this issue will be revisited.

d. Main Analysis

Plaintiffs seek leave to amend the following six counts:

Count Claim Defendants I 42 U.S.C. § 1983 - Bodily Integrity All government defendants II-III 42 U.S.C. § 1983 - Snyder, Dillon, Wright, Ambrose, Equal Protection Kurtz, Earley, Wyant, Shekter-Smith, Prysby, and Busch IV 42 U.S.C. § 1985(3) - Snyder, Dillon, Wright, Ambrose, Conspiracy Kurtz, and Earley Snyder, Dillon, Wright, Ambrose, V Elliott-Larsen Civil Kurtz, Earley, The City of Flint, Rights Act Wyant, Shekter-Smith, Prysby, and Busch Snyder, Dillon, Lyon, Shekter-Smith, Rosenthal, Busch, Cook, XIV Gross Negligence Prysby, Wurfel, Wright, Kurtz, Earley, Ambrose, Croft, Johnson, and Glasgow.

i. Competing Interests and Likelihood of Prejudice

Some of the defendants argue that leave to amend the complaint should be denied because plaintiffs' request is unduly delayed. (Dkt. 651 at 19-20; Dkt. 653 at 33-34). The Court disagrees.

It is true that the present case has been pending for several years. This is now plaintiffs' fourth amended complaint, and if this were a routine case, their attempt to amend the pleadings again might be unusual. But this litigation is far from routine. The harm alleged and the number of parties involved are extraordinary. What started out as a series of individual suits has become a large consolidated action. And the complex nature of the claims coupled with less than straightforward procedure must be considered. This weighs in plaintiffs' favor.

Conversely, defendants do not explain how they will be prejudiced. Having resisted the start of discovery, they cannot claim that they will be subject to duplicative discovery. See Morse , 290 F.3d at 800-01. Plaintiffs have not changed their allegations so much that defendants will need to completely overhaul their strategy. See Prather v. Dayton Power & Light Co. , 918 F.2d 1255, 1259 (6th Cir. 1990). And the fourth amended complaint does not contain new claims so far outside the scope of the third amended complaint such that granting leave to amend may later lead to confusion. See Lover v. D.C. , 248 F.R.D. 319, 323 (D.D.C. 2008). As a result, leave to amend will not be denied on the basis of prejudice. Instead, the Court will examine each count for futility.

ii. Futility of Amendments

1. Bodily Integrity

Plaintiffs first seek leave to amend their bodily integrity claim brought under § 1983 against defendant Governor Snyder. (Dkt. 620-1 at 13.) In their view, the newly pleaded allegations establish that the Governor was aware of the significant risks posed by the Flint River water as early as April 2015, but he did nothing to inform Flint's residents until the crisis could no longer be denied many months later. (Id. at 14-15.) Additionally, Governor Snyder not only denied the crisis in the intervening period, but later played down the risks for months after having publicly acknowledged the disaster. (Id. ) Because plaintiffs' state a plausible bodily integrity claim against Governor Snyder, granting leave to include it would not be futile.

a. Constitutional Violation

The right to bodily integrity is a fundamental interest protected by the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Guertin , 912 F.3d at 918-19 ; Guertin , 2017 WL 2418007, at *21, 2017 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 85544, at *63 (citing Union Pac. Ry. Co. v. Botsford , 141 U.S. 250, 251, 11 S.Ct. 1000, 35 L.Ed. 734 (1891) ). And although violations of the right to bodily integrity usually arise in the context of physical punishment, the scope of the right is not limited to that context. Kallstrom v. City of Columbus , 136 F.3d 1055, 1062-63 (6th Cir. 1998). For instance, the "forcible injection of medication into a nonconsenting person's body represents a substantial interference with that person's liberty[.]" Guertin , 912 F.3d at 919 (citing Washington v. Harper , 494 U.S. 210, 229, 110 S.Ct. 1028, 108 L.Ed.2d 178 (1990) ). And "compulsory treatment with anti-psychotic drugs may [also] invade a patient's interest in bodily integrity[.]" Guertin , 2017 WL 2418007, at *22, 2017 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 85544, at *66 (citing Lojuk v. Quandt , 706 F.2d 1456, 1465-66 (7th Cir. 1983) ). The key is whether the intrusion is consensual. See Guertin , 912 F.3d at 920. There is no difference between the forced invasion of a person's body and misleading that person into consuming a substance involuntarily. Guertin , 2017 WL 2418007, at *24, 2017 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 85544, at *71 (citing Heinrich v. Sweet , 62 F.Supp.2d 282, 313-14 (D. Mass. 1999) ). As such, officials can violate an individual's bodily integrity by introducing life-threatening substances into that person's body without their consent. Guertin , 2017 WL 2418007, at *22, 2017 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 85544, at *65 (citing Washington , 494 U.S. at 229, 110 S.Ct. 1028 ).

However, to state a claim, plaintiffs must do more than point to the violation of a protected interest; they must also demonstrate that it was infringed arbitrarily. Guertin , 912 F.3d at 922. But see Range v. Douglas , 763 F.3d 573, 589 (6th Cir. 2014) (observing that in some contexts government action may violate substantive due process without a liberty interest at stake). And with executive action, as here, only the most egregious conduct can be classified as unconstitutionally arbitrary. Cty. of Sacramento v. Lewis , 523 U.S. 833, 846, 118 S.Ct. 1708, 140 L.Ed.2d 1043 (1998). In legal terms, the conduct must "shock[ ] the conscience." Guertin , 2017 WL 2418007, at *21, 2017 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 85544, at *63 (quoting Lewis , 523 U.S. at 846, 118 S.Ct. 1708 ).

Whether government action shocks the conscience depends on the situation. Ewolski v. City of Brunswick , 287 F.3d 492, 510 (6th Cir. 2002). Where unforeseen circumstances demand the immediate judgment of an executive official, liability turns on whether decisions were made "maliciously and sadistically for the very purpose of causing harm." Lewis , 523 U.S. at 852-53, 118 S.Ct. 1708 (quoting Whitley v. Albers , 475 U.S. 312, 320-21, 106 S.Ct. 1078, 89 L.Ed.2d 251 (1986) ). But where an executive official has time for deliberation before acting, conduct taken with "deliberate indifference" to the rights of others "shocks the conscience." See Claybrook v. Birchwell , 199 F.3d 350, 359 (6th Cir. 2000). This case involves the latter of these two situations. And as a result, plaintiffs must demonstrate that (1) officials knew of facts from which they could infer a "substantial risk of serious ha