Johnson v. City of Fayetteville (91 F. Supp. 3d 775, 2015)

United States District Court for the Eastern District of North Carolina 2015-03-04

Citations

Full opinion text

ORDER

JAMES C. FOX, Senior District Judge.

This matter is before the court on the Motion for Partial Summary Judgment filed by Defendant Heather St. John [DE-208]; Motion for Partial Summary Judgment [DE-238] filed by Plaintiffs Darwin Johnson, LaTonjá D. Johnson, and Brenda Mathis; and the Motion for Summary Judgment [DE-240] filed by Defendants City of Fayetteville, Shane Koehler, Jennifer Rodriguez, Phyllis Jernigan, Thomas Bergamine, Dale Imán and Kevin 'Croyle (collectively, “City Defendants”). All motions have been fully briefed and are ripe for ruling. For the reasons stated below, St. John’s Motion for Partial Summary Judgment [DE-208] is ALLOWED; Plaintiffs’ Motion for Partial Summary Judgment [DE-238] is DENIED; and the City Defendants’ Motion for Summary Judgment [DE-240] is ALLOWED IN PART and DENIED IN PART.

I.PROCEDURAL HISTORY

The procedural history of this case was fully set forth in the court’s December 11, -2014 Order [DE-317], and the court sees no need to repeat it here, other than to state what claims remain in this action:

1. Claims against Defendant St. John: Plaintiff Darwin Johnson’s and Plaintiff Brenda Mathis’ § 1985 claim for civil conspiracy. Plaintiff LaTonja Johnson’s claim for negligence.

2. Against Officer Koehler in his Individual Capacity: Plaintiff Darwin Johnson’s (1) § 1983 claims for false arrest (unreasonable seizure), excessive force, and malicious prosecution; (2) § 1985 claim for civil conspiracy; and (3) state law claims of IIED, assault and battery, and false imprisonment. Plaintiff Mathis’ (1) § 1983 claim of excessive force; (2) § 1985 claim for civil conspiracy; and (3) state law claim for assault and battery.

3. Against Officer Rodriguez in her Individual Capacity: Plaintiff Darwin Johnson’s and Plaintiff Mathis’ § 1985 claim for civil conspiracy.

4. Against Defendant City of Fay-etteville: Plaintiffs Darwin Johnson’s and, Mathis’ (1) state law claim of negligent hiring, retention, supervision, training, and discipline and (2) municipal derivative § 1983 claims based on a policy or custom.

5. Against Defendant City of Fay-etteville, and Defendants Berga-mine and Iman in their Individual Capacity: Plaintiffs Darwin Johnson’s and Mathis’ municipal and supervisor derivative § 1983 and § 1985 claims based on their negligent hiring of and failure to train Officer Koehler, as well as Plaintiffs Darwin Johnson’s and Mathis’ municipal and supervisor derivative § 1983 and § 1985 claims based on the institution and maintenance of a widespread discriminatory policy.

6. Against Lt. Croyle. Plaintiffs Darwin Johnson’s § 1983 claim for illegal seizure (malicious prosecution). Plaintiffs Darwin Johnson’s and Mathis’ § 1985 claim for civil conspiracy.

7. Defendant Sg't. Jernigan. Plaintiff Darwin Johnson’s § 1983 claim for illegal seizure (malicious prosecution). Plaintiffs Darwin Johnson’s and Mathis’ § 1985 claim for civil ■ conspiracy.

II. FACTS

The facts, stated in the light most favorable to the Plaintiffs, are as follows.

A. Events of April 17, 2011

On April 17, 2011, Plaintiff LaTonja Johnson (“Mrs. Johnson”) was patronizing a local McDonald’s Restaurant on Raeford Road via its drive thru. Dep. of LaTonja Johnson [DE-219-5] at 9, 70. Mrs. Johnson’s mother-in-law, Plaintiff Brenda Mathis (“Mrs. Mathis”), also was in the vehicle. Id. at 9. This McDonald’s franchise offers customers the option of ordering their food at one of two drive-thru lanes. Id. at 70-71. The lanes then merge together after the drive-thru order speaker. See Overhead View of McDonald’s [DE-243-4],

Mrs. Johnson lined up in the outside lane (“Lane Two”). Dep. of LaTonja Johnson [DE-219-5] at 71. Defendant St. John was waiting in the inside lane (“Lane One”). Id. at 79. Defendant St. John yelled and screamed at Mrs. Johnson, saying Mrs. Johnson cut in the line. Id. at 80. Mrs. Johnson placed her order in Lane Two and then moved her car forward in the direction of the cashier, and stopped behind the other vehicles waiting in line. Id. 73. Defendant St. John placed her order in Lane One after Mrs. Johnson had placed her order. Id. at 75. Defendant St. John then drove her truck over the curb to the left of her truck, and in the process of doing so, struck Mrs. Johnson’s vehicle. Id. at 75-76. While she was driving over the curb and striking Mrs. Johnson’s vehicle, Defendant St. John yelled that she had the police on the phone. Id. at 89-90. Defendant St. John then proceeded to the cashier. Id. 90-91. Mrs. Johnson put her vehicle in park, and called her husband, Plaintiff Darwin Johnson (“Mr. Johnson”), and then 911. Id. at 89-90. After purchasing her food at the window, Defendant St. John drove her car around the McDonald’s building and parked her car across the parking lot in view of Mrs. Johnson’s vehicle. Id. at 92-93. Mrs. Johnson kept her .car in the drive-thru while waiting for the police. Id. at 91. She exited her vehicle and stood next to it, along with Mrs. Mathis and the manager of the McDonald’s, Elizabeth Johnson. Id. at 93.

While Defendant St. John drove through the parking lot and after she parked her truck, she yelled out the window of her truck several times that she knew members of the Fayetteville police department (“FCPD”). Id. at 99. Mrs. Johnson told Manager Elizabeth Johnson that Defendant St. John better not get out of her truck. Id. at 95. Mrs. Johnson also eventually asked Defendant St. John, “What does that mean?” in response to St. John’s statements that she knew members of the FCPD. Id. at 95-96. According to Mrs. Johnson, Defendant St. John told her to wait and see, and that they were going to take care of her. Id. at 99,130-31.

Defendant St. John had three children in her truck with her: her son and daughter, and the son of her fiancee. Dep. of Heather St. John [DE-323-1] at 18-19. After her collision with Mrs. Johnson, she called Defendant Officer Jennifer Rodriguez, the mother of her fiancee’s son and an officer with the FCPD. Id. at 41, 57-58. Defendant St. John told Officer Rodriguez she had been in accident, and told her that her son was fine. Id. at 58. Defendant St. John also said that the other lady involved in the accident was yelling at her. Dep. of Jennifer Rodriguez [DE-323-2] at 14. Officer Rodriguez told St. John to roll up her windows and call 911. Id. at 14. They ended the phone call, and Defendant St. John called 911. Dep. of Heather St. John [DE-323-1] at 59. St. John told the dispatcher she had been in an accident at McDonald’s, she had her children with her, and the other driver was yelling and swearing. Id.

After Mr. Johnson arrived at the scene, he stood with Manager Elizabeth Johnson next to the Plaintiffs’ vehicle, while Mrs. Johnson and Mrs. Mathis stood in parking spaces with a family friend, Lillie Shelton, whom Mrs. Johnson had called after the accident. Dep. of LaTonja Johnson [DE-219-5] at 100.

Defendant St. John stayed on the phone with the dispatcher until Officer Rodriguez called again. During their second conversation, Officer Rodriguez could hear the children crying, and could hear background noises of someone yelling. Dep. of Jennifer Rodriguez [DE-323-2] at 16. Defendant St. John told Rodriguez that family members of the other driver had arrived, and they were around her truck. Id. at 20. Officer Rodriguez told St. John not to have any communication with the other driver and to wait for the police. She also told St. John that she was going to call to see if the police had anyone reporting to the scene. Id. at 16. Officer Rodriguez then called the 911 dispatch center, and asked if they had any anybody en route to the McDonald’s. Id. at 17. She was told they did not. Id. She then called the watch commander officer’s and spoke to Lt. Croyle, telling him that her son’s “stepmother” was involved in a wreck at McDonald’s and that dispatch had no one to send. Id. at 39. Lt. Croyle told her he didn’t have anyone to send, so Officer Rodriguez then called another watch commander’s office, and spoke to Lt. Tew. Id. at 40-41. He too indicated he had no one to send to the scene. Id.

Although Officer Rodriguez denies speaking to anyone else in the FCPD about the situation, Defendant Phyllis Jer-nigan, a patrol sergeant with the FCPD, contends that Officer Rodriguez called her and told her that Rodriguez’s babysitter was involved in an accident, Rodriguez’s son was in the car, and people were surrounding the babysitter’s car. Dep. of Phyllis Jernigan [DE-219-6] at 10-11, 91. Sgt. Jernigan testified that at that time Officer Rodriguez called her, she already had dispatched Officer Koehler to the scene. Id. at 10-12, 135-36. When she got off the phone with Officer Rodriguez, Sgt. Jernigan called for someone to backup Defendant Koehler. Id. at 93.

Officer Koehler testified that he received a call from Sgt. Jernigan, informing him there were vehicles involved in an accident in the parking lot of a McDonald’s and several people were surrounding one of the vehicles. Dep. of Shane Koehler [DE-219-1] at 80-81. Sgt. Jernigan directed Koehler to respond to the scene, and told him she would send someone else to assist him as soon as she could. Id. at 81-82. At the time Officer Koehler received Sgt. Jernigan’s directive, he was at the scene of a traffic accident. He left that scene to respond to the reported active disturbance at McDonald’s. Id. at 82-83.

Meanwhile, Defendant St. John called 911 again, and the dispatcher told her to keep her windows rolled up and not to do anything because .police were arriving. Dep. of Heather St. John [DE-323-1] at 60. Officer Koehler arrived at the McDonald’s and parked next to Defendant St. John’s truck. Dep. of LaTonja Johnson [DE-219-5] at 102. Defendant St. John told the dispatcher an officer had arrived, and the dispatcher told St. John to let him know where she was by waving to him. Dep. of Heather St. John [DE-323-1] at 62, 64.

When Officer Koehler exited his patrol car, he screamed “move the vehicle, move the vehicle, move the vehicle” at Plaintiffs. Dep. of LaTonja Johnson [DE-219-5] at 103. He then went to Defendant St. John, spoke to her for a few seconds, during which time Defendant St. John pointed across the parking lot toward Plaintiffs. Id. at 103,132. At this time, Lillie Shelton said to Mrs. Johnson, “Why is he.going to her vehicle first?” Id. at 112. Officer Koehler then stormed across the parking lot toward Plaintiffs running and yelling. Id. at 103-04. Officer Koehler yelled to move the “fucking vehicle,” and when Mr. Johnson responded “I can’t,” Officer Koeh-ler grabbed him and started kicking him, attempting to take him down. Dep. of Darwin Johnson [DE-219-7] at 59. A male bystander at the scene told Mr. Johnson not to resist, and Mr. Johnson raised his hands in the air and said he was not resisting. Id. at 86-87. Officer Koehler then shoved and pushed Mr. Johnson across the parking lot, into the side of his patrol car. Id. at 87-88. Mr. Johnson fell to the ground. Id. at 89. Officer Koehler handcuffed him and then put him in the police car. Id. at 94, 242. Mr. Johnson’s mother, Mrs. Mathis, approached Officer Koehler and told him what he was doing to her son was unnecessary. Officer Koehler pushed Mrs. Mathis away and into the side of the patrol car. Dep. of Shelton [DE-219-8] at 52-53.

Defendant. St. John called 911 again, and said more police were needed. Dep. of Heather St. John [DE-323-1] at 87. Lillie Shelton also called 911. Dep. of LaTonja Johnson [DE-219-5] at 85. According to Mrs. Johnson, Officer Koehler than radioed that all calls regarding the McDonald’s should be cancelled. Id. at 191. Mrs. Johnson then called 911 again. Id. at 191-92.

Sgt. Jernigan received a call from Officer Koehler that a supervisor was needed at the McDonald’s because of damage to city property. Dep. of Phyllis Jernigan [DE-219-6] at 28. When Sgt. Jernigan arrived at the scene, she first approached St. John, and spoke with Officer Rodriguez on St. John’s telephone, telling her that everyone was okay, but someone had to be arrested. Dep. of Rodriguez [DE-219-9] at 21; Dep. of Shelton [DE-219-8] at 115-16. Sgt. Jernigan then spoke with Officer Koehler, who told her that when he first arrived on the scene, he saw a woman in a black truck mouth “help me” and he walked over to her first. Dep. of Phyllis Jernigan [DE-219-6] at 29. As he approached the black truck, he heard someone remark about who he was going to first. He made sure the driver of the truck was okay, and then started to walk toward a group of women, but then saw a McDonald’s employee and instead approached her. Id. at 29-30. After speaking with the McDonald’s employee, he then started to walk toward the group of women, when a man approached him in a very aggressive manner. Id. at 30-31. Officer Koehler told Sgt. Jernigan that he attempted to arrest the man, tried to kick the man’s feet out from under him, and struggled with the man. According to what Officer Koehler told Sgt. Jernigan, both men ended up hitting Officer Koeh-ler’s vehicle and putting a dent in it. Id. at 31.

Sgt. Jernigan then initiated a use of force investigation. When she spoke with Mr. Johnson, he asked her what he was being charged with. Dep. of Darwin Johnson [DE-219-7] at 97-98. Sgt. Jernigan did not answer his question, but asked whether he needed an ambulance. Id. She also took photographs of Mr. Johnson at the scene. Dep. of Phyllis Jernigan [DE-219-6] at 38. Sgt. Jernigan took the verbal statements of Mrs. Johnson, Mrs. Mathis, Mrs. Shelton, Ms. St. John and Elizabeth Johnson. Id. at 64-66. Mrs. Johnson gave a written statement to Sgt. Jernigan on the scene, but Mrs. Mathis and Mrs. Shelton wanted additional time to write their statements. Dep. of LaTon-ja Johnson [DE-219-5] at 171. Sgt. Jerni-gan told Mrs. Johnson that Officer Koeh-ler had been responding to a disturbance call that a group of angry black people had surrounded a person in a vehicle. Id. at 144-45.

Officer Koehler transported Mr. Johnson to the police station. Dep. of Darwin Johnson [DE-219-7] at 98. Mr. Johnson testified that he had a conversation with Officer Koehler:

I asked him why he was doing this. I asked him did he take pleasure in doing the things that he does, that he was doing. He didn’t say anything, but he did tell me that he used to be in the Army. I think he said he was a sergeant, if I’m not mistaken, told me he got out of the Army. He told me he had PTSD. And I didn’t ask him whether that was the reason why he got out of the Army, but, you know, he said he got out of the Army, and then we continued small talk, as far as the Army. He told me which type of unit he was in, but I don’t remember, because I remember telling him that I was in the signal [corps], that I had been in artillery most of my time.

And he stopped talking after I asked him again why was he doing this, did he take pleasure in doing what he’s doing and what did I do, and he just stopped talking to me.

Id. at 98-99. Mr. Johnson observed Officer Koehler filling out a report of the arrest on his computer in the front of the patrol car, and saw that Officer Koehler had listed “Officer Lewis” as a witness. Mr. Johnson asked Officer Koehler who Officer Lewis was, and Koehler then removed that from the report. Id. at 99-100. Ultimately, Officer Koehler did not list any witnesses in his report of the arrest of Mr. Johnson. Dep. of Shane Koehler [DE-219-1] at 171-73.

Mr. Johnson was charged with Assault on a Government Official (“AOGO”). Magistrate Judge Nicholas Sisk found that there was a probable cause to arrest Mr. Johnson:

I, the undersigned, find that the defendant named above has been arrested without a warrant and the defendant’s detention is justified because there is probable cause to believe that on or about the date of offense shown and in the county named above the defendant named above unlawfully and willfully did assault OFFICER S. KOEHLER 262, a government officer of the FAYETTE-VILLE POLICE DEPARTMENT by PRESENTING AN UNEQUIVOCAL APPEARANCE OF AN ATTEMPT OR THREAT, BY PHYSICAL FORCE AND VIOLENCE, TO IMMEDIATELY PHYSICALLY INJURE OFFICER KOEHLER, IN THAT HE WAS IN EXTREMELY CLOSE PROXIMITY TO THE OFFICER USING A HARSH TONE OF VOICE AND PRESENTING OTHER BODY LANGUAGE TO DEMONSTRATE AN IMMINENT ACT OF AGGRESSION. At the time of the offense the officer was discharging the following duty of that office INVESTIGATING AND CONTROLLING A SCENE OF A MOTOR VEHICLE ACCIDENT.

April 17, 2011, Magistrate Order [DE-243-10]. Mr. Johnson contends that the Magistrate did not originally issue the order, and did so only after Officer Koehler altered his original statement to say that Mr. Johnson put his hands on Koehler. Dep. of Darwin Johnson [DE-219-7] at. 282-84. Officer Koehler testified that he did, in fact, go in front of the magistrate twice, but it was because he attempted to charge Mr. Johnson with both AOGO and damage to government property, and the magistrate judge found there was no probable cause as to the damage charge. Dep. of Shane Koehler [DE-219-1] at 252-54. Officer Koehler testified that he had to redo the form to apply for probable cause to reflect only the AOGO charge. Id. at 255. Officer Koehler also testified that he told the magistrate that Mr. Johnson had put his hands on him. Id. at 252. Mr. Johnson was released that afternoon on an unsecured $500.00 bond.

The next day, Mrs. Johnson and Mrs. Mathis, along with Mrs. Shelton, turned in their written statements to the FCPD. Dep. of LaTonja Johnson [DE-219-5] at 16. Sgt. Jernigan continued to be in charge of the investigation of Officer Koehler’s alleged use of excessive force.

B. Investigation into Officer Koehler’s Use of Force

As part of her investigation, Sgt. Jerni-gan completed an Investigative Contact Checklist, which reflected that Officer Koehler, Mrs. Mathis, Mrs. Shelton and Mr. Johnson gave her verbal statements on April 17, 2011. See Investigative Contact Checklist [DE-244-5]. The Checklist also reflected that Mrs. Johnson and Ms. St. John gave Sgt. Jernigan verbal and written statements on the same date. Id. Sgt. Jernigan listed Elizabeth Johnson as the “McDonald’s Manager” and stated “no video did not witness anything.” Id. The Checklist also reflects that Sgt. Jernigan sought video from a Lowe’s store near the McDonald’s, but the store did not have any. Id.

Sgt. Jernigan submitted an 11-page report on her investigation into Officer Koehler’s use of force on April 23, 2011. See 4/23/11 Memo [DE-323-13]. The report detailed each of the witnesses’ statements to Sgt. Jernigan. Notably, Sgt. Jernigan reported that Mrs. Johnson, Mrs. Mathis, and Mrs. Shelton all stated that Darwin Johnson stepped between Mrs. Johnson and Officer Koehler in order to protect his wife. Id. at 5-6, 9-10. Sgt. Jernigan reported that Mr. Johnson, however, stated that no one was near Officer Koehler or him when the altercation occurred. Id. at 10. Sgt. Jernigan also reported that Elizabeth Johnson said she did not see the accident or the altercation between Officer Koehler and Mr. Johnson. Id. at 11. She concluded the report with the following:

After reviewing all the fact [sic] I have gathered, it is my opinion that Officer Koehler did not violate any Departmental Rules and Regulations, General Orders or Operating Procedures. The fact that Mr. Darwin Johnson’s verbal statement to me contradicts his family’s statement which leads me to believe Officer Koehler used the minimal amount of force (Hands On) necessary to affect the arrest.

I reviewed Officer Koehler’s personnel file on April 27, 2011. Officer Koehler does not have any disciplinary action against him dealing with Use of Force. I recommend that Officer Koehler be exonerated and this case be considered closed.

Id. at 11-12. Sgt. Jernigan submitted the report and entire file to Lt. Oates, who also concluded that Officer Koehler should be exonerated. Lt. Oates then forwarded the file to Captain Anthony Kelly. After reviewing the entire file, Captain Kelly issued a memorandum on May 2, 2011 [DE-244-7], recommending that Officer Koehler be exonerated for the use of force but receive a Corrective Action for Unsatisfactory Performance for failing to obtain a potential witness’s information.

Subsequently, however, Captain Kelly sent a note to Lt. Croyle, one of Sgt. Jernigan’s superior officers, stating the FCPD’s Office of Professional Standards received a written statement from the McDonald’s manager, dnd the statement “does not look upon Officer Koehler favorably.” Kelly-Croyle Note [DE-220-1]. The note continúes:

My question is why Sgt. Jernigan or Officer Koehler couldn’t find this person. I need you to be [the] filter between the Sgt. and myself. Now, I need you to revisit this file and question the manager who wrote the statement to get their side. Their statement is consistent with the complaints [sic] statement. I need you to complete a memo for the file and make any changes to your finding if any. I have my concerns with Officer Koeh-ler; his name comes across my desk quite a bit. I really need you to take a good look at this situation to make sure he didn’t violate policy. Also, there should be an alert coming down to your Sgts; make sure someone takes a good look at his [Internal Affairs] track to make real sure he doesn’t have a problem that we are missing.

Id. The written statement from the McDonald’s manager, Elizabeth Johnson, included the following:

One of my employees ... came and told me that two customers were arguing' cause they had got in an accident. I went outside to see what was going on the lady in the SUV was on the phone with the police and thought at first the other lady, in the big truck, drove off, but then another customer told us she continued to go and get her food. When she was finished getting her food she parked in the rear of the store. By that time I was already speaking with the lady in the SUV and then her husband pulled up. They [sic] lady in the SUV did tell the lady in the truck she better not get out of her vehicle. I stayed out there calming the situation. Then the lady in the truck said she knows the Fayetteville PD a few times. So then the lady in the SUV lady was like so and then the lady in the truck kept saying, “I am not talking to you.” We continued to wait for the police the lady’s [sic] from the SUV went over the side parking spaces and were talking. I was standing near the DT [drive-thru] speaker talking to the SUV lady’s husband. Everyone was fine and calm by this time. Then the officer came up, he parked next to the lady in the truck and said is that our [sic] truck in the DT to the lady in the SUV you need to move it. He did not look at the way it was positioned nothing. Then he went to the lady in the truck and the SUV lady was like ok so you are going to her first. I understood why they felt that day cause the lady in the truck already said that she knew the police. Then the officer came over screaming and got toe to toe with the lady in the SUV’s husband. I did not see the husband put his hands on the officer. I was walking over there to say something to cause by then the situation was already out of hand and the officer could have diffused it by just claming [sic] everyone and not getting in their face. Then the officer started to try and drop the husband to the ground. A man came from the side and said don’t resist (built Hispanic looking man) and the husband put his hands up and said I am not resisting. Then the officer lunged him in to the car and at that time the man’s mother was right there. She was trying to say no office stop and as she got closer he pushed her. Then he put him in the car. By then the SUV lady was already calling the police again because of the way he was acting and he radioed to cancel the call. After this I went to see what my employee saw and he was telling me that they were fussing over what happened then the lady in the truck ran up over the curve and on the grass to get around and get her food.

4/20/2011 Elizabeth Johnson Statement [DE-243-7],

Lt. Croyle attempted to contact Elizabeth Johnson several times, but it took approximately two to three weeks to actually make contact with her. Dep. of Kevin Croyle [DE-246-2] at 15. Lt. Croyle met with Elizabeth Johnson at McDonald’s on May 21, 2011. Id. at 16. He subsequently issued a memorandum that stated in part the following:

On 5-7-20111 was tasked to follow-up on this investigation due to a statement received from Elizabeth Johnson, the General Manager of McDonalds. The statement was written prior to her having a follow-up conversation with Sgt. Jernigan, and she said her perception has changed since learning more facts about the incident, and this will be addressed below.

I met with Ms. Johnson on 5-21-2011 at 1230 hours and spoke with her in depth about her statement and other issues surrounding this event.... She went outside several minutes after the crash to see what was happening....

Officer Koehler pulled into the PVA, stopping between the SUV in the drive-thru and the truck belonging to the W/F. He looked around and went almost immediately toward the truck with the W/F driver. The group near the manager began shouting that he was going to the white lady first. Officer Koehler told them that he would be with them in a minute. She said that Koehler was at the truck with the W/F for a few seconds and then he walked around toward the drive-thru and immediately said to the group to move the SUV from the drive-thru. The B/M (Darwin Johnson) quickly approached Officer Koehler at the front of the patrol vehicle and told him he could not move the vehicle. Koehler told him again to move the vehicle and Johnson said he couldn’t. (This contradicts with the statement written by the manager in that she wrote that “the officer came over screaming and got toe to toe” with the black male. In fact, Darwin Johnson came across the PVA to confront Officer Koehler. Koeh-ler was speaking loudly due to the distance, as was Mr. Johnson.

Ms. Johnson was approximately 50-75 feet from where the altercation involving Officer Koehler took place. She said she was unable to see everything that happened due to the vehicles and positioning, but she was able to hear some of the conversation. She said that the officer and black male were toe to toe and that she felt the officer should have stepped back a step or two to diffuse the situation. (She explained that this is what McDonalds’ managers are trained to do.) I explained to her that the officer does not have a duty to retreat, and that although there is a chance that it could have diffused the situation, it could have made the situation worse as an aggressive subject may see this as a weakness and attack the officer.

Ms. Johnson said that after she was informed of the nature of the call that Koehler was responding to, she has a different perspective. She said that although her initial perspective was that perhaps the officer knew the W/F, and that he was taking her side, that she can now understand why he went to her first. She also said that although she initially thought the officer should have backed off, she can now see that if the B/M had not gone aggressively toward him initially, or had said he was not the driver, (did not have keys), or even if the B/M just stepped back himself, that this could have been avoided.

In conclusion: _Ms. Johnson had spoken only to the occupants of the SUV and their family, and had a limited view of the incident. Ms. Johnson had a preconceived idea of what was taking place due to the statements of the W/F in the truck. She also had a lack of knowledge on police duties and responsibilities, as well as the actual information provided to the officer prior to his arrival. This led her to make assumptions based on misinformation and misperception.... Aside from those involved, Ms. Johnson was the only identifiable witness to the ensuing altercation. Her written statement and the statements given to Sgt. Jernigan and me have discrepancies, which can be attributed to her original perceptions of the incident. Based on all the information available, it is my opinion that Officer Koehler was justified in his use of force based on the actions of the suspect. I have found no other violations.

3/22/2013 Memo [DE-263-18]. Elizabeth Johnson later executed an affidavit detailing what she witnessed on April 17, 2011. The statements in the affidavit more closely resemble her April 20, 2011 statement than what she allegedly told Lt. Croyle when he interviewed her at McDonald’s on May 21, 2011.

On June 4, Legal Adviser Patricia Bryan reviewed and forwarded the file to Chief of Police Thomas Bergamine, who concluded on June 5 that Koehler should be exonerated for the use of force but disciplined for violation other than the complaint (‘VOTC”). The investigation was closed by the Office of Professional Standards on June 14. See Investigative Review Sheet [DE-244-5]. On June 28, 2011, Sgt. Brewington, Officer of Professional Standards & Inspections, made a final recommendation that the use of force investigation be closed and Koehler exonerated, but that a corrective action be taken for the VOTC. See 6/28/2011 Letter [DE-248-4]. On July 21, 2011, the FCPD sent Mrs. Johnson a letter stating that “appropriate action” had been taken with regard to her complaint against Officer Koehler. See 7/21/2011 Letter [DE-248-5],

On September 20, 2011, Sgt. Jernigan issued a memorandum for the record, stating that she was given the case file back in reference to Mrs. Johnson speaking at an open forum about the events of April 17, 2011. See 9/20/11 Memo [DE-219-25]. After reviewing a CD/DVD and audio CD containing Mrs. Johnson’s remarks, Sgt. Jernigan was of the opinion that “there should be no changes to the original file.” Id. Sgt. Jernigan specifically found that Mrs. Johnson’s statement at the forum

did not differ from her statement to me on April 17, 2011.

Mrs. Johnson stated that her husband jumped in front of her to protect her from Officer Koehler. I spoke with Mr. Johnson after he was placed into the back seat of Officer Koehler’s patrol car. Mr. Johnson advised me that he did not jump to the defense of his wife and that his wife was not even near him or Officer Koehler at the time of altercation. The Assistant Manager (Elizabeth Johnson) of the McDonald’s stated that Mr. Johnson approached Officer Koehler in an aggressive manner.

Ms. Lillie Shelton’s statement to me on April 17, 2011, and her statement to [the forum] did not seem to differ.

Id.

C. Officer Koehler’s Career

Prior to being hired by the FCPD, Officer Koehler served in the United States Army and was a decorated combat veteran. Dep. of Shane Koehler [DE-219-1] at 53, 248. While serving in the military, Koehler sought some forms of therapy intermittently after critical events occurred during his deployment. Id. at 65-66.

Koehler began the application process for the FCPD in 2009. At the same time, he also was seeking benefits from the Veterans Administration (“VA”). Id. at 226-27. As part of the VA benefits process, he filled out a questionnaire regarding conditions that he encountered while on active duty and reported going to a mental health office while deployed. Id. at 227-28; Defendant Koehler’s DD Form 2807-1 [DE-263-25],

On May 28, 2009, Koehler signed an Authorization, and Release to Obtain Information [DE-244-14] which authorized the City of Fayetteville to conduct a background investigation in connection with his application for employment. The authorization stated that the investigation “may include information from ... military units and organizations ... [and] any physical or medical records.... ” Id. Koehler also completed a Form F-3 Personal History Statement [DE-244-15], and the City conducted criminal history checks [DE-248-8], which were negative, and obtained a credit report on Koehler [DE-248-9]. Koehler was then interviewed by a panel of three FCPD employees who documented his performance on the F-4 Qualifications Appraisal Interview form [DE-248-10] and recommended that he be hired. The FCPD then issued employment and personal reference questionnaires [DE-248-11] which were completed by individuals with first-hand knowledge of Koehler, and all offered positive feedback.

The FCPD then issued a conditional offer of employment to Koehler [DE-248-12], Koehler was given a complete medical evaluation documented on the F-l Medical History Statement [DE-248-13] and F-2 Medical Examination Report [DE-248-14]. Koehler did not report any psychological issues. He also was given a psychological evaluation, including four psychological and personality inventory screening tests, which was conducted by Dr. W. Presley Keeton [DE-244-16]. Dr. Keeton concluded that Koehler “is an acceptable candidate for training and service as a law enforcement officer” and there were “no significant indications of risk.” Koehler also completed a polygraph examination [DE-248-16] that did not reveal any deception.

Koehler’s background investigation was conducted by Officer Dan Holloway, who documented- the investigation on a Form F-8 Mandated Background Investigations Form [DE-248-17], As part of the process, Holloway interviewed Koehler’s .Army supervisors, First Sergeant Smith and Staff Sergeant Eddy, who gave Koeh-ler positive recommendations .and reported that he was separating from the Army due to asthma. After Holloway’s background investigation was complete, Training Lieutenant Laura Kruger recommended that Koehler be hired [DE-248-21], Koehler began training at the police academy on August 10, 2009, and graduated on Decern-ber 19, 2009. Dep. of Shane Koehler [DE-219-1] at 29.

In the spring of 2010, Koehler was awarded disability compensation by the VA, 30% of which is for Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, despite not requesting a disability rating based on PTSD when he was applying for benefits. Id. at 182-83. He did not report the PTSD disability rating to his supervisors, because was not aware of any policy requiring him to do so. Id. at 185.

Koehler testified that he was first diagnosed with PTSD in April 2011. Id. at 57. On April 28, 2011, he told his supervisor, Sgt. Jernigan, about the diagnosis, in accordance with FCPD policy that officers inform their supervisors when they are put on a medication. Dep. of Phyllis Jernigan [DE-219-6] at 142.

Koehler eventually was placed on administrative leave, for reasons unrelated to the April 17, 2011 incident with the Plaintiffs. He was referred to Dr. Keeton for a fitness for duty examination. Koehler later resigned from the FCPD on September 1, 2011 [DE-219-27], after Dr. Keeton conducted the fitness for duty evaluation. In November 2011, Dr. Keeton sent to the FCPD his report finding Koehler fit for duty.

D. Charges Against Darwin Johnson

The charges against Plaintiff Darwin Johnson were dismissed on August 18, 2011, because Koehler was on administrative leave and unavailable for court. Dep. of Shane Koehler [DE-219-1] at 224-25.

III. STANDARD OF REVIEW

At summary judgment, the court must examine the evidence presented by both parties and determine if there is a need for trial. Matsushita Elec. Indus. Co. v. Zenith Radio Corp., 475 U.S. 574, 587, 106 S.Ct. 1348, 89 L.Ed.2d 538 (1986); Greater Balt. Ctr. for Pregnancy Concerns, Inc. v. Mayor & City Council of Balt., 721 F.3d 264, 283 (4th Cir.2013). The court examines “whether the evidence presents a sufficient disagreement to require submission to a jury or whether it is so one-sided that one party must prevail as a matter of law.” Anderson v. Liberty Lobby, Inc., 477 U.S. 242, 251-52, 106 S.Ct. 2505, 91 L.Ed.2d 202 (1986). Where the moving party shows that the evidence is so one-sided that it should prevail as a matter of law, the burden shifts to the nonmoving party to come forward with affidavits, depositions, answers to interrogatories, or other evidence demonstrating that there is a genuine issue of material fact that requires trial. Celotex Corp. v. Catrett, 477 U.S. 317, 324-25, 106 S.Ct. 2548, 91 L.Ed.2d 265 (1986); Matsushita, 475 U.S. at 587, 106 S.Ct. 1348; Pension Benefit Guar. Corp. v. Beverley, 404 F.3d 243, 246-47 (4th Cir.2005). An issue of fact is genuine if a reasonable jury could find for the nonmov-ing party. Liberty Lobby, 477 U.S. at 248, 106 S.Ct. 2505. A fact is material if proof of the fact might affect the outcome of the case under the substantive law. Id. The facts should be viewed in the light most favorable to the nonmoving party and all reasonable inferences should be made in favor of the nonmoving party. Id. at 255, 106 S.Ct. 2505; Smith v. Va. Commonwealth Univ., 84 F.3d 672, 675 (4th Cir.1996).

IV. DEFENDANT ST. JOHN’S MOTION FOR PARTIAL SUMMARY JUDGMENT

Defendant Heather St. John moves for summary judgment on the 42 U.S.C. § 1985(3) civil conspiracy claims made against her by Plaintiffs Mr. Johnson and Mrs. Mathis, as well as the punitive damages claim asserted against her by all Plaintiffs. For the reasons stated below, St. John’s motion is ALLOWED.

A. § 1985(3) civil conspiracy claim

Title 42 of the United States Code, Section 1985 provides, in pertinent part:

If two more persons in any State ... conspire or go in disguise on the highway or on the premises of another, for the purpose of depriving, either directly or indirectly, any person or class of persons of the equal protection of the laws, or of equal privileges and immunities under the law ... whereby another is injured in his person or property, or deprived of having and exercising any right or privilege of a citizen of the United States, the party so injured or deprived many have an action for the recovery of damages, occasioned by such injury or deprivation, against any one or more of the conspirators.

42 U.S.C. § 1985(3). To maintain a cause of action for conspiracy to deny equal protection of the laws under § 1985, “a plaintiff must prove: (1) a conspiracy of two or more persons, (2) who are motivated by a specific class-based, invidiously discrimina-' tory animus to (3) deprive the plaintiff of the equal enjoyment of rights secured by the law to all, (4) and which results in injury to the plaintiff as (5) a consequence of an overt act committed by the defendants in connection with the conspiracy.” Simmons v. Poe, 47 F.3d 1370, 1376 (4th Cir.1995) (citations omitted).

The court previously denied some of the Defendants’ motion to dismiss Plaintiffs’ § 1985(3) claim, finding at the motion to dismiss stage that Plaintiffs’ allegations were sufficient to “satisfy the requirement of a meeting of the minds to retaliate against Plaintiffs and deprive them of the equal enjoyment of rights secured by the law to all.” March 28, 2013 Order [DE-129] at 13. This court was “less convinced that Plaintiffs in this case will be able to demonstrate the second element, that the alleged co-conspirators were motivated by class-based discriminatory animus” id. at 13-14, but in light of the lenient pleading standard, the court allowed Plaintiffs’ civil conspiracy claim to go forward. The court cautioned Plaintiffs, however, that:

[a] charge of civil conspiracy is a very serious assertion. The court assumes that Plaintiffs’ attorney has satisfied his burden under Rule 11 when certifying to the court that the factual contentions made in the Amended Complaint have or will likely have evidentiary support. If, however, Plaintiffs persist in such a claim but fail to elicit any evidence beyond the fact of a brief conversation between Defendants St. John and Koeh-ler, at the very least, the court will not allow speculation or conjecture regarding the possible contents of such a conversation to satisfy Plaintiffs’ burden to establish their claim.

Id. at 14. The court now finds that Plaintiffs have failed to satisfy their burden in coming forward with evidence, as opposed to speculation or conjecture, that the relevant Defendants were motivated by a specific class-based, invidiously discriminatory animus.

Courts are in agreement that the mere fact that a plaintiff is a member of a protected class is insufficient to support an inference of discriminatory motivation in a section 1985 claim. See, e.g., Gooden v. Howard, 954 F.2d 960, 970 (4th Cir.1992) (observing that the mere statement that a plaintiff is black and the defendant officers are white is insufficient to establish a claim under § 1985(3)); Gatling v. Atlantic Richfield Co., 577 F.2d 185, 188 (2d Cir.1978); Jackson v. Hamilton Township, Civ. No. 10-3989, 2014 WL 1217662, at *7 (D.N.J. Mar. 24, 2014) (finding that a plaintiff failed to produce sufficient evidence to support an inference that he was injured because he black where Plaintiff argued that he was black, officers who allegedly beat him were white, and the entire incident “‘smacks’ of racial animus”). In this case, the only other evidence Plaintiffs have proffered as to animus — other than the fact of the differing races of the Plaintiffs and Defendants — is (1) Lillie Shelton’s testimony that Officer Koehler was responding to St. John’s call that her truck was surrounded by a group of angry black people, and (2) various witnesses’ perception and feelings that Officer Koehler was racially motivated. See Dep. of Lillie Shelton [DE-219-8] at 82-83, 96, 117, 120-21; Dep. of Elizabeth Johnson [DE-292-7] at 147-48. As to the former evidence, it does not seem remarkable that someone making a 911 call would give a description of the people he or she is complaining about. As to the latter evidence, the witnesses’ perceptions as to Officer Koehler’s motivation are insufficient to establish racial animus. See Gatling, 577 F.2d at 188 (allowing summary judgment on a § 1985 claim where the only evidence as to animus was the plaintiffs’ belief that the defendants were unhappy about the plaintiffs’ race, and remarking that “[p]er-mitting a witness to testify solely from observing a person that he is intoxicated is a far cry from permitting testimony that he got drunk because of a fight with his wife”).

Plaintiffs also lack sufficient evidence showing that Defendant St. John entered into a conspiracy with the relevant City Defendants. To prove a § 1985 conspiracy, “a claimant must show an agreement or a ‘meeting of the minds’ by defendants to violate the claimant’s constitutional rights.” Simmons, 47 F.3d at 1377 (citations omitted). “[A]n express agreement is not necessary,” although it “must be shown that there was a single plan, the essential nature and general scope of which was known to each person who is to be held responsible for its consequences.” Id. at 1378 (quotation omitted). This is a “relatively stringent standard” that requires sufficient evidence that the alleged conspirators participated in a joint plan. Id. at 1377. When the court ruled on St. John’s earlier motion to dismiss— which again, was at the pleading stage of the litigation — the relevant allegations were that (1) Defendant St. John discussed with Officer Rodriguez how to retaliate against Plaintiffs; (2) Defendant St. John, while still on the phone with Officer Rodriguez, spoke with Officer Koehler; and (3) Koehler’s subsequent actions were in keeping with Defendant St. John’s prior threats. See March 28, 2013, Order [DE-129] at 5-8, 12-13. Since that ruling, Plaintiffs have not proffered evidence that supports their initial allegations, nor have they proffered evidence which supports an inference that Defendant St. John entered into a conspiracy with the relevant City Defendants.

Specifically, the evidence,- viewed in the light most favorable to Plaintiffs, shows that St. John spoke with Rodriguez and the 911 operator. The evidence also shows that Sgt. Jernigan dispatched Officer Koehler to the McDonald’s, prior to speaking with Rodriguez, and did not speak with Officer Koehler again until he radioed that he needed a supervisor on the scene because of damage to city property, which was after he had arrested Mr. Johnson. Dep. of Phyllis Jernigan [DE-219-6] at 10-12, 28, 135-36. Finally, the evidence shows that Officer Koehler was not aware of Officer Rodriguez’s connection to St. John, and his brief conversation with St. John consisted of St. John telling him she rear-ended another vehicle, and he asking for her license and registration. Dep. of Shane Koehler [DE-219-1] at 100-02, 241. This evidence does not suffice to show that there was meeting of the minds between Defendant St. John and the various City Defendants (Koehler, Rodriguez, Jernigan) regarding the deprivation of Plaintiffs’ rights. Nor is there evidence showing that Defendant St. John had a meeting of the minds with the various City Defendants after Darwin Johnson was arrested.

In light of this insufficient evidence, Defendant St. John’s Motion for Partial Summary Judgment [DE-208] is ALLOWED as to Plaintiffs’ § 1985 claim against her.

B. Punitive Damages

Defendant St. John also moves for summary judgment as to Plaintiffs’ claim for punitive damages. With the dismissal of the § 1985 claim against St. John, the only remaining claim against her which could hypothetically support an award of punitive damages is Mrs. Johnson’s state-law negligence claim. St. John argues that “[u]nder North Carolina law, the availability of punitive damages in the motor vehicle negligence context, premised on a finding of gross negligence, has been confined to circumstances where at least one of three factors is present: (1) defendants intoxicated, (2) defendant is driving at excessive speeds, or (3) defendant is engaged in a racing competition.” Def. St. John’s Mem. in Support of Mot. for Partial Summ. J. [DE-209] at 15 (citing Yancey v. Lea, 354 N.C. 48, 550 S.E.2d 155 (2001)).

St. John’s argument is somewhat correct; in Yancey, the North Carolina Supreme Court, after reviewing the body of North Carolina appellate cases, observed that “[o]ur case law as developed to this point reflects that the gross negligence issue has been confined to circumstances where at least one of’ the three aformen-tioned factors is present. Yancey, 354 N.C. at 53-54, 550 S.E.2d at 158. The Supreme Court also stated, however, that “we do not hold these factors to comprise an exhaustive list from which gross negligence must always be found.... ” Id. at 54, 550 S.E.2d at 158. Accordingly, it appears that under North Carolina law, punitive damages may be available in the motor vehicle context even where one of three Yancey factors is not present, so long as the requirements of N.C. Gen.Stat. § ID-15 are satisfied. See N.C. Gen.Stat. § ID-15 (allowing recovery for punitive damages where a plaintiff proves by clear and convincing evidence that (1) fraud, (2) malice, or (3) willful or wanton conduct is present).

Plaintiffs focus the entirety of their argument in opposition to St. John’s motion on the actions St. John took with regard to the alleged conspiracy to violate their rights, and do not address what evidence supports a finding of punitive damages with regard to the motor vehicle negligence claim. It is not this court’s duty to pick through the record and marshal that evidence for Plaintiffs. Accordingly, Defendant St. John’s Motion for Partial Summary Judgment [DE-208] is ALLOWED as to Plaintiffs’ claim for punitive damages.

V. CITY DEFENDANTS’ MOTION FOR SUMMARY JUDGMENT

The City Defendants move for summary judgment as to all of Plaintiffs’ claims against them.

A. Plaintiffs’ claims under 42 U.S.C. § 1983

The City Defendants contend they are entitled to qualified immunity .on all of Plaintiffs’ claims under 42 U.S.C. § 1983. Qualified immunity provides government officials with immunity from suit for money damages “insofar as their conduct does not violate clearly established statutory or constitutional rights of which a reasonable officer would have known.” Harlow v. Fitzgerald, 457 U.S. 800, 818, 102 S.Ct. 2727, 73 L.Ed.2d 396 (1982); Scott v. Harris, 550 U.S. 372, 377, 127 S.Ct. 1769, 167 L.Ed.2d 686 (2007). Courts ruling on a claim of qualified immunity must consider two questions: (1) “whether the facts that a plaintiff has ... shown ... make out a violation of a constitutional right[,]” Pearson v. Callahan, 555 U.S. 223, 232, 129 S.Ct. 808, 172 L.Ed.2d 565 (2009); Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194, 201, 121 S.Ct. 2151, 150 L.Ed.2d 272 (2001); Doe ex rel. Johnson v. S.C. Dep’t of Soc. Servs., 597 F.3d 163, 169 (4th Cir.2010); and (2) “whether the right was ‘clearly established’ in light of the specific context of the case.” Scott, 550 U.S. at 377, 127 S.Ct. 1769; Jones v. Buchanan, 325 F.3d 520, 526 (4th Cir.2003). Both inquiries must be answered affirmatively before the court may deny qualified immunity. Pearson, 555 U.S. at 232, 235-36, 129 S.Ct. 808. A court has discretion which of the two questions to analyze first. Id. at 236, 129 S.Ct. 808. The plaintiff bears the burden of proof on the first inquiry and the defendant bears the burden of proof on the second. Henry v. Purnell, 501 F.3d 374, 377-78 (4th Cir.2007).

With this in mind, the court will turn to each of the Plaintiffs’ § 1983 claims.

1. False Arrest

Plaintiff Mr. Johnson alleges that Officer Koehler falsely arrested him in violation of his Fourth Amendment right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures. Defendants move for summary judgment on grounds that probable cause existed to arrest Mr. Johnson, or alternatively, Officer Koehler is entitled to prevail based upon qualified immunity.

False arrest claims are analyzed under the Fourth Amendment: arrests are illegal when probable cause did not exist at the time of the arrest. United States v. McCraw, 920 F.2d 224, 227 (4th Cir.1990). Probable cause exists where “the facts and circumstances within the [the officer’s] knowledge and of which they had reasonably trustworthy information were sufficient to warrant a prudent man in believing that the [suspect] had committed or was committing an offense.” Id. (quoting Beck v. Ohio, 379 U.S. 89, 91, 85 S.Ct. 223, 13 L.Ed.2d 142 (1964)).

Here, Mr. Johnson was arrested for AOGO in violation of N.C. Gen.Stat. § 14-33(c)(4). Under that statute, it is a misdemeanor to assault “an officer or employee of the State or any political subdivision of the State, when the officer or employee is discharging or attempting to discharge his official duties.” The elements of this offense are: “(1) an assault (2) on a government official (3) in the actual or attempted discharge of his duties.” State v. Crouse, 169 N.C.App. 382, 387, 610 S.E.2d 454, 458 (2005). Because there is no statutory definition of assault in North Carolina, common law rules govern the crime of assault. Id. (citing State v. Mitchell, 358 N.C. 63, 69, 592 S.E.2d 543, 547 (2004)). The North Carolina Supreme Court has recognized two rules regarding assault. The first rule defines assault as “an overt act or an attempt, or the unequivocal appearance of an attempt, with force and violence, to do some immediate physical injury to the person of another, which show of force or menace of violence must be sufficient to put a person of reasonable firmness in fear of immediate bodily harm” Mitchell, 358 N.C. at 69-70, 592 S.E.2d at 547, and “places emphasis on the intent or state of mind of the person accused.” State v. Roberts, 270 N.C. 655, 658, 155 S.E.2d 303, 305 (1967). The second rule defines assault as a “show of violence accompanied by reasonable apprehension of immediate bodily harm or injury on the part of the person assailed which causes him to engage in a course of conduct which he would not otherwise would have followed,” and focuses on “the reasonable apprehension of the person assailed.” Id.

The City Defendants contend there was probable cause to arrest Mr. Johnson for AOGO, relying largely on Officer Koehler’s version of events leading up to Mr. Johnson’s arrest. Although “[t]he immunity question must be filtered through the lens of the officer’s perceptions at the time of the incident in question,” Gandy v. Robey, 520 Fed.Appx. 134, 140-41 (4th Cir.2013), this does not mean that disputed issues of material fact are resolved in favor of the officer moving for summary judgment. If Officer Koehler’s version of the facts is believed, once Officer Koehler approached Plaintiffs — whom he regarded as agitated and aggressive— Mr. Johnson stepped in front of him and was standing toe-to-toe with him. When Officer Koehler told Mr. Johnson to move the car, Johnson told Koehler, in a low whisper with an underlying growl, not to speak to him that way. In contrast, Mr. Johnson’s testimony is that after Officer Koehler spoke to St. John, he came running across the parking lot toward Plaintiffs yelling “whose vehicle, move the fucking vehicle,” and when Mr. Johnson tried to say that he could not move the vehicle because he did not have the keys, Koehler began kicking him. Dep. of Darwin Johnson [DE-219-7] at 58-59, 67-68, 70-71. Were a reasonable jury to find Mr. Johnson’s testimony credible, it could conclude that no reasonable officer would have believed that Darwin Johnson’s statement that he could not move the car, with no other action, constituted an assault under North Carolina law.

The probable cause analysis, however, is not limited to only the crime with which Mr. Johnson was charged. The Supreme Court has explained that an officer’s “subjective reason for make the arrest need not be the criminal offense as to which the known facts provide probable cause.” Devenpeck v. Alford, 543 U.S. 146, 153, 125 S.Ct. 588, 160 L.Ed.2d 537 (2004). Rather, the objective analysis required by the Fourth Amendment under which “ ‘the fact that the officer does not have the state of mind which is hypothecated by the reasons which provide the legal justification for the officer’s action does not invalidate the action taken as long as the circumstances, viewed objectively, justify that action.” Id. (quoting Whren v. United States, 517 U.S. 806, 813, 116 S.Ct. 1769, 135 L.Ed.2d 89 (1996)). Accordingly, courts have concluded that “a claim for false arrest turns only on whether probable cause existed to arrest a defendant, and that it is not relevant whether probable cause existed with respect to each individual charge, or, indeed, any charge actually invoked by the arresting officer at the time of the arrest.” Jaegly v. Couch, 439 F.3d 149, 154 (2d Cir.2006); see also Abbott v. Sangamon Cnty., Ill., 705 F.3d 706, 715 (7th Cir.2013) (“[A]n arrest can be supported by probable cause that the arrest ee committed any crime, regardless of the officer’s belief as to which crime was at issue.... ”); United States v. McNeill, 484 F.3d 301, 311 (4th Cir.2007) (“[T]he arrest is valid if, based on the facts known to the officer, objective probable cause existed as to any crime.”); Hebert v. Maxwell, 214 Fed.Appx. 451 (5th Cir.2007) (“Applying the Devenpeck standard in the qualified immunity context, the inquiry is whether, given the facts known to [the officer], he could have reasonably believed he had probable cause to arrest [the plaintiff] for any crime.”); Tatum v. City & Cnty. of San Francisco, 441 F.3d 1090, 1094 (9th Cir.2006) (“Under Devenpeck, the subjective reason that Officer Smith arrested Fullard is irrelevant so long as the available facts suggested that Fullard was committing a crime.”).

The City Defendants contend that Officer Koehler had probable cause to arrest Darwin Johnson for a violation of N.C. Gen.Stat. §§ 20-114.1(a) or 20-176(a). The former statute provides that “[n]o person shall willfully fail or refuse to comply with any lawful order or direction of any law enforcement officer ... related to the control of traffic.” N.C. Gen.Stat. § 20-114.1(a). The latter statute provides that “[i]f-any person shall willfully and unlawfully resist, delay or obstruct a public officer in discharging or attempting to discharge a duty of his office, he shall be guilty of a Class 2 misdemeanor.” N.C. Gen.Stat. § 20-176(a). A violation of either statute requires, at minimum, a showing that a person (1) willfully, (2) disobeyed a lawful order or direction of (3) a law enforcement officer. See State v. Dammons, 159 N.C.App. 284, 294, 583 S.E.2d 606, 612 (2003) (“The elements of obstruction or delay of an officer are as follows: 1) that the victim was a public officer; 2) that the defendant knew or had reasonable grounds to believe that the victim was a public officer; 3) that the victim was discharging or attempting to discharge a duty of his office; 4) that the defendant resisted, delayed, or obstructed the victim in discharging or attempting to discharge a duty of his office; and 5) that the defendant acted willfully and unlawfully, that is intentionally and without justification or excuse.”); Glenn-Robinson v. Acker, 140 N.C.App. 606, 619, 538 S.E.2d 601, 612 (2000) (“To violate G.S. § 20-114.1(a), plaintiff must have ‘willfully’ disobeyed a ‘lawful order’ of a ‘law enforcement officer.’ ”). If the jury finds Mr. Johnson’s recollection of the events to be correct, no reasonable officer could believe that Mr. Johnson was willfully disobeying or resisting Officer Koehler’s directive to move the vehicle, given that just prior to his arrest Mr. Johnson told Koehler that he could not move the car because he didn’t have the keys.

Given the divergent testimony of Officer Koehler and Mr. Johnson, there are disputes of material fact as to whether probable cause existed for Mr. Johnson’s arrest barring summary judgment in the City Defendants’ favor. Additionally, the factual issues preclude summary judgment on qualified immunity grounds. See Vathekan v. Prince George’s Cnty., 154 F.3d 173, 179-80 (4th Cir.1998). Again, if a factfin-der were to find Mr. Johnson’s testimony more credible, there is no evidence to suggest that Officer Koehler mistakenly, but reasonably, perceived Mr. Johnson’s conduct to be criminal. Accordingly, the City Defendants’ Motion for Summary Judgment [DE-240] is DENIED as to Plaintiff Darwin Johnson’s § 1983 claim for false arrest.

2. Excessive Force

The City Defendants also move for summary judgment as to the § 1983 claim based on excessive force asserted by Mr. Johnson and Mrs. Mathis. The City Defendants argue that (1) there is insufficient evidence to establish that Officer Koehler used excessive force with respect to either Mr. Johnson or Mrs. Mathis, and (2) he is entitled to qualified immunity as to both Plaintiffs.

Turning to the first question, the court must determine whether Plaintiffs’ claim that Officer Koehler used excessive force “make[s] out a violation of a constitutional right.” Id. at 232, 129 S.Ct. 808. The Fourth Amendment proscribes the use of excessive force by officers while effectuating an arrest. Henry v. Purnell, 652 F.3d 524, 531 (4th Cir.2011) (“The Fourth Amendment’s prohibition on unreasonable seizures includes the right to be fee of ‘seizures effectuated by excessive force.’ ” (quoting Schultz v. Braga, 455 F.3d 470, 476 (4th Cir.2006))). In Graham v. Connor, 490 U.S. 386, 109 S.Ct. 1865, 104 L.Ed.2d 443 (1989), the United States Supreme Court held that a Fourth Amendment excessive force claim must be analyzed under the standard of “whether the officers’ actions [were] ‘objectively reasonable’ in light of the facts and circumstances confronting them, without regard to their underlying intent or motivation.” Id. at 397, 109 S.Ct. 1865. In applying this standard, the Fourth Circuit has explained that “the question is whether a reasonable officer in the same circumstances would have concluded that a threat existed justifying the particular use of force.” Elliott v. Leavitt, 99 F.3d 640, 642 (4th Cir.1996) (citing Graham, 490 U.S. at 396-97, 109 S.Ct. 1865); Jones, 325 F.3d at 527 (citing Graham, 490 U.S. at 396-97, 109 S.Ct. 1865). The Graham court also noted that . district courts must balance “ ‘the nature and quality of the intrusion on the individual’s Fourth Amendment interests’ against the countervailing government interests at stake.”