Full opinion text
PER CURIAM. Following a six-week trial before a jury in the Northern District of Illinois, Theodore J. Isaacs and Otto Kerner, Jr., were found guilty on February 19, 1973 of a variety of offenses arising out of their activities on behalf of certain Illinois racing interests in return for bribes of more than $150,000 each. Isaacs and Kerner were both convicted on all those counts of an indictment which charged an 18 U.S.C. § 371 conspiracy to violate the Travel Act, 18 U.S.C. § 1952 and the Mail Fraud Act, 18 U.S.C. § 1341 (Count I); use of interstate facilities in furtherance of bribery, 18 U.S.C. § 1952 (Counts II through V) and mail fraud, 18 U.S.C. § 1341 (Counts VI through XIII). Kerner was also convicted of perjury before a grand jury, 18 U.S.C. § 1623 (Count XIV), false statements to Internal Revenue agents, 18 U.S.C. § 1001 (Count XV), tax evasion, 26 U.S.C. § 7201 (Count XVI) and false statement in a tax return, 26 U.S. C. § 7206(1) (Count XVII). Isaacs was also convicted of tax evasion, 26 U.S.C. § 7201 (Count XVIII), and false statement in a tax return, 26 U.S.C. § 7206(1) (Count XIX). After considering post-trial motions, the district judge on April 19, 1973 dismissed five counts against each defendant, Counts V, VII, X, XI and XII. He sentenced both defendants to three years’ imprisonment and fines totalling $50,000 ($10,000 each on Counts I, II, III, and IV, and Count XVI as to Kerner, and Count XVIII as to Isaacs), the prison sentences running concurrently on all remaining counts against each defendant, the fines accumulating consecutively on five counts against each defendant. We affirm the convictions of Isaacs and Kerner on Counts I, VI, VIII, IX, and XIII, and reverse their convictions on Counts II, III, and IV. We also affirm the conviction of Kerner on Counts XIV, XV, XVI, and XVII and the conviction of Isaacs on Counts XVIII and XIX. The indictment, returned December 15,1971, named five defendants: Isaacs, who had been Illinois Director of Revenue from 1961 to 1963 while Kerner was governor, Kerner, who was governor of Illinois from 1961 until his resignation in 1968 to become a United States Circuit Judge, Joseph Knight, Illinois Director of Financial Institutions, 1961 to 1968, while Kerner was governor, William S. Miller, chairman of the Illinois Racing Board, IRB, by appointment of Kerner, and Faith Mclnturf, Miller’s secretary. Joseph Knight was severed , because of illness; he died after the trial. When Miller agreed to make full disclosure in August 1972 he and Mclnturf were granted immunity and the charges against them were ultimately dismissed. Miller testified; he and Marjorie L. Everett, on behalf of whose racing interests the bribery was allegedly undertaken, were the two principal government witnesses. Mrs. Everett was named as an unindicted coconspirator in the government’s bill of particulars. Our discussion of the numerous claims of error requires a summary of the evidence, from Kerner’s campaign for election in 1960 to the disclosures and the investigations in 1969, 1970 and 1971. For many years prior to 1960 Marjorie Lindheimer Everett had assisted her father, Benjamin Lindheimer, in the operation of his thoroughbred racing interests in the Chicago area. Lindheimer, controlled Arlington Park Jockey Club which owned Arlington Park race track, and he also controlled Washington Park Jockey Club which owned Washington Park race track. Another entity in the picture is Balmoral Jockey Club, BJC, a racing company. Mrs. Everett owned some BJC stock at the time of her father’s death and desired to continue his racing enterprises. Miller, a friend of Lindheimer and than a member of IRB, which at the time allocated thoroughbred racing dates, agreed to help her. Chicago Thoroughbred Enterprises, CTE, was organized and financed by bank loans of more than $8 million. CTE issued 3,000 shares of stock of which 2,000 went to Mrs. Everett who pledged them at the bank as collateral to secure the CTE loan. Arlington Park Jockey Club and Washington Park Jockey Club became divisions of CTE.. The transactions in evidence relate to the acquisition and disposition, by Isaacs and Kerner, of stock in CTE, BJC, and a later formed company, Chicago Harness Racing Company, CHR. Otto Kerner was the Democratic candidate for governor of Illinois in 1960. Miller assisted in financing his campaign and, through Miller, Mrs. Everett’s companies contributed $45,000 in cash to Kerner’s campaign. It is not claimed by the government that any impropriety is attached to these contributions. Monies which Miller collected were given to Theodore Isaacs who managed Kerner’s campaign. After Kerner’s election, he appointed Isaacs as Director of the Department of Revenue and Miller as chairman of IRB. Isaacs invited Miller to suggest new members for appointment to the Racing Board and Mrs. Everett, through Miller, recommended the appointment of Ernest Marsh and Donald McKellar to the Racing Board and James Hayes to the Harness Racing Commission. Kerner made the appointments so recommended. Later, Miller and Mrs. Everett objected to the appointments of A. J. Monaco and David Meyers and those appointments were not made. In 1961 Miller suggested to Mrs. Everett that she enter the field of harness racing to get more income from greater use of Arlington Park and Washington Park facilities. To accomplish this it was necessary to obtain legislation to permit one corporation to own two race tracks, to allow a racing company to conduct a meet at a track other than its own and to authorize a foreign corporation to own and operate race tracks in Illinois. Senate Bill 717, which approved such corporate actions, was lobbied through the Illinois legislature by Miller and it became law with Kerner’s signature. CTE spent over $5,000,000 to equip Washington Park for harness racing. Washington Park Trotting Association, WPTA, was organized to run the meets and it made a lease with CTE contingent upon the receipt of racing dates from the Harness Racing Commission. Rental was in the form of a percentage of the gross handle. WPTA stock was made available to various Illinois legislators and issued to nominees. In 1962, Chicago Harness Racing, Inc., CHR, was organized by Mrs. Everett and Miller and had the same landlord-tenant relationship with CTE as did WPTA. The initial CHR stockholders were Chicago businessmen. The common shares were placed for a time in a voting trust to maintain the control of Mrs. Everett. Miller suggested to her that 50,000 shares of CHR stock be made available for distribution to those who he thought might help the company. These 50,000 shares play a prominent part in subsequent events. Together, WPTA and CHR earned about $6,000,000 for CTE during the period 1962-1968. According to Mrs. Everett, Miller informed her that Isaacs would act as liaison between Miller and Governor Kerner on racing matters. Miller thought it essential that she have a friend in the Ker-ner administration in order to ensure the award of racing dates at CTE’s tracks and generally favorable consideration from the governor. While their testimony disagreed as to who initiated the subject, Mrs. Everett and Miller discussed the desirability of making racing stock available to Kerner and Isaacs. As a result, on November 8, 1962 Mrs. Everett sent Miller a handwritten note which read: Dear W S The following memo is to confirm our telephone conversation of today. At your earlier suggestion we have been holding: For O. K. 25 shares of C. T. E. com- mon $25,000 10.000 shares of W.P.T.A. common $10,000 For T.I. 5 shares of C.T.E. common $5,000 2.000 shares of W.P.T.A. common $2,000 We did not issue the above as you had suggested that I hold this stock until we received further instructions from you. For your further information you will recall that the common stock of C.T.E. at the time of merger had a value of $1000 a share. I shall be pleased to either issue the above stock or hold it — or handle it in any manner you suggest. Kindest personal regards, Marj The next day, November 9, Miller met with Kerner and Isaacs in the governor’s Springfield office and told them of Mrs. Everett’s stock offer. According to Miller, Kerner said “That’s very nice of Marj.” When Kerner took the stand he admitted seeing Miller on November 9 but denied that anything had been said about Mrs. Everett’s offer of stock. Kerner testified that the only discussion at the meeting related to the racing dates that had been scheduled for the next year. However, the government evidence showed that the final racing dates were not scheduled until a board meeting on November 20. Kerner testified that he first heard of stock being available from Joseph Knight and he agreed to invest in it on Knight’s recommendation. However, it is undisputed that nothing was done to set aside the stock or to take it up until four years later in the summer of 1966. At the time of Mrs. Everett’s November 1962 offer of CTE stock at $1,000 a share it was worth $2,500 a share. Isaacs approached Miller on a number of occasions wanting to know when the promised stock would be made available. In December 1963 or January 1964, Miller handed over to Isaacs Mrs. Everett’s November 8 note. Although the note had specified the number and types of shares to be received by the defendants, Miller testified at trial that the commitment was considered flexible with the exact number of shares and the particular companies in which an interest would be awarded not definitely settled. Thus, for example, the share of Isaacs was subsequently changed from 5 to 25 shares of CTE, although the reasons for this increase were not explained at trial. In the spring of 1964 Kerner was confronted with the problem of the allocation of racing dates to Maywood Park Trotting Association, a competitor of Mrs. Everett’s enterprises. Miller had corresponded with Kerner, informing him that Maywood had been engaging in fraudulent practices. Thomas Bradley, who was Chairman of the Harness Racing Commission at the time, testified that Kerner had been deeply involved in the allocation of racing dates to May-wood. According to Bradley, he had been contacted by Kerner who arranged a meeting at which they discussed May-wood’s future. Kerner indicated that Maywood had become insolvent and had been taken over by “wrong people.” But Bradley took issue with Kerner’s characterization of Maywood’s financial condition, asserting that, in fact, it was being run by a reputable family and was in the process of substantial renovation. Despite these remarks, Kerner ordered Bradley to “cancel the dates” that the Harness Racing Commission had set aside for Maywood for the fall of 1964 and to reassign them to Sportsman’s Park and Washington Park, the latter a division of CTE, controlled by Mrs. Everett. When Bradley adamantly refused to do this, Kerner responded: “Well, now Tom, this is an order.” Bradley testified that, instead of obeying Kerner’s order, he chose to hold hearings and audit Maywood’s books. The picture which emerged from the hearings and audit was that Maywood was entitled to the fall 1964 racing dates that had been tentatively assigned it. A transcript of the hearings was sent to Kerner, who refused to meet with Bradley and requested his resignation, which was submitted shortly thereafter. When Kerner took the stand, he disputed Bradley’s account of the Maywood incident. He denied ever having had any private meeting with Bradley or ordering the reassignment of racing dates to Sportsman’s and Washington Parks. Kerner did admit that he had a meeting in the spring of 1964 with the entire Harness Racing Commission, and that at this meeting the question of Maywood’s probable insolvency had been discussed. He testified that his concern over May-wood’s insolvency was prompted by reports from several sources concerning its poor financial condition and that he feared that if these reports proved true then Illinois would lose revenue it obtained in the form of a share of the take from Maywood’s operations. Kerner requested that the members of the Board determine the accuracy of reports of Maywood’s insolvency. In 1964 Kerner successfully ran for reelection as governor. Mrs. Everett made a $15,000 cash contribution to his campaign which was delivered by Miller to Kerner. Here again no question is raised as to the propriety of the contribution. In late 1964, a second dispute arose over the allocation of racing dates. Egyptian Trotting Association, one of CTE’s Washington Park tenants, had been tentatively allocated the same fall dates for the 1965 season that it had been assigned the previous year. . These late fall dates were highly desirable since they included days on which there would be no competition from thoroughbred racing. Clyde Lee, Executive Director of Egyptian, testified that after hearing rumors that Egyptian’s dates might, in fact, be awarded to Maywood in 1965, he arranged a meeting with Kerner. At this meeting, he told Ker-ner that while he did not want to exert pressure on the governor, he would appreciate Egyptian’s retaining the late fall dates. According to Lee, Kerner acknowledged that he “was in the middle of the thing and would probably have to make the decision.” Lee testified that he was not satisfied with Kerner’s response and flew down to Florida to see Mrs. Everett, who had a direct stake since her company, CTE, leased the Washington Park race track to Egyptian and received a percentage of the handle. After Lee told her about his conversation with the governor, Mrs. Everett immediately contacted James Hayes and told him she wanted Egyptian to retain the late fall dates. But Hayes was in the hospital and meanwhile the only active member of the three-man commission, Walter Murphy, was taking steps to award the dates to Maywood. Murphy eventually came to see Kerner, complaining that he could not get Hayes to sign the orders awarding the fall 1965 dates. Kerner indicated that, if he tried again, Hayes would in fact approve the orders. Murphy followed Kerner’s instructions and Hayes, as had been promised, agreed. Although Egyptian did not get the specific dates it had requested, it was allocated six additional dates, which, of course, meant increased revenues. When Kerner took the stand, he denied any recollection of dealings with Lee or involvement in the allocation of racing dates to Egyptian. He admitted having spoken with Murphy, but testified that he had merely suggested to him that Hayes might change his position if approached again. He denied further personal involvement in the matter. In 1965 legislation was approved by the Illinois House of Representatives (Bills 1186 and 1187) which was designed to increase state revenues at the expense of race track operators, by increasing the state’s receipts from thoroughbred and harness racing. Racing interests, including Mrs. Everett, were strongly opposed to these measures. On May 5, 1965, according to Clyde Lee, he met with Kerner, Paul Powell, the Secretary of State of Illinois, and then State Senator William Lynch, Mrs. Everett’s attorney. Kerner was shown schedules prepared by Mrs. Everett’s accountants indicating that the legislation might have a disastrous effect on certain harness racing companies. Lee testified that Kerner stated that he would consider the matter “and let [them] know something.” Not long after, Ker-ner met with Miller and Isaacs. Miller suggested alternative legislation involving a less severe impact on the racing companies. Kerner and Isaacs agreed that the original legislation would be detrimental to the state and the racing associations. With Miller’s active support and lobbying, revised legislation was enacted which significantly reduced the burden originally contemplated by the Illinois House of Representatives. Kerner signed the bill into law. On direct examination, Kerner disputed Lee’s account of events. Kerner testified that he could not recall having met with Lee, Powell, Miller, and Lynch. Additionally, on cross-examination, he stated that he, in fact, had supported the original legislation, accepting the watered-down version only when it was clear that the harsher original legislation would not pass the Senate. He testified that he had insisted throughout that there be some legislation resulting in an increase in revenues from racing. In August of 1965 Kerner signed into law a bill which abolished the Harness Racing Commission, which had proved so troublesome under Thomas Bradley’s chairmanship. In its place, the Racing Board was given jurisdiction over both thoroughbred and harness racing and expanded to seven members. Among those appointed to the enlarged Board were Miller, as chairman, and Ernest Marsh and Donald McKellar, both originally appointed to the Board by Kerner at the beginning of his first term on the recommendation of Mrs. Everett. Also appointed as members were Crowdus Baker, Roy Tuchbreiter, Charles P. Murphy, Sr., and Kenneth Clark. Apart from Clark, all the others were names suggested to Kerner by Miller after he had had discussions with Mrs. Everett and Isaacs. Indeed, both Tuchbreiter and Baker had earlier been associated with CTE and its affiliates. An Illinois law enacted in 1965, 111. Rev.Stat., Ch. 8, § 37al (1965), prohibited members of the Racing Board from maintaining any interest in a harness racing company. Thus Miller, as chairman of the Board, found himself in late 1965 in the position of having to dispose of 50,000 shares of CHR which had been allocated to him at the company’s formation in 1962. Eventually 28,000 of the shares came into the possession of Isaacs and Kerner. The 50,000 CHR shares had come into Miller’s hands through a series of events extending back to 1962 when Joseph Knight informed Miller that he and “his friends” were displeased that they had not been offered interests in race track stock as had many legislators. Miller relayed this message to Mrs. Everett, who in the summer of 1963 made available 50,000 shares of CHR. The shares were obtained by engineering a CHR stock split over the objections of the board chairman, Modie Spiegel, who protested the dilution of his interest in a letter to Mrs. Everett in which he also complained that he had been “informed that it was imperative to have others receive [CHR] stock in order to get CHR its [racing] dates.” To finance the acquisition of the stock, Miller had had his secretary, Faith Mclnturf, draft a $20,000 check to Ralph Atlass, who had been chosen by Mrs. Everett to be the nominee for Miller’s 50,000 shares. Upon receiving Miller’s check, Atlass deposited it, drafted his own check for $20,000 and delivered it to Albert Bell, CHR secretary. Atlass received a voting trust certificate for 50.000 shares, CHR stock at the time being held entirely in a voting trust controlled by Mrs. Everett. On termination of this trust, Atlass received a single 50.000 share certificate which he presented to Miller on May 6, 1965. That same day, Miller called Knight and told him that the shares he had requested were available. Knight, however, was unprepared to pay for them. The two agreed, pursuant to Knight’s suggestion, that Miller would open a numbered account at Sincere & Co., a brokerage house. This account, #206, was credited with $4,800 from Knight and 38.000 shares of CHR stock, and 12,000 shares went into account #208, which was Knight’s account. Immediately thereafter, CHR issued twelve 1,000 share certificates and one 26,000 share certificate to replace the single 38,000 share certificate. In January 1966, not long after the new certificates had been delivered by CHR to Sincere & Co., Isaacs informed Miller that “the old man and I are irritated about that delay in receiving Marj’s [CTE] stock.” Miller promised to contact Mrs. Everett at once. When given Isaacs’ message, Mrs. Everett commented that she would do something about it as soon as possible. At the time, Mrs. Everett had most of her shares of CTE tied up in a single 2,000 share certificate pledged as collateral at the First National Bank on CTE’s multimillion dollar loan. She received permission from the bank temporarily to withdraw 50 shares on the condition that she would eventually return them. On February 8,1966, two 25 share certificates were sent to her attorney, William Lynch. Not long after, toward the end of February, Miller met with Isaacs on a Florida golf course and informed him that the CTE shares were available at Lynch's office. Isaacs expressed satisfaction, but indicated that he wanted to look into the tax consequences. In March of 1966 Isaacs met with Knight again to arrange for the acquisition of the stocks. Knight told Miller shortly thereafter, however, that neither he nor Issacs had sufficient cash to complete the transactions. Miller suggested that Knight see his secretary, Faith Mclnturf, to arrange a “loan.” Knight contacted Mclnturf and a $40,000 “loan” was arranged. On August 10, 1966 Miller, Knight and Isaacs met with George Schaller, an attorney for Mrs. Everett’s racing enterprises. Schaller, on behalf of Mrs. Everett, tendered to Isaacs the two 25 share certificates that he, Schaller, had received from William Lynch. In return, Schaller received Isaacs’ promisso-. ry note and two checks. The note was backdated to November 12, 1962 and promised to pay $50,000 at 5% simple interest. The CTE shares were pledged as security. The two checks given to Schaller were made payable to Mrs. Everett and drawn on Isaacs’ personal account in the sums of $50,000 and $8,958. Isaacs presented the $8,958 check as “interest” although according to Mrs. Everett she had never discussed a loan with Isaacs or Kerner. Schaller marked the note paid and gave it to Isaacs and the CTE certificates were given to Miller. At this time a share of CTE was worth $6,000. At the request of Miller and Isaacs, Mrs. Everett sent to Isaacs, after the August 10 meeting, a letter, backdated to November 12, 1962, which purported to confirm the purchase of 50 shares of CTE at $1,000 per share. The letter stated that Mrs. Everett would hold the shares as collateral for Isaacs’ note to her for $50,000 bearing interest at 5%, and due on or before November 15, 1966. The funds which Isaacs had given to Schaller for the CTE shares had come in large part from the $40,000 that Faith Mclnturf had “loaned” to Knight. After depositing Mclnturf’s check Knight had drawn a check for the same amount payable to Isaacs. Isaacs deposited the $40,000 check from Knight to his account as well as a $5,000 check to cash from Kerner. On the deposit slip accompanying this check, Isaacs typed: “Repayment to TJI of advance payment of 25 CTE, balance owing to TJI is $20,000 plus interest at 5% from July 15, 1966.” In addition to the $45,000 from the Knight and Kerner checks, Isaacs contributed $5,000 of his own funds to cover the $50,000 check given to Mrs. Everett for the 50 shares of CTE. The other check given by Isaacs to Schaller was for $8,958 payable to Mrs. Everett, and represented interest on the fictitious loan. No interest was due and the payment thereof ostensibly gave the appearance of legitimacy to the backdated note. One-half of the $8,950 came from Ker-ner who originally sent it erroneously to Mrs. Everett. She called Miller, who told her to send the check to him for transmittal to Isaacs. Later Kerner sent an IRS form 1099 to Mrs. Everett, reporting the interest payment by him. (The mailing of this form is the basis for Count VI, one of the Mail Fraud counts.) We turn now to the manner in which $40,000 was generated in order to pay off the Mclnturf “loan.” On July 19, 1966 Kerner issued a $5,600 check to cash. The check eventually reached Isaacs who proceeded to use it to purchase a Civic Center Bank cashier’s cheek #358 for the same amount made payable to Knight. On the reverse side of the receipt for the cashier’s check, Isaacs wrote: “O.K.’s % of W.P.T. pchse. of 11/12/62 with Chicago Harness substituted for W. P. Trott, by agreement resulting from error in failure to purchase W.P.T. shares according to agreement of Nov. 1962.” Isaacs added his own $5,600 check and together these two checks were deposited in Knight’s account, as reimbursement for an $11,200 outlay which Knight had deposited more than two weeks earlier in Miller’s Sincere & Co. account and which was equal to the price of the 28,000 CHR shares allocated to Isaacs and Ker-ner. Later, the two 14,000 share certificates destined for Isaacs and Kerner were transferred from Sincere’s name to that of Knight. In early October, Knight wrote George Schaller and requested that he become nominee because of Knight’s own poor health. Knight did not mention in his letter who the beneficial owners were, but Schaller agreed to act as nominee upon Mrs. Everett’s request that he do so. In the fall of 1966, CTE and CHR filed applications for 1967 racing dates with IRB. CTE submitted applications on behalf of its two subsidiaries, Arlington Park and Washington Park jockey clubs. On the application Mrs. Everett was listed as the owner of 2,000 CTE shares, although Isaacs and Kerner, in fact, each beneficially owned 25 of these shares. Similarly, CHR’s application represented that Schaller owned 38,000 shares, although Isaacs and Kerner were each the beneficial owners of 14,000 of those shares. These statements were made even though the page on which the holdings were listed notified the applicant that Dummy Holdings must be indicated, and the real parties owning the equity therein must also be stated. The racing dates requested were granted to CTE and CHR on the basis of their inaccurate reports. In February 1967, CHR declared a 20^ per share dividend, so that Isaacs and Kerner each became entitled to $2,800. Knight wrote Schaller requesting that he “pay such dividend to the true owners thereof, whose identity I have disclosed to you orally.” Isaacs, according to Schaller’s testimony, shortly thereafter visited him and told him to write two personal checks, one payable to Isaacs and one to Kerner. After informing Mrs. Everett, Schaller deposited the two dividend checks in his account and then drafted two checks each in the amount of $2,800 payable to Isaacs and Kerner. These checks were then deposited by Isaacs and Kerner in their accounts. (The mailing by Kerner of his check for deposit was the basis for Count IX, Mail Fraud.) Two months later, Miller, who had stepped down from his position as Chairman of IRB, was asked by a longtime friend, Joseph Becker, whether he knew of any race track stock for sale. Miller proceeded to arrange a deal whereby Becker and his brother would purchase the 28,000 shares of CHR held by Schaller as nominee for Isaacs and Kerner. At Joseph Knight’s direction and with Isaacs’ express approval, Schaller agreed to sell the stock to the Beckers. Joseph Becker was directed by Miller or his secretary, Faith Mclnturf, to draft two checks for $28,000 payable to Schaller. On May 17, these checks were presented to Faith Mclnturf. Schaller eventually received them, deposited them in his personal account and then drew two personal checks payable to Joseph Knight and delivered them to Isaacs. Isaacs delivered the checks to Knight who deposited them in his account and then issued three checks, one payable to Isaacs for $7,000, one to Ker-ner for the same amount, and a $41,642.-48 check to Faith Mclnturf as repayment for her earlier $40,000 advance, which had enabled the August 1966 acquisition of the 50 CTE shares, plus interest thereon. These cheeks were deposited by Isaacs, Kerner and Mclnturf in their respective accounts, with the check to Kerner then sent by his bank to a central depository bank. (This was the basis for the mail fraud charged in Count VIII.) Eventually all three checks deposited cleared through the Federal Reserve Bank in St. Louis, Missouri. (These transactions are the basis for violations of the Travel Act, 18 LhS. C. § 1952, charged in Counts II, III, IV.) Mrs. Everett still had an obligation to return the 50 CTE shares to the First National Bank where they had originally been held as part of the 2,000 share collateral on the multimillion dollar loan. The First National Bank authorized her to exchange 10,000 BJC shares, also held by the bank as collateral, for the 50 outstanding CTE shares. BJC was a thoroughbred racing company controlled by Mrs. Everett, Miller and CTE, and ran its meets as a tenant of CTE. Miller and Issacs .agreed to exchange the CTE shares Isaacs and Kerner beneficially owned for 10,000 BJC shares. On May 12, 1967 the exchange took place. The BJC shares were put in the name of Knight, once again acting as nominee for Isaacs and Kerner. Miller had gained control of CHR. With funds obtained from the company he was able on June 22, 1967 to acquire a controlling interest in BJC. As chairman of BJC’s Executive Committee, he submitted an application for 1968 racing dates to the Racing Board which failed to reveal Isaacs’ and Kerner’s beneficial ownership of BJC stock. On the basis of this misleading application, the Racing Board granted the dates applied for, sending a race date acceptance form to Miller on November 27, 1967. (This mailing was the basis of the mail fraud charged in Count XIII.) Miller subsequently took steps to acquire Issacs’ and Kerner’s BJC shares. Faith Mclnturf drafted a $300,000 CHR check dated March 26, 1968, payable to Knight, in return for the 10,000 BJC shares beneficially owned by the defendants. Knight endorsed this check in blank and gave it to Isaacs, who arranged with the Civic Center Bank, whose attorney he was, to negotiate it without an endorsement, although this was contrary to normal bank procedures. Isaacs deposited $135,000 in his checking account and a similar amount in a new checking account opened for Ker-ner. Then he deposited $15,000 each in two new savings accounts, which he had opened for himself and Kerner. The end result of all these transactions was that Isaacs and Kerner had each gained $159,800 from sales and dividends and were each out of pocket only $15,079. The record shows that during the period in question no competitor of Mrs. Everett lost any racing dates. The only gain in dates was that of the additional six days for Egyptian, a tenant of her enterprises. State revenues from horse racing increased from $19.6 million in 1961 to $40 million in 1968. During the same period Mrs. Everett’s enterprises flourished. She eventually disposed of her Illinois racing interests, which she valued at $20 million, by taking bonds in Gulf and Western Industries. In his tax return for the year 1967, Isaacs reported that he had acquired 14,000 shares of “Chicago Co.” on July 13, 1966 at a cost of $5,600 and had sold the stock on May 25, 1967 for $28,000; and that he had acquired 25 shares of “Bajo Co.” on November 12, 1962 for $25,000 and had sold them on May 12, 1967 for $150,000. In his return for the tax year 1967, Kerner reported that he had acquired 14,000 shares of “Chicago Co.” on July 13, 1966 for $5,600 and had sold them on May 25, 1967 for $28,000. Kerner also reported an item identified as “as Exchange C.T. Co. for 5,000 Bal-moral” with an acquisition date of November 20, 1962 for $25,000 and a sale date of May 12, 1967 for $150,000. Isaacs and Kerner each treated these items as long-term capital gains. The government asserted, however, that the items referred to were the CHR and CTE stocks which had been acquired in 1966 and had then had a value of $28,000 and $150,000 respectively. According to the government, these had been bribes and were thus taxable as ordinary income in 1966. At the trial the government tax expert testified that treatment of the items as the receipt of bribes, and hence taxable as ordinary income in 1966, would result in a tax deficiency for Kerner of over $83,000 and for Isaacs of over $87,000. (Count XVI charged Kerner with income tax evasion in violation of 26 U.S.C. § 7201. Count XVII charged him with false statements on a return in violation of 26 U.S.C. § 7206(1). Isaacs was similarly charged in Counts XVIII and XIX.) In her tax return for 1966, Mrs. Everett claimed a long-term capital loss on the sale of the 50 CTE shares. After the IRS had begun an investigation of her return, she disclosed in 1969 her knowledge of the transactions which had occurred and provided her records. In the ensuing investigation, Kerner, who had resigned as governor in 1968 to take office as a United States Circuit Judge for the Seventh Circuit, was visited in his chambers, on July 15, 1970, by two IRS special agents who told him that he was under criminal investigation for income tax violations, and gave him the Miranda warning. Agent Stuffle-beam asked Kerner to identify the “Chicago Co.” listed on the 1967 return. Kerner said that it was a financial institution, that he had purchased the stock on the advice of his broker, and that a friend of his, Isidore Brown, was a corporate officer. The facts were that Chicago Co. was privately owned, that Ker-ner had never owned any of its stock, and that Isidore Brown had never been involved with that company. Kerner also told the agents that the Chicago Co. transaction did not refer to Chicago Harness Racing Company and that his only transactions in racing stock involved the CTE-BJC transactions. (These statements formed the basis for Count XV, which charged the making of false statements in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1001.) After the federal grand jury commenced its investigation of Illinois racing operations, Kerner requested to appear. During his lengthy testimony in June 1971 he specifically denied ordering Bradley to withdraw Maywood’s 1964 racing dates and denied the conversation with Lee regarding the Egyptian racing dates. (Count XIV, the perjury count, is based on these statements before the grand jury.) As stated above, Kerner testified in his own behalf, explained at length his version of the various transactions, and specifically denied that he accepted a bribe or did anything to deprive the people of Illinois of their right to honest, good government. Isaacs did not testify. With relation to the income tax counts, the defendants showed that their tax returns were prepared by their accountants on whom they relied. In addition, fifteen character witnesses testified for Kerner. The principal points presented for review are as follows: I. The jurisdiction of the district court to try a federal judge upon an indictment prior to removal from office by impeachment. II. Sufficiency of the evidence of bribery. III. Validity of the convictions under the Travel Act counts. IV. Validity of the convictions under the Mail Fraud counts. V. Validity of the convictions on the conspiracy count. VI. Validity of Kemer’s conviction under the perjury count. VII. Validity of Kerner’s conviction under the false statement count. VIII. Questions relating to joinder. IX. Questions relating to severance. X. Miscellaneous, including ques- • tions regarding admission of evidence. XI. The charge to the jury. XII. Summations of government counsel. I. The jurisdiction of the district court to try a federal judge upon an indictment prior to removed from office by impeachment. Kerner became a United States Circuit Judge for the Seventh Judicial Circuit on May 20, 1968, 890 F.2d xv, and still holds that office. The conspiracy count covers a period beginning prior to 1961 and continuing to the date of the return of the indictment with one overt act related to conduct in 1970. The perjury count and the § 1001 count cover matters occurring after he took office as a federal judge. All other counts relate to offenses that precede that event. The question is whether a court has jurisdiction to try a federal judge upon an indictment before his removal from office by the impeachment process. This point was not raised in the trial court and is presented for the first time on this appeal. Rule 12(b)(2), F.R.Crim.P., provides that defenses and objections based on defects in the institution of the prosecution or in the indictment, other than a failure to show jurisdiction or charge an offense, may be made by motion before trial and, if not made, are thereafter waived. Lack of jurisdiction may be noticed at any time during the pendency of the prosecution. The first problem is whether we are concerned with personal or subject-matter jurisdiction. Personal jurisdiction may be waived by failure to challenge but subject-matter jurisdiction may not. Sewell v. United States, 8 Cir., 406 F.2d 1289, 1292, and Pon v. United States, 1 Cir., 168 F.2d 373, 374; see also Ford v. United States, 273 U.S. 593, 606, 47 S.Ct. 531, 71 L.Ed. 793. Kerner argues that the provisions of Articles I and II of the Constitution relating to impeachment provide the only means of removing a judge from office, and, because conviction on criminal charges is tantamount to removal from office, federal courts are without jurisdiction over the person. The real basis for the argument is the claim of a constitutional privilege or immunity. That claim goes to the power of the court to act, and hence pertains to subject-matter jurisdiction. Cooper v. Reynolds, 10 Wall. 308, 316, 317, 77 U.S. 308, 316-317, 19 L.Ed. 931; Binderup v. Pathe Exchange, Inc., 263 U.S. 291, 305-307, 44 S.Ct. 96, 68 L.Ed. 308; Farmers Elevator Mutual Ins. Co. v. Carl J. Austad & Sons, Inc., 8 Cir., 343 F.2d 7, 11; West Coast Exploration Co. v. McKay, 93 U.S.App.D.C. 307, 213 F.2d 582, 591, cert. denied 347 U.S. 989, 74 S.Ct. 850, 98 L.Ed. 1123; and United States v. New York & O.S.S. Co., 2 Cir., 216 F. 61, 66. Glidden Company v. Zdanok, 370 U.S. 530, 535-537, 82 S.Ct. 1459, 8 L.Ed.2d 671, was concerned with the authority of judges of special federal courts to sit by designation in federal courts of general jurisdiction. The contention was that the special courts are created under Art. I of the Constitution and hence their judges may not sit on Art. Ill courts. The point was not presented in the trial court but was raised for the first time on appeal. The government argued that the de facto doctrine precluded consideration of the judges’ authority for the first time on appeal. The Supreme Court recognized the “obviously sound policy of preventing litigants from abiding the outcome of a lawsuit and then overturning it if adverse upon a technicality of which they were previously aware.” 370 U.S. at 535, 82 S.Ct. at 1465. However, the Court pointed out that when the defect is not merely technical but embodies a strong policy affecting judicial administration, the Court has treated the defect as jurisdictional and considered it though not raised at the earliest opportunity. 370 U.S. at 536, 82 S.Ct. 1465. The Court went on to say that “A fortiori is this so when the challenge is based upon non-frivolous constitutional grounds.” Ibid. The Court noted that the existence of diversity of citizenship could be considered for the first time in the Supreme Court, Mansfield, C. & L. M. R. Co. v. Swan, 111 U.S. 379, 382, 4 S.Ct. 510, 28 L.Ed. 462, and City of Gainesville v. Brown Crummer Investment Co., 277 U.S. 54, 59, 48 S.Ct. 454, 72 L.Ed. 781, and held that the attack on the constitutional authority of the judges should be heard even though not raised in the trial court. 370 U.S. at 537, 82 S.Ct. 1459. Kerner’s challenge is on nonfrivolous constitutional grounds. It relates to the power of the court to act and hence is concerned with subject-matter jurisdiction, which under Rule 12(b)(2), F.R. Crim.P., may be raised at any time. Accordingly, we must consider the jurisdictional issue on its merits. An examination of the textual references to impeachment in the Constitution reveals the following. The House of Representatives is given the sole power of impeachment. Art. I, § 2. The Senate is given the sole power to try all impeachments. Art. I, § 3. A conviction on impeachment cannot go beyond removal from office and disqualification to hold future offices. Art. I, § 3. Conviction on impeachment does not bar subsequent criminal proceedings against the offender. Art. I, § 3. The President has no power to grant pardons in cases of impeachment. Art. II, § 2. To be removed from office on impeachment, the President, Vice-President, and any civil officer of the United States must be convicted of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. Art. II, § 4. The impeachment process proceeds without trial by jury. Art. Ill, § 2. Three other provisions, which do not expressly concern impeachment, must be considered. Members of Congress are privileged from arrest during sessions, except for treason, felony, and breach of the peace, and may not be questioned for any speech or debate in Congress. Art. I, § 6. Federal judges hold their offices during good behavior. Art. Ill, § 1. The historical background of the pertinent constitutional provisions has been thoroughly explored and analyzed by many scholars. See e. g. R. Berger, Impeachment: The Constitutional Problems ; I. Brant, Impeachment, Trials and Errors; B. Shartel, Federal Judges— Appointment, Supervision, and Removal —Some Possibilities Under the Constitution, 28 Mich.L.Rev. 870; Ziskind, Judicial Tenure in the American Constitution : English and American Precedents, 1969 The Supreme Court Review 135; P. Kurland, The Constitution and the Tenure of Federal Judges: Some Notes from History, 36 University of Chicago L.Rev. 665; and Keeffe, Explorations in the Wonderland of Impeachment, 59 Am.Bar Ass’n Journal 885. Any reexamination of this esoteric subject by us would serve no good purpose. The Constitution does not forbid the trial of a federal judge for criminal offenses committed either before or after the assumption of judicial office. The provision of Art. I, § 3, cl. 7, that an impeached judge is “subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law” does not mean that a judge may not be indicted and tried without impeachment first. The purpose of the phrase may be to assure that after impeachment a trial on criminal charges is not foreclosed by the principle of double jeopardy, or it may be to differentiate the provisions of the Constitution from the English practice of impeachment. R. Berger, supra at 78-80, citing 1 J. Wilson, Works 324 (McCloskey ed.); 14 Annals of Cong. 423 (1805) (giving an interpretation of the clause by L. Martin, a member of the Constitutional Convention.) The provision of Art. Ill, § 1, that federal judges “shall hold their Offices during good Behavior”, which had a recognized common law meaning and which was accompanied at common law by a procedure for its effectuation, serves as a limitation on the tenure of federal judges. R. Berger, supra at 125-128. No clause in the Constitution is without meaning. Marbury v. Madison, 1 Cranch 137, 174, 5 U.S. 137, 174, 2 L.Ed. 60, and Holmes v. Jennison, 14 Pet. 540, 571, 39 U.S. 540, 571, 10 L.Ed. 579. The inclusion of the tenure provision does not permit impeachment for conduct less than that which triggers the impeachment provisions of Articles I and II. By the same token it does not exclude prosecution for crime. Protection of tenure is not a license to commit crime or a forgiveness of crimes committed before taking office. Otherwise, a person upon assuming federal judicial office would receive amnesty and would not be accountable for his misdeeds, whenever they occurred. We believe that the framers of the Constitution did not intend such a result. Our conclusion is supported by contemporaneous construction of the Constitution. The First Congress passed § 21 of the Act of April 30, 1790, now 18 U.S.C. § 201, which provided that a judge convicted of accepting a bribe is thereby disqualified to hold office. Thus the members of the Congress who must have been acutely aware of the provisions of the Constitution and the debate which preceded their adoption construed the Constitution to permit the removal of a judge without impeachment. In 1796, the House of Representatives referred to the Attorney General serious charges against a territorial judge. The Attorney General ruled that the judge could be prosecuted by information, indictment, or impeachment. See Shartel, supra, at 885, n. 40. The fact that the judge in question was an Art. I, rather than an Art. Ill, judge does not provide a persuasive distinction. They are both civil officers. The Attorney General advised the House that the judge could be prosecuted by information, indictment, or impeachment and recommended information or indictment as cheaper and easier. The House took no action on the At- • torney General’s report. The Jeffersonian Congress in 1802, by repealing the 1801 Judiciary Act and thereby throwing the so-called midnight judges out of office, did so on the constitutional premise that it could remove judges. The fact that after Marbury v. Madison, 1 Cranch. 137, 5 U.S. 137, 2 L. Ed. 60, the judges gave up and never sued to retain their offices proves nothing. The interesting fact is that this early Congress acted as it did. Turning the pages of history, the Supreme Court said in an 1882 decision, United States v. Lee, 106 U.S. 196, 220, 1 S.Ct, 240, 261, 27 L.Ed. 171, that: No man in this country is so high that he is above the law. No officer of the law may set that law at defiance with impunity. All the officers of the government, from the highest to the lowest, are creatures of the law, and are bound to obey it. It is the only supreme power in our system of government, and every man who by accepting office participates in its functions is only the more strongly bound to submit to that supremacy, and to observe the limitations which it imposes upon the exercise of the authority which it gives. In Burton v. United States, 202 U.S. 344, 26 S.Ct. 688, 50 L.Ed. 1057, a United States Senator was convicted, among other things, of having taken a bribe in violation of what is now 18 U.S.C. § 201. He argued that conviction would expel him from the Senate and that under the Constitution the Senate had sole power of expulsion. The Court rejected the contention, quoted with approval from United States v. Lee, and found no violation of the principle of separation of powers. In Chandler v. Judicial Council of the Tenth Circuit, 398 U.S. 74, 90 S.Ct. 1648, 26 L.Ed.2d 100, Mr. Justice Douglas said in his dissenting opinion, Ibid, at 140, 90 S.Ct. at 1682: "If they [federal judges] break a law, they can be prosecuted.” Mr. Justice Black in his dissent said, Ibid, at 141, 90 S.Ct. at 1683, that “ * * * judges, like oth-people, can be tried, convicted, and punished for crimes * * In United States v. Brewster, 408 U.S. 501, 92 S.Ct. 2531, 33 L.Ed.2d 507, a Senator was charged with a § 201 violation. The trial court held that the Speech or Debate Clause precluded criminal prosecution. The Supreme Court reversed and found no constitutional violation. The Court said, 408 U.S. at 520, 92 S.Ct. at 2541: The sweeping claims of appellee would render Members of - Congress virtually immune from a wide range of crimes simply because the acts in question were peripherally related to their holding office. Such claims are inconsistent with the reading this Court has given, not only to the Speech or Debate Clause, but also to the other legislative privileges embodied in Art. I, § 6. Gravel v. United States, 408 U.S. 606, 92 S.Ct. 2614, 33 L.Ed.2d 583, was concerned with the validity of a subpoena requiring the assistant of a Senator to appear as a witness before a federal grand jury. The Senator intervened and asserted a violation of his constitutional privileges. With reference to the Freedom from Arrest Clause, the Court said, 408 U.S. at 615, 92 S.Ct. at 2622: It is, therefore, sufficiently plain that the constitutional freedom from arrest does not exempt Members of Congress from the operation of the ordinary criminal laws, even though imprisonment may prevent or interfere with the performance of their duties as Members. * * * Indeed, implicit in the narrow scope of the privilege of freedom from arrest is, as Jefferson noted, the judgment that legislators ought not to stand above the law they create but ought generally to be bound by it as are ordinary persons. Finally, we have O’Shea v. Littleton, 414 U.S. 488, 94 S.Ct. 669, 38 L.Ed.2d 674, decided January 15, 1974. The Court, although its language was general and perhaps dictum, touched on the vulnerability of judges to criminal process, and said, 414 U.S. 488, 503, 94 S.Ct. 669, 680, 38 L.Ed.2d 674: * * * we have never held that the performance of the duties of judicial, legislative, or executive officers, requires or contemplates the immunization of otherwise criminal deprivations of constitutional rights. Cf. Ex parte Virginia, 100 U.S. 339, 25 L.Ed. 676 (1879). On the contrary, the jud-ieally fashioned doctrine of offical immunity does not reach ‘so far as to immunize criminal conduct proscribed by an Act of Congress * * *' Gravel v. United States, 408 U.S. 606, 627, 92 S.Ct. 2614, 2628, 33 L.Ed.2d 583 (1972). Kerner’s argument for the privilege which he claims, is not supported by “the precise words used in any prior case, and surely not on the sense of those cases, fairly read.” Brewster, 408 U.S. at 516, 92 S.Ct. at 2539. We conclude that whatever immunities or privileges the Constitution confers for the purpose of assuring the independence of the co-equal branches of govern- . ment they do not exempt the members of those branches “from the operation of the ordinary criminal laws.” Criminal conduct is not part of the necessary functions performed by public officials. Punishment for that conduct will not interfere with the legitimate operations of a branch of government. Historically, the impeachment process has proven to be cumbersome and fraught with political overtones. We believe that the independence of the judiciary is better served when criminal charges against its members are tried in a court rather than in Congress. With a court trial, a judge is assured of the protections given to all those charged with criminal conduct. The issues are heard in a calm and reasoned manner and are subject to the rules of evidence, the presumption of innocence, and other safeguards. 408 U.S. at 519-520, 92 S.Ct. 2531. Kerner argues that trial and conviction of a federal judge frustrates the separation of powers concept because the executive branch would indict and prosecute. The Constitution makes all “civil officers” subject to impeachment. The issue, then, is whether any civil officer is subject to pre-impeachment indictment. This presents no separation problem. Brewster points out, 408 U.S. at 522, n. 16, 92 S.Ct. 2531, the barriers, such as indictment, burden of proof, and presumption of innocence, which a prosecutor must face. With co-equal branches of government, the potential of abuse by any one of them is inherent. However, the system of checks and balances, a free press, and public resentment toward any attempted domination all work to preserve the guaranteed independence of each branch. On the basis of the text of the Constitution, its background, its contemporaneous construction, and the pragmatic consequences of its provisions on impeachment, we are convinced that a federal judge is subject to indictment and trial before impeachment and that the district court had jurisdiction to try defendant Kerner. II. Sufficiency of the Evidence of Bribery. A basic question is whether the evidence suffices to show that the transactions in question were for the improper purpose of influencing official conduct. The conspiracy count charges an agreement to violate the Travel Act by the use of interstate facilities to distribute the proceeds of bribery, and to violate the Mail Fraud Act by the use of the United States mails in furtherance of a scheme to defraud the State of Illinois and its citizens of their right to have the administration and execution of its laws free from corruption and fraud. The tax counts are bottomed on the theory that the defendants received ordinary income in the form of bribes rather than long-term capital gains resulting from business investments. The defendants say that the stock acquisitions were legitimate business transactions unrelated to any attempt to influence official conduct and that their conduct was within the realm of propriety. The government contends, and the jury by its verdicts must have found, that the evidence established that Mrs. Everett and Miller offered the stock with a corrupt intent, that Isaacs and Kerner received the stock with knowledge of that intent, and the result was the improper influencing of official conduct. The Travel Act, 18 U.S.C. § 1952, makes it unlawful to use any facility in interstate commerce to distribute the proceeds of an unlawful activity. The latter phrase is defined to include bribery in violation of the laws of the state in which committed. The indictment alleges bribery in violation of Ill. Rev.Stat., Ch. 38, § 33-1. Subsection 33-1 (d) provides that bribery occurs when property is accepted by a public official with knowledge that it is offered with intent to influence the performance of any act related to his public position. No particular act need be contemplated by the offeror or offeree. There is bribery if the offer is made with intent that the offeree act favorably to the offeror when necessary. See People v. Woodruff, 9 Ill.2d 429, 137 N.E.2d 809; cf. People v. Rizzo, 29 Ill.2d 471, 194 N.E.2d 205, and Commonwealth v. Lapham, 156 Mass. 480, 31 N.E. 638, 639. Isaacs and Kerner contend that they purchased the stock in 1962 at the stated price; that the stock was pledged as collateral for a loan and could not be delivered immediately; and that they paid the agreed purchase price when the stock was ready for delivery in 1966. Alternatively, they claim that if the No-bember 9, 1962, transaction was not a sale then it was an option to buy, that is, a legal commitment by Mrs. Everett to sell the stock to them at the mentioned price. Kerner denied the November 9, 1962, conversation with Miller relative to the stock offer. He admitted the meeting with Miller. Indeed, it is shown in Kernels diary. Kerner testified that the only purpose of the meeting was to learn from Miller the racing dates that had been scheduled for the next year. The evidence was that no final racing dates were scheduled until a board meeting on November 20. If the stock offer was not discussed at the November 9 meeting, then the only basis for the defendants’ claim of a 1962 commitment by Mrs. Everett is the 1966 Isaacs note and Everett letter, which were admittedly backdated to 1962, and furnish frail support to the claim of an ordinary business transaction. The effort to camouflage the transaction by the payment of interest on a fictitious note discredits the claim of a legitimate business transaction. The record sustains a finding that an offer was made. It is not contested that property, the 50 CTE shares, was acquired at a fraction of its true worth. This brings us to the question of the intent of the offeror and the knowledge of the offerees of that intent. Miller testified that he made the stock offer with intent “to cause him [Kerner] to continue to look favorably upon Mrs. Everett and her enterprises.” Before the offer Kerner had signed the legislation which made possible the CTE operations. After the offer, he approved legislation supported by Mrs. Everett and others interested in racing. The evidence established that appointments to the regulatory bodies approved by Mrs. Everett and Miller were made by Kerner as governor and that appointments were not made of men of whom Mrs. Everett and Miller disapproved. Kerner’s involvement in the allotment of racing dates to May-wood, a competitor of the Everett enter-' prises, and to Egyptian, a tenant of those enterprises, is established by government witnesses. In evaluating the contentions of the parties the jury was entitled to consider the facts relating to the CTE, BJC and CHR transactions. These were carried on through the issuance and transfer of corporate stock in the names of nominees, the exchanges of checks which on at least one occasion involved a check to cash, the use of the $300,000 check to establish bank accounts without the endorsement of the depositor, the use of numbered brokerage accounts, the backdating of the note and letter, the fictitious interest payments, and the IRS information return by Kerner showing an interest payment to Mrs. Everett to which she was not entitled. The defense explanations of these activities are not convincing. Significant evidence places the stamp of bribery on the transactions. When the CTE stock was offered at $1,000 per share, it was worth $2,500 per share. At the time of the transfer of the CTE stock, and its exchange for the BJC stock, the CTE stock was worth $6,000 per share. The BJC stock was sold for $300,000. Isaacs and Kerner ran none of the risks inherent in ordinary business affairs. Their comparatively miniscule cash outlays served as camouflage to conceal the true nature of the complex activities. The Court of Appeals does not retry the case, weigh the evidence, or determine the credibility of witnesses. United States v. Miles, 7 Cir., 401 F.2d 65, 67. The verdict of the jury must be sustained if, taking the view most favorable to the government, substantial evidence and reasonable inferences therefrom support the action of the jury. Glasser v. United States, 315 U.S. 60, 80, 62 S.Ct. 457, 86 L.Ed. 680; and United States v. Zimmerman, 7 Cir., 326 F.2d 1, 3. We are convinced that the evidence is more than sufficient to establish beyond a reasonable doubt the offer of a bribe, the acceptance of the offer, the corrupt intent of the offerors, the knowledge by the offerees of that intent, the receipt of valuable property by the offerees, and actions by the offerees favorable to the offerors. III. Validity of the Convictions under the Travel Act Counts. Issaes and Kerner were found guilty, as charged in Counts II, III and IV, of violating 18 U.S.C. § 1952, the Travel Act, which prohibits, inter alia, the use of any facility in interstate or foreign commerce, including the mail, with intent to — ■ (1) distribute the proceeds of any unlawful activity; or * * * (3) otherwise promote, manage, establish, carry on, or facilitate the promotion, management, establishment, or carrying on, of any unlawful activity, * * *. The government’s proof supporting federal jurisdiction on Counts II, III and IV rested on evidence that three checks, drawn by Joseph Knight on his account at the First National Bank of Alton, Illinois, to distribute some of the proceeds of the bribery scheme to Kerner and Isaacs, had cleared through the Federal Reserve Bank in St. Louis, Missouri, after deposit by the recipients in Illinois banks. Specifically, Count II involved a $7,000 check drawn to and received by Isaacs in payment for the sale of CHR stock. Count III concerned a second $7,000 check drawn to Kerner in payment for his CHR shares. Count IV was based on the clearance of a $41,642.48 check to Faith Mclnturf as repayment for her loan, which had enabled Isaacs and Kerner to obtain CTE stock. The government maintains that the passage of these three checks, either by truck or by R.E.A. air express, across the Mississippi River into Missouri from Illinois represents sufficient interstate activity to support Isaacs’ and Kerner’s convictions for violating § 1952. The defendants, on the other hand, contend that § 1952 requires a more substantial showing of use of interstate facilities as a necessary element of the alleged unlawful activity. For reasons which follow, we conclude that the use of interstate facilities here was so minimal, incidental, and fortuitous, and so peripheral to the activities of Isaacs, Kerner and