Full opinion text
KEARSE, Circuit Judge: Plaintiff John Robert Zellner appeals from a final judgment of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York, Sandra L. Townes, Judge, dismissing his claims, brought under 42 U.S.C. § 1983, against defendants Robert G. Summerlin and Thomas Weber (collectively “defendants”), as members of the New York State Police (“State Police”), for false arrest, malicious prosecution, and use of excessive force during arrest. Following jury verdicts awarding Zellner a total of $85,500 in compensatory and punitive damages on the false arrest and malicious prosecution claims, the district court granted defendants’ motion pursuant to Fed.R.Civ.P. 50(b) for judgment as a matter of law dismissing those claims on the ground of qualified immunity. On appeal, Zellner contends principally that, in granting judgment as a matter of law, the district court impermissibly decided questions of fact. He also contends that the jury’s verdict in favor of defendants on his excessive force claim should have been set aside, and a new trial granted on that claim. Because we conclude that, in granting judgment as a matter of law, the district court erred by making factual findings adversely to Zellner, rather than viewing the record in the light most favorable to him, we reverse so much of the judgment as dismissed Zellner’s false arrest and malicious prosecution claims; we remand for entry of an amended judgment reinstating the jury’s awards of compensatory and punitive damages on those claims. We affirm so much of the judgment as dismissed the excessive force claim. I. BACKGROUND The present action arises out of a February 25, 2000 demonstration protesting the construction of a new housing development called Parrish Pond, across a highway from the Shinnecock Indian Reservation (“Shinnecock Reservation” or “Reservation”) in the Town of Southampton, New York (the “Town”). Photographs introduced at trial as plaintiffs exhibits (“PX”) showed demonstrators holding placards stating, e.g., “Sacred Land,” “Indian Land Forever,” and “Stop the Desecration.” Zellner, a sixty-odd-year-old adjunct professor of American history at Southampton College, served as co-chair of the Southampton Anti-Bias Task Force, a committee of citizens appointed by the Town to investigate complaints of bias and discrimination. He was called to the site of the demonstration by Benjamin Haile, a Shinnecock Reservation resident. The scene of the demonstration was a field area surrounding a grass-and-dirt driveway leading from a paved two-way public road to the Parrish Pond development construction site. Troopers from the State Police were present; Weber, a major, was in charge. During the demonstration, a construction-related truck attempted to enter the driveway and was temporarily blocked by some of the protestors. Zellner was arrested and charged with disorderly conduct in violation of N.Y. Penal Law (“Penal Law”) § 240.20(5) (McKinney 2000), and resisting arrest, in violation of N.Y. Penal Law § 205.30 (McKinney 1999). More than a year later, after over a dozen court appearances and adjournments, the charges against him were dismissed for lack of prosecution. A. The Present Action Zellner brought the present § 1983 action in 2002, alleging, to the extent pertinent here, claims of false arrest, malicious prosecution, and use of excessive force during arrest. A trial was held on those claims against Major Weber and Trooper Summerlin (other claims and defendants having been dismissed earlier). The trial produced sharply divergent versions of the events leading to Zellner’s arrest. The witnesses included Zellner and several residents of the Shinnecock Reservation who supported his version, and Major Weber, Trooper Summerlin, and several other troopers who supported key elements of defendants’ version. In addition, a videotape, produced by a camera that had been mounted on one of the State Police vehicles, was played. 1. Testimony by Zellner and Reverend Davis Early on the morning of February 25, 2000, Zellner received a call at home from Haile, asking him to “look at a situation on St. Andrew’s Road, just off the reservation.” (Trial Transcript (“Tr.”) at 340.) Zellner responded that he was involved in a project; he suggested that Haile instead call the other co-chair of the Anti-Bias Task Force, but that if Haile were unable to find someone else to help he should call Zellner again. Eventually Haile called Zellner back, stating “we need you.” (Tr. 341.) Zellner arrived at the demonstration site on St. Andrew’s Road sometime after noon and was greeted by Reverend Holly Davis, a pastor at two area Presbyterian churches, who introduced him to some of the protestors. For about a half-hour, Zellner received information about the situation from some of the Shinnecock elders and from Reverend Davis, learning that the Shinnecocks had sought and been granted a temporary injunction against the construction work and that a written restraining order was on the way. Reverend Davis had been engaged in discussions with Major Weber most of the day (see id. at 47-48, 49; see also id. at 94 (testimony of Weber: “The Reverend Davis was telling me all afternoon that the paperwork was being signed, that it was coming. I wanted the injunction order to cease work to arrive so I could calm things down.”)). After Zellner arrived, Davis, accompanied by a few others including a 79-year-old woman who was a Shinnecock elder, introduced Zellner to Major Weber. (See id. at 49, 344.) Zellner and Weber shook hands, and Zellner identified himself as co-chair of the Anti-Bias Task Force. Zellner described his ensuing conversation with Major Weber — and the arrest — as follows: I explained that I had been called and asked to come down and talk to the police and — in an effort to keep things calm. Q. And, sir, did he respond to you at that point? A. He did. He said, what — he asked me what business was it of mine, and I said — I reiterated I was co-chair of the Anti-Bias Task Force and that I was asked by the community to make sure that he knew that there was a restraining order against the work going on in that area and that the — that I understood that the restraining order was on the way and would they be able to wait before they took any action until the restraining order got there. Q. At that point, sir, what was your demeanor? Can you describe that for the jury. A. My demeanor was very respectful. It was quiet because everybody there was very solemn and respectful and quiet. Q. And, sir, what next happened, please. A. Major Weber indicated that he knew that there was a restraining order and he said it’s not here yet, and I said, I understand it’s not here, but I just wanted to make sure that you know it’s on the way, and what we’re concerned about is that there’s an evenhanded treatment of everyone in this situation. Q. Did he respond to you at that point? A. Well, he didn’t, and I said, [cjould you assure me that there will be evenhanded treatment? And he said, with some excitement, that we had to keep the road open, and I had observed that the road was — the traffic was moving back and forth on the road, and I said, [i]t seems that everything is reasonable at this moment. Q. Then what happened? A. With that — while I was literally speaking to the major, just a few seconds after we had actually shaken hands, I was grabbed from behind and pushed down and pulled backwards out of in front of the major. Q. And at that time, sir, did you [have] anything in your hands? A. I had — still had a coffee cup. I think I had put it down at some point, but I had picked it back up. I had a coffee cup in my hand, as I recall. That’s the only thing I had in my hand. Q. And, sir, at the point that you were pulled, as you indicated, what next happened? A. I was very roughly pulled out and my arm was placed behind my back and my arm was twisted extremely painfully and I looked over my right shoulder and I said, “You’re breaking my arm. Please don’t break my arm.” Q. Now, sir, at that point that you said that, was there any response to your statement? A. Yes. Q. What was the response? A. The response was a much more severe twisting of my arm and the words, “Resisting are you?” And I said, “No. You’re breaking my arm, please don’t break my arm.” (Tr. 344-46 (emphasis added); see also id. at 380 (“I was face-to-face with Major Weber and I was grabbed from behind, pulled backwards and down.”).) Zellner testified that his right arm was held at the elbow while his wrist was being “turned in the way that [his] arm didn’t turn,” and he could feel the cartilage or tendons cracking. (Id. at 349.) He stated that he was also kicked or kneed in the jaw and that his left knee was either kicked or stepped on. (See id. at 350.) Zellner later learned that one of the troopers who had grabbed him from behind was Summerlin. (See id. at 346.) Zellner testified that before being grabbed, he “was not asked to do anything” and “was not ordered to do anything.” (Id. at 453; see also id. at 381.) He “was simply grabbed from behind,” without any idea of why or by whom, and was not even “told that [he] was under arrest.” (Id.) Zellner testified that he “didn’t give any resistance except verbally asking them not to injure [his] arm further.” (Id. at 351.) Reverend Davis testified that after she introduced Zellner to Major Weber, she was never more than 10 feet from Zellner before he was taken away by the troopers. (See Tr. 71, 79.) She testified that before Zellner was grabbed by the troopers, she did not hear any of the troopers give him an order. (See id. at 80.) As she and Zellner and the others were all “standing there” (id. at 50), “they grabbed Bob[;] ... I called it an attack in my deposition, and down on the ground he was” (id. at 51). 2. The Testimony of Major Weber Major Weber testified that he had been informed by Reverend Davis on February 25 that an injunction order was being signed, ordering the cessation of construction work at the site. When Zellner arrived, Weber “was waiting for the injunction to arrive so we could put things to rest.” (Tr. 94.) Weber and Zellner shook hands, and Weber “said to Mr. Zellner, are you the lawyer. He said yes.” (Id.) Q. When he said yes, ... what is the next thing that you say happened? A. I said to him, where is the paperwork. Q. Did he respond to you? A. Yes. Q. What did he say? A. He said you keep these — keep this truck out of here even without the paperwork. (Id. at 95.) Major Weber testified that when he proceeded to inform Zellner that trucks were coming in to refuel on-site equipment and instructed one of the troopers to let the arriving truck enter, Zellner sat down on the ground. (See, e.g., id. at 133-34, 176.) Weber stated that at first he thought Zell-ner had had a heart attack, but Zellner then yelled for everyone else to sit down as well. (See, e.g., id. at 135, 176.) Weber testified that he was no more than six or eight inches from Zellner at the time, and he described the event as follows: Q. When you were standing that distance from Mr. Zellner, could you describe for the jury how you claim he sat down? A. I shook hands with Mr. Zellner. He introduced himself. I said, are you the lawyer. Mr. Zellner replied, either yes or yeah. I said, where is the paperwork, meaning the injunction. He started saying that you should keep these trucks out without the paperwork. I explained to Mr. Zellner that the truck was coming in to refuel equipment so they could leave. They already stopped the work. They wanted to leave the scene to go to other projects for the next thirty days, construction projects. They needed some of their equipment. Their purpose was to gas the equipment and leave. With that, Mr. Zellner again said to me, you should keep the trucks out. I was confused. The trucks were going to move out in ten or fifteen minutes. With that I said to him, the trucks are coming in and they [sic] are coming in now. And I told my captain ... [to] get these trucks [sic] in because the trucks [sic] created a danger to the children that were at the scene. [The captain] proceeded to try to get the trucks [sic] in. With that, Mr. Zellner dropped to the ground right in front of me. Q. Okay. Sir, can you describe how Mr. Zellner dropped to the ground? A. Mr. Zellner proceeded down. While attempting to sit down he stated, everybody down, everybody down. Then he either went down on his backside or on his ankles. Q. Sir, when you say either went down on his backside or his ankles, [you] were standing six inches from him? A. Yes. Q. So which was it? A. Either his rectum or his ankles. I am not sure. Q. Sir, he didn’t— A. This happened in a split second. Q. He didn’t sit on his rectum, did he? A. Either sat on his backside or his ankles. Q. Sir, when this happened, that being Mr. Zellner allegedly sitting down on his ankles or his backside, as you indicated, were there other officers standing right behind Mr. Zellner? A. I don’t know. Q. Take a look at the picture, sir. Did their position change any? You are looking at [PX] 19-A, right? A. This picture doesn’t tell me that Mr. Zellner is going to sit down. He’s standing up. Q. Was the position of the officers with regard to Mr. Zellner different from the point at which [PX] 19-A depicts and the point at which Mr. Zellner sat down on his ankles or his backside? A. At the time, when Mr. Zellner dropped, I didn’t notice any troopers around him. Nor was I looking for any troopers around him. I was concerned with Mr. Zellner sitting down because at first I thought he was sick. Something was happening right in front of me. He was going down. I was unsure what it was until he stated everybody down, everybody down. Then I knew I had a problem. (Tr. 133-36.) Q. Up to this point that he began dropping, how long had your conversation with the plaintiff lasted? A. Twenty, thirty seconds. Q. When he began dropping, what was your reaction? Did you think you had probable cause of any — for an arrest of any kind? A. No .... Q. Did he say anything when he was sitting down? A. No. I thought when he started going down, this had never happened to me before, I thought I had somebody sick on my — I thought I had a heart attack on my hands. He started going down. Okay. Then when he started yelling, everybody down, everybody down, I knew I had what we call “passive resistance.” He was going to sit down and try to block traffic and he was going to try to get the twenty, thirty, forty other demonstrators to follow his lead, and I knew I had a problem. I had women and children. If they started squatting in front of that pickup truck, and tribal members or demonstrators started gathering on that pickup truck— ... I knew I had a problem. If that operator attempted that left-hand turn, people would have been hurt. Q. How many times did the plaintiff yell “everybody down”? A. I believe, two times. Maybe three. Q. Did you see anyone else sit down? A. No. Q. What did you do when the plaintiff sat down and said “everybody down”? A. I knew I had to get him. I had two objectives at that point. Get him away from the scene and get the trucks [sic] inside the driveway, to defuse the situation. Q. Did you say anything to the plaintiff when he sat down? A. I grabbed him underneath — I believe — his right armpit with my left arm. I said get up. Q. Did he get up? A. No. Q. What, if anything, was the crowd doing at that point? A. I heard the crowd behind me, yelling and screaming. Q.What did you do at that point? A. When Mr. Zellner wouldn’t get up, I looked up and I saw two or three troopers there and I said, get him out of here, dis con, which is disorderly conduct. (Tr. 176-78.) At his deposition some 10 months before trial, Major Weber had been asked what Zellner had done that constituted disorderly conduct. Weber’s answer had then been: “He sat down on a driveway in a paved portion of the road, I don’t know exactly where, for the purposes of obstructing vehicle traffic, and I determined that was disorderly conduct .... ” (Tr. 144 (internal quotation marks omitted).) 3. The Testimony of Other Troopers Summerlin testified that after “someone came running down the road wa[ ]ving their cell phone and stating that they had received a court order” (Tr. 691), Zellner “was yelling at the Major, pointing his finger[,] saying you should wait for the court order, you should wait for the court order” (id. at 693-94). At the time, Sum-merlin testified, Major Weber was trying, in a professional and businesslike manner, to explain that the truck was entering solely to refuel an on-site vehicle, and that the project was shutting down. (See id. at 694.) Q. After Major Weber explained why the truck was attempting to enter and the plaintiff [was] yelling at Major Weber and pointing at him, what happened next? A. At some point in time all I can remember is that as I was looking out I heard someone say everybody down, Mr. Zellner fell down to his knees and folded his legs scissor fashion. Q. Where were you in relation to this? A. I was standing on his left side. Q. What happened after the plaintiff dropped to the ground and said everybody down? A. I had turned to look off towards my left and I could hear the Major say get up. Q. Did the plaintiff get up when the major said that? A. No, he left his hands, he had his legs scissor fashion and his hands were on his knees and his head was down. Q. After the Major asked the plaintiff to get up, what happened? A. The major looked towards me and Trooper Parker and said get him out of here dis con. Q. Get him out of here dis con, what did you understand that to mean? A. That he was under arrest. Q. What was he under arrest for at that time? A. Disorderly conduct. (Tr. 695.) Trooper Kevin Drew testified that he was standing “right next” to Zellner, when Zellner “all of a sudden shoutfed] ... he wanted everybody to sit down.” (Id. at 665.) Q. After he shouted for everybody to sit down, what did he do? A. He sat down and nobody else did. Q. Where were you when this took place? A. I was behind him, just maybe four to five feet away. Q. What did you do after he sat down? A. After he sat down, I observed the Major come over and talk to him about getting up and moving and ... Troopers Parker and Summerlin came over too and were negotiating with him to move and about letting the truck in. (Id.) Drew’s written reports of the incident did not state that Zellner had shouted for others to sit down. (See id. at 682-83.) Trooper Derrick Parker testified that as Major Weber was in the driveway telling people to “let the truck come through so it could fuel up” (Tr. 630), Zellner, who was sipping coffee from a cup in his hand (see id. at 646), “was standing right in front of Major Weber and he was saying something back to Major Weber, Major Weber was asking him to move from the driveway” (id. at 630-31). Q. What happened after that if you remember? A. Mr. Zellner said something, he just dropped to the ground. Q. When you say dropped to the ground, did anything that you said cause him to drop to the ground? A. No. Q. Did anybody hit him or was he in contact with anybody when he dropped to the ground? A. No, he just dropped to the ground and sat down. Q. Would you describe how he dropped to the ground, did he go backwards, to the left or right, straight down? A. Straight down to the ground. Q. Is there any way further that you could describe how he went to the ground? A. No other way, he just dropped straight down and sat down on his butt. (Id. at 631.) Q. Sir, you said that Mr. Zellner went down on his butt, correct? A. Yes. Q. He didn’t go down on his knees, right? A. No. Q. And you were standing right behind him, you would have seen that, right? A. Yes. (Id. at 655-56.) Q. Do you remember where Major Weber was? A. Yes, he was in the driveway, the middle of the driveway, talking to Mr. Zellner. (Id. at 632.) Parker, who was “standing right behind” Zellner (id. at 656), slightly to his right (see, e.g, id. at 631-32, PX 19A, PX 19D), did not hear Zellner yell anything to the crowd: Q. Now, when Mr. Zellner went down, you said nobody said anything to him at that point, is that correct— Did you say anything to him? A. No. Q. Did anybody else say anything to him? A. No. Q. Did you hear Mr. Zellner say anything? A. I didn’t hear him say anything (Tr. 652.) Trooper Michael Lewis testified that he saw Zellner and Major Weber talking. He could not hear the conversation, but said he saw Zellner sit down: Q. After the truck began to attempt to enter the driveway, and the people moved in front of it, and Major Weber was talking, what happened next? A. Around that time I observed the plaintiff move into the center of the driveway, and then he sat down after having a discussion with Major Weber, which I could not hear, he sat down. Q. At the time that he sat down, were any troopers in contact with him at that time? A. No. Q. Where specifically did he sit down; in the road, the driveway or somewhere else? A. Right in the middle of the driveway. Q. After he sat down, what else did you observe with regard to the plaintiff at that time? A. I observed Troopers Parker and Summerlin lift him and attempt to remove him from the scene. (Tr. 743-44.) Lewis, who did not testify that Zellner yelled anything to the crowd, wrote a memorandum on the incident, which did not indicate even that Zellner sat down. At no time did Lewis ever report to anyone in writing that he saw Zellner sit down. (See id. at 759-61.) 4. Testimony by Non-Troopers Zellner denied that he had sat down at the scene of the demonstration and denied that he had urged anyone else to do so. He said that he had not seen the truck that was attempting to turn into the property, and that he was not even aware that there was a driveway. {See Tr. 392-93.) Asked to describe what his “voice level” had been “at any time before being grabbed” {id. at 348), Zellner testified: A. My voice level was conversational and quiet and respectful. Q. And, sir, at the time that you were grabbed, did you make or yell any statements to the crowd? A. No, I did not. Q. Sir, at any point did you sit down? A. No, I did not. {Id. at 348-49; see also id. at 380 (“I never did sit down”; “I didn’t sit down.”).) Zell-ner testified that he did not at any point yell to the crowd {see id. at 376) and never yelled “everybody down” {id. at 381). Reverend Davis, who stood no more than 10 feet away from Zellner after she introduced him to Major Weber, testified that she never heard Zellner raise his voice and never saw him attempt to sit down: Q.[T]ell us, please, at any point did you make any observation of Mr. Zellner attempt to try and prevent police from doing anything? A. No, I did not observe that at all. Q. When, if at all, did you see Mr. Zellner sit down? A. I didn’t see him sit down at all. Q. At any point did you see him attempt to sit down? A. I did not see him try to sit down. (Tr. 71.) Q. And was there anything obscuring your view of what you saw? A. No. / saw him go down. Q. And can you tell the jury, did you see — what if anything was it that made him go down? A. Well, yes. I saw the troopers. I counted U troopers touching him. Q. And at that time what was Mr. Zellner doing? A. Well, he had a cup of coffee in his hand, and so between the time that the troopers had hold of him and he was drinking his coffee the last time I had seen him, he wasn’t doing anything. Q. And at any point did you hear him say anything, raise his voice or in any way shout anything? A. Oh, no, not at all. (Tr. 58 (emphases added).) Gordell Wright, a resident of the Shin-necock Reservation, testified that he was just a few feet away from Zellner when he saw two troopers grab Zellner’s arms and throw him to the ground. {See id. at 317-18.) When grabbed, Zellner was standing, doing “[n]othing”; he was not seated. {Id. at 318.) Wright had not heard Zellner say anything or yell anything to the crowd. {See id.) When the troopers grabbed Zell-ner, they pushed him toward the ground and he fell; Zellner did not resist arrest at all. {See id. at 328.) Rebecca Genia, a resident of the Reservation who had been at the demonstration site the entire day, testified that she did not see Zellner (whom she had not previously met) sitting down and did not .hear him or anyone else urge everybody to sit down. She heard a “ruckus” and saw Zellner on the ground. (Tr. 235.) She then saw him being dragged past her, screaming about his arms {see id. at 237). Q. At any time did you hear that individual that you now know to be Robert Zellner say the words “everybody down, everybody down”? A. No. Q. Did you ever hear those words on that day? A. No. Q. At any time when you were looking in th[e] direction [of Zellner being dragged away], or anytime before that, did you make any observation of a man you now know to be Robert Zellner, Bob Zellner, sitting down? A. No. (Tr. 237-38.) Benjamin Haile, who had asked Zellner to come to the demonstration site that morning, testified that he did not see the incident involving Zellner but heard the scuffle. (See Tr. 259-60.) At the time, Haile was in the driveway, some 10 feet away from the road; the scuffle involving Zellner was behind him, farther into the driveway. (See id. at 260.) Q. At any point prior to hearing the scuffle behind you, did you hear anyone say the words “everybody down, everybody down”? A. No. Q. Anybody say that that day? A. No. (Id. at 262.) Harriet Gumbs, a Shinnecock elder who was 79 at the time of the demonstration, testified that she was standing next to Zellner, close enough to touch him, when Zellner was grabbed by the State troopers. (See id. at 305.) She testified that Zellner neither sat down nor told anyone else to do so: Q. At any point prior to that point, ma’am, did you see Mr. Zellner sit down? A. No, he did not. Q. At any point during that day did you see Mr. Zellner sit down— A. It was too cold to sit down. We were freezing out there. (Tr. 304-05.) Asked what Zellner “was doing with his body” just before he was grabbed, Gumbs testified that he was “standing,” not “sitting or anything else.” (Id. at 306-07.) Nor did he yell “everybody down”: Q.Prior to him being grabbed by the troopers, did you hear him at any point say “everybody down, everybody down”? A. He never, ever said that. Q. Did anybody ever say that there? A. No one said it. (Id. at 308.) Gumbs testified that when the troopers grabbed Zellner, they put his arms “behind his back, but they did not do it in a gentle manner, they did it like they was trying to pull him apart, take his arms off of him.” (Id. at 305.) Then “[t]hey got him down on the ground and they had his face almost buried in the ground. I thought he was going to smother before they got up off him.” (Id. at 308.) 5. The Videotape and Photographs The video camera did not record any part of Zellner’s interaction with Major Weber. It was located to the north of the driveway and was pointed south at a short stretch of St. Andrew’s Road. The videotape shows sparse vehicular traffic on the road, some pedestrian cross-traffic, and a congregation of people at the west edge of the road, north of the driveway. The driveway itself — which still photographs show as no more than a somewhat beaten-down grass-and-dirt path leading through a field of brush and bushes (see, e.g., PX 26C) — is not visible on the videotape. For some 10 minutes, according to the time-of-day display on the videotape, Zellner is shown at the edge of the road talking to demonstrators; a zoom shot during this period shows Zellner holding a coffee mug. At 13:19:00, the videotape shows a pickup truck arriving, signaling for a left turn into the Parrish Pond development. A trooper goes into the road to the truck, which begins a left turn but stops as people appear to congregate around it. At about the same time Zellner walks away from the road and into another crowd of people, away from the camera, moving closer to the driveway. The videotape shows Zellner, partially obscured, bending forward from the waist at 13:19:20, straightening up at 13:19:22, bending forward again at 13:19:25, and straightening up again at 13:19:26. Zellner then all but disappears into the crowd, and for most of the next approximately four minutes, only his hat is visible on the tape. A still photograph, PX 19A, which by all accounts depicts the scene inside that crowd moments before Zellner began speaking with Major Weber (see, e.g., Tr. 219, 317, 342, 648), shows Zellner (coffee mug in hand) standing with Gumbs, Wright, and two other protestors, surrounded by Summer-lin, Parker, and two other (unidentified) troopers. No one appears to be saying anything; Major Weber, his side turned toward this group, is standing a few feet away from Zellner. At about 13:23 on the videotape, Zell-ner’s hat disappears from view, and he is not seen again on the tape for some 20-25 seconds. A still photograph, however, PX 19D, was taken in the interim. It shows Zellner tilted backward at about a 45-degree angle, with Summerlin holding his left arm, Parker holding his right arm, Drew with a hand on the back side of Zellner’s jacket (see Tr. 678), and Major Weber leaning forward with his left arm outstretched, his hand on Zellner’s right shoulder (see, e.g., id. at 404). The postures of Troopers Summerlin and Parker indicate that they are pulling Zellner backwards. Major Weber testified that PX 19D shows the troopers “escorting” Zell-ner away after he sat down in the driveway. (Tr. 138, 187.) Zellner, in contrast, testified that PX 19D shows “the exact moment when [he was] unexpectedly pulled from behind” and taken to the ground. (Tr. 404.) Reverend Davis similarly testified that, in PX 19D, “the[ troopers] were pulling [Zellner] to the ground.” (Tr. 68.) At about 13:23:20, the videotape shows Zellner, upright and walking, being brought out through the crowd by two troopers. A subsequent still photo, PX 19C, shows Zellner prone, spread-eagle, on the ground with Troopers Summerlin and Parker apparently cuffing his hands behind his back, and Trooper Drew watching. When Zellner was asked about the seven-second segment of the videotape at 13:19:20-13:19:26, which showed him twice bending forward at the waist, he testified that he had bent first to put his coffee mug down in order to button his coat or tie its belt, and then had bent again to retrieve the mug. (See Tr. 377-78.) Major Weber, however, after having been shown that part of the videotape, testified, “I’d like to call them practice runs” (id. at 118). Q. I’m sorry, sir? A. I like to call it a practice run. (Id.) Shown that segment again, Weber testified that he viewed Zellner as practicing sitting down and showing the demonstrators how to sit down: Q. Sir, we’re at 13:19. The truck is there; correct? A. Yes. Q. Mr. Zellner is still standing there? A. Yes, he is. There he is. Q. When you say — we’re just at 13:19, and that would have been 21 or 22 seconds. You’re saying that was a dry run? A. I believe after seeing this video that was a practice run on how to engage in passive resistance, sitting down. Q. Sir, when he leaned forward as though to go to whatever in [sic] front of him, you’re saying that that is the equivalent of sitting down? A. I believe— Q. Sir? A. —that is the equivalent of sitting down. Q. Very well. A. Instructing the demonstrators how to sit down. (Id. at 120.) The relevant part of the videotape had no sound, and hence provided no evidence that anyone had shouted “everybody down.” Neither the videotape nor any of the still photographs showed Zellner sitting. B. The Rule 50(a) Motions and the Instructions to the Jury Following the conclusion of Zellner’s case, defendants moved pursuant to Fed. R.Civ.P. 50(a) for judgment as a matter of law, arguing (a) that Zellner had failed to present evidence that was legally sufficient to support his claims, and (b) that, in any event, defendants were entitled to qualified immunity. The district court denied the motion. It stated, inter alia, that the matter of qualified immunity needed to be briefed by both sides. (See Tr. 532.) And the court stated that there were factual issues to be decided by the jury: This case comes down to factual issues, either the jury believes that the plaintiff was attacked for no reason, kicked and whatever, or they believe that he jumped down on the driveway to obstruct traffic. That is what the issue is going to be. (Id. at 621.) After the close of all the evidence, defendants renewed their Rule 50(a) motion. The court again denied the motion, stating “[t]here are factual issues that have to be determined by a jury.” (Id. at 767.) During the charging conference, at which the court and the parties discussed the instructions and special-verdict questions to be given to the jury, defendants requested yet again that the court decide their qualified immunity defense as a matter of law: Ms. Leahey [defendants’ counsel]: Your Honor, as to the qualified immunity issue, could you let me know what your intentions are with respect to that. The CouRT: Because of the factual issues, I cannot make a determination until the jury makes a determination. Ms. Leahey: Your Honor, I would take an exception to that. I would state that in the first instance qualified immunity is a question of law for the Court to decide— The Court: It is if there are no factual issues. If this occurred and the jury finds that it occurred the way that the [plaintiff] say[s] it occurred, there is no immunity. (Tr. 801 (emphases added).) Defense counsel argued that, for the court not to rule on the qualified immunity defense and not to give the jury a “qualified immunity set of instructions,” would be “prejudicial for the defendants and not the law.” (Id.) The court disagreed: The Court: It is the law, because there is a factual dispute here, the factual dispute has to be resolved before there can be a finding of whether or not there is qualified immunity. You can’t do it on this record. You would not get summary judgment had you had this record and made this motion, because there are questions of fact. (Id. (emphasis added).) Focusing chiefly on Zellner’s claim of excessive force, defendants asked the court to pose to the jury the question of whether “the events surrounding plaintiffs arrest, particularly grabbing him, throwing him to the ground, kicking him and twisting his arm occurred] substantially as plaintiff testified.” (Id. at 789.) It was agreed that “as plaintiff testified” would be changed to “[as] plaintiff contends,” in order to encompass not just Zellner’s own testimony but the testimony of his witnesses as well. (Id.) The court decided that it would pose these detailed factual questions individually, “because if there is a verdict here, I have to make a decision on qualified immunity, it’s only with as much information about that as I can get.” (Id. at 788.) Comparably detailed questions were not, however, requested as to Zellner’s conduct relating to his claims of false arrest and malicious prosecution. Defendants proposed that the jury be asked “did the defendants have probable cause to believe that plaintiff was committing disorderly conduct by obstructing vehicular or pedestrian traffic by blocking the driveway.” (Tr. 790.) They argued that this question “encapsulates the factual conflict in this case as to false arrest, did he or did he not cause obstruction on the roadway, by blocking the driveway.” (Id. at 791.) The proposed question, however, was a compound question, and the court elected to ask the jury simply whether defendants had probable cause to believe that Zellner had committed the offense of disorderly conduct or resisting arrest. Defendants did not propose any simple fact questions, such as whether Zellner had blocked the driveway, or sat down, or yelled “everybody down.” The court’s instructions to the jury with respect to Zellner’s claims of false arrest and malicious prosecution described the parties’ positions, in part, as follows: The plaintiff contends that his Constitutional right[s] were violated when .... he was unlawfully arrested by the defendants for the violation of disorderly conduct and the misdemeanor crime of resisting arrest[ ] .... [a]nd ... when he was maliciously prosecuted by the defendants for the violation and the misdemeanor .... The defendants contend that .... there was probable cause to arrest the plaintiff on both charges [ ] .... [a]nd ... there was probable cause to prosecute the plaintiff on both charges and this was done without malice. ... [T]he defendants contend that the plaintiff initiated a confrontation with Major Weber, dropped to the driveway, where he sat to obstruct entrance to the driveway by a construction truck and he incited others to block the driveway. When he was told he was under arrest, he resisted arrest by causing his body to become limp and flailing his arms and placing his arms under his body when troopers attempted to handcuff him. (Tr. 895-96 (emphases added).) With respect to Zellner’s claim of false arrest, the court told the jury that “the critical question for you to decide is whether the arrest of the plaintiff was lawful,” and that “whether the arrest was lawful centers on whether the arrest was made by the defendants acting on probable cause to believe” that Zellner had committed the offense of disorderly conduct or resisting arrest. (Id. at 901.) The court explained, inter alia, that “[p]robable cause exists when the facts and circumstances within the knowledge of the police officers at the time the arrest was made were sufficient to warrant a person of reasonable prudence to believe that a violation or a crime had been committed by the person arrested.” (Id. at 902.) The court read the provisions of the New York disorderly conduct and resisting arrest statutes under which Zellner had been charged. As to § 240.20(5), the court stated: “A person is guilty of disorderly conduct when with intent to cause public inconvenience, annoyance or alarm or recklessly creating a risk thereof, he obstructs vehicular or pedestrian traffic.[”] To be guilty of disorderly conduct, the perpetrator must act with intent to cause public inconvenience, annoyance or alarm or recklessly creating a risk thereof.[ ] Inconvenience means tampering with the legitimate transaction of public business. Annoyance means discomfort or vexation. Alarm means sudden fear. (Tr. 904.) As to resisting arrest, the court stated that [s]ection 205.30 of the New York Penal law, insofar as it is applicable to this case, reads as follows: “A person is guilty of resisting arrest when he intentionally prevents or attempts to prevent a police officer or a peace officer from effecting an authorized arrest.” The arrest at issue must have been made in accordance with the law. Namely, that it was based on probable cause. Also, resisting arrest does not require that the person being arrested use force or violence. It is enough if he engages in his conduct with the intent of preventing the officer from effecting the authorized arrest of himself. Accordingly, on the issue of the alleged Constitutional violation, making an unlawful arrest for disorderly conduct or resisting arrest, if you determine that there was no probable cause to arrest plaintiff on either of those charges [and that defendants’ actions were a proximate cause of injury to Zellner], your verdict will be in favor of the plaintiff and against the defendants, as to the Federal Section 1983 false arrest cause of action. However, if you determine that ... there was probable cause to arrest plaintiff for either disorderly conduct or resisting arrest, then the arrest would be lawful and your verdict must be in favor of the defendants with regard to the charge of false arrest. Also, as I instructed you, the fact that both charges against the plaintiff resulted in a dismissal is not evidence that the defendants lacked probable cause at the time of the arrest. (Id. at 905-06.) In instructing the jury with respect to the claim of malicious prosecution, the court described the four elements of such a claim, i.e., initiation of a proceeding, termination of the proceeding in the plaintiffs favor, lack of probable cause for commencement or continuation of the proceeding, and actual malice on the part of the defendants in commencing or continuing the proceeding. (See Tr. 919-20.) The court instructed, inter alia, that [i]f probable cause existed for the police officer to commence a criminal prosecution against the plaintiff ..., then the plaintiff cannot recover against the defendant who initiated the criminal proceeding. {Id. at 922.) The court added: I further instruct you that if you find that the defendants did not act maliciously, your verdict must be in favor of the defendants on the malicious prosecution claim even though you find that they did not have probable cause to believe the plaintiff committed either disorderly conduct or the crime of resisting arrest that was charged. Only if you find that the plaintiff has proved both: One, that the defendants did not have probable cause to charge the plaintiff with either the violation or the crime, and Two, that the defendants acted with malice, will your verdict be in favor of the plaintiff against the defendants. {Id. at 923-24.) The court gave instructions on compensatory damages and reminded the jury that “throughout the case you are considering each defendant separately and your verdict will be reported separately as to each defendant.” (Tr. 926.) The court also informed the jury that if it found that Zellner was entitled to recover and further found that a defendant had caused him injury maliciously or wantonly or oppressively and deserved to be punished, it had discretion to award Zellner punitive damages. {See Tr. 928-29.) The court explained that [a]n act or failure to act is maliciously done if prompted or accompanied by ill will or spite or grudge toward the injured person individually. An act or failure to act is w[anton]ly done if done in reckless or callous disregard of or indifferent to the rights of the injured person. An act or a failure to act is oppressively done if done in a way or manner which injur[]es or damages or otherwise violates the rights of another person with unnecessary harshness or severity or by misuse or abuse of authority or power or by taking advantage of some weaknesses or misfortune of another person. {Id. at 929.) The court stated, however, that the jury should initially make a finding only as to whether punitive damages were warranted, without attempting to determine an amount. {See id.) C. The Jury’s Verdict The jury was given a special verdict sheet posing 10 questions, most with sub-parts, to be answered with respect to (a) the merits of Zellner’s claims against each defendant, (b) the amount of compensatory damages, if any, that Zellner should receive from each defendant, and (c) whether or not he should receive punitive damages. As detailed below, the jury found in favor of Zellner on his claims for false arrest and malicious prosecution, awarding him compensatory damages in the amount of $40,000 against each defendant, and found that Zellner was entitled to punitive damages as well; the jury found against Zellner on his claim of excessive force, although it credited his evidence that defendants had grabbed him and twisted his arm. The precise questions posed on the special verdict sheet, and the jury’s findings in response, were as follows: Do you find by a preponderance of the evidence: 1. That the events surrounding plaintiffs arrest, particularly grabbing him, throwing him to the ground, and then striking him, kicking him, and twisting his arm occurred substantially as plaintiff contends? Grabbing him? Yes Throwing him to the ground? No Striking him? No Kicking him? No Twisting his arm? Yes 2.That defendants had probable cause to believe that the plaintiff was committing the violation of disorderly conduct or the crime of resisting arrest? Disorderly conduct? No Resisting arrest? No 3.That the defendant’s acts in falsely arresting him were the proximate cause of damages sustained by the plaintiff? Defendant Weber: Yes Defendant Summerlin: Yes 4. That Defendant Weber took actions to initiate or continue the criminal prosecution against the plaintiff? Yes 5. That the defendant intentionally committed acts that violated the plaintiffs federal constitutional right not to be maliciously prosecuted? • Defendant Weber: Yes Defendant Summerlin: Yes 6.That the defendant’s acts in maliciously prosecuting him were the proximate cause of damages sustained by the plaintiff? Defendant Weber: Yes Defendant Summerlin: Yes 7.That the defendant intentionally used excessive force against the plaintiff when Arresting him? Defendant Weber: No Defendant Summerlin: No Handcuffing him? Defendant Weber: No Defendant Summerlin: No Taking him to the police vehicle? Defendant Weber: No Defendant Summerlin: No 8. That the defendant’s acts in using excessive force were the proximate cause of damages sustained by the plaintiff? Defendant Weber: No Defendant Summerlin: No INSTRUCTIONS AS TO DAMAGES If your verdict is in favor of both defendants on all causes of action, do not answer the damages questions below, cease deliberations, and the foreperson should sign and date the verdict sheet and advise the court by note that you are ready to return to the courtroom to announce your verdict. On the other hand, if you have found a verdict in favor of the plaintiff on any of the causes of action, please answer the appropriate damages questions that follow. Compensatory Damages 9. Please state the amount of damages, if any, you award to the plaintiff for his physical injuries and his pain and suffering from February 25, 2000 to the present date against each defendant. Defendant Weber: $40,000 Defendant Summerlin: $40,000 Punitive Damages You are to consider the subject of punitive damages only with regard to a defendant or defendants you have found liable on any of the causes of action. 10. Do you award punitive damages to the plaintiff against the defendant? Defendant Weber: Yes Defendant Summerlin: Yes (November 24, 2004 Verdict Sheet (“Special Verdict”).) In connection with the jury’s finding that Zellner should receive punitive damages, the trial continued for an additional half-day of testimony with respect to each defendant’s financial condition. Following further deliberations, the jury assessed punitive damages of $5,000 against Weber and $500 against Summerlin. (See November 26, 2004 Verdict Sheeh-2.) Judgment was eventually entered reflecting the jury’s verdicts. D. The Posttrial Motions Following the jury’s verdicts, defendants renewed their motion for judgment as a matter of law, pursuant to Fed.R.Civ.P. 50(b), arguing principally (a) that the evidence was insufficient to support the jury’s findings in favor of Zellner on his claims of false arrest and malicious prosecution and its award of punitive damages, and (b) that the officers were protected by qualified immunity. Defendants also moved in the alternative for a new trial on the ground, inter alia, that the court should have allowed them to present evidence at trial as to facts that would have given them probable cause to arrest Zellner on other charges. Zellner opposed defendants’ motions and moved pursuant to Fed.R.Civ.P. 59(a) for a new trial on his excessive force claim. In support of his motion, Zellner argued principally that the jury should have been instructed that if it found in his favor on the false arrest claim it must also find that the force used to effect the arrest was excessive. In an opinion dated September 6, 2005, reported at 399 F.Supp.2d 154, the district court granted defendants’ motion for judgment as a matter of law dismissing Zell-ner’s false arrest and malicious prosecution claims only on the ground of qualified immunity; and it denied Zellner’s motion for a new trial on his excessive force claim. In rejecting defendants’ challenge to the sufficiency of the evidence on the issue of probable cause, the court stated as follows: Defendants argue that they had probable cause to arrest Plaintiff based on the fact that he intentionally blocked the truck as it was attempting to enter the construction site, which Defendants argue is incontrovertibly shown by the videotape, and initiated a confrontation with Weber during this tense standoff by urging Weber to hold off on taking any action until the protective order arrived in a manner that was “obstructive and distracting, in view of the imminent crisis posed by the truck.” However, the video itself was not conclusive as to what happened when the truck attempted to turn into the site, and the testimony at trial was contradictory, with Plaintiff and members of the Shinne-coclc tribe testifying that Plaintiff did not obstruct the path of the truck but merely engaged Weber in conversation in an attempt to maintain the status quo until the restraining order arrived. The jury was free to consider all of the evidence and to weigh the credibility of the witnesses. In deciding in Plaintiffs favor on the false arrest claim, the jury found Plaintiffs account of the events worthy of more credence. This Court cannot now re-weigh the conflicting evidence or draw its own conclusions as to the credibility of the witnesses at trial, for to do so would be to substitute the Court’s judgment for that of the jury, which is not permitted. Smith v. Lightning Bolt Prods., Inc., 861 F.2d 363, 367 (2d Cir.1988). Thus, the Court finds that there is sufficient evidence to sustain the jury’s finding that Plaintiffs arrest was not based on probable cause. 399 F.Supp.2d at 157-58 (emphases added). In denying defendants’ challenge to the sufficiency of the evidence on Zellner’s malicious prosecution claim, the court stated as follows: Defendants argue that Plaintiff failed to demonstrate that the officers lacked probable cause to initiate the prosecution and that they harbored malice towards Plaintiff. As discussed above, there was evidence adduced at trial to support the jury’s verdict that Defendants lacked probable cause to arrest Plaintiff and there was no suggestion that Defendants thereafter obtained further evidence giving them probable cause to believe Plaintiff was guilty of the crimes charged against him.... With respect to malice, the Second Circuit has held that where “a jury could find that probable cause for the charges against the plaintiff[ ] was lacking ... that finding alone would support an inference of malice.” Ricciuti v. New York City Transit Auth., 124 F.3d 123, 131 (2d Cir.1997). Thus, the Court will not disturb the jury’s finding that Defendants acted without probable cause and with malice in prosecuting Plaintiff. 399 F.Supp.2d at 158. In addition, the court also ruled, inter alia, that defendants’ challenge to the jury’s award of punitive damages was without merit, noting that “[pjunitive damages are available in section 1983 cases where ‘the defendant’s conduct is shown to be motivated by evil motive or intent, or when it involves reckless or callous indifference to the federally protected rights of others.’ ” Id. at 162 (quoting Smith v. Wade, 461 U.S. 30, 56, 103 S.Ct. 1625, 75 L.Ed.2d 632 (1983)). The court found that the award of punitive damages here was supported by the jury’s findings and the evidence, and that the amounts awarded were within the range found reasonable in similar cases. See 399 F.Supp.2d at 162-63. As to defendants’ entitlement to qualified immunity, the court, after noting that it was required, on defendants’ motion for judgment as a matter of law, to view the evidence in the light most favorable to Zellner, stated as follows: The evidence presented at trial ... established the following events leading up to Plaintiffs arrest: (1) there was a large crowd of demonstrators at the construction site who had been there for several hours; (2) the demonstrators were instructed by the police to stay off of the road and the driveway allowing ingress to and egress from the site; (3) a construction truck arrived on the scene and the driver indicated his intention to enter the site through the driveway by turning on his blinker; (4) the truck remained immobile in the road for nearly five minutes, blocking traffic completely from at least one direction; (5) while the truck was stopped in the road, demonstrators, including children, walked and ran around it; (6) Plaintiff walked into the driveway and turned to face the road where the truck was waiting; (7) Plaintiff engaged Weber in conversation and urged Weber not to take any action until a restraining order, which was expected, arrived, to which Weber responded that the road needed to remain clear; and (8) at some point Plaintiff made a crouching or squatting motion towards the ground. Id. at 159 (emphasis added). “[Cjonsider[ing] all of these events in context in deciding whether it would have been clear to a reasonable officer that there was no probable cause to arrest Plaintiff for disorderly conduct,” id,., the court concluded as follows: It is apparent from the record that Defendants were faced with a tense situation for the several minutes when the construction truck was attempting to enter a construction site flanked on all sides by protestors and their children. It is further clear that Plaintiff’s actions in engaging Major Weber in conversation at that point, thereby distracting his attention from the situation, and in making some sort of movement that could have been interpreted as an attempt to sit down in the path of the truck, only exacerbated the situation. Thus, while Defendants may have acted without justifiable cause in arresting Plaintiff, the Court cannot say that their “judgment was so flawed that no reasonable officer would have made a similar choice.” Lennon v. Miller, 66 F.3d 416, 424-25 (2d Cir.1995); see also Hunter v. Bryant, 502 U.S. 224, 229, 112 S.Ct. 534, 116 L.Ed.2d 589 (1991) (“The qualified immunity standard ‘gives ample room for mistaken judgments’ by protecting ‘all but the plainly incompetent or those who knowingly violate the law.’ ”) (quoting Malley v. Briggs, 475 U.S. 335, 341, 343, 106 S.Ct. 1092, 89 L.Ed.2d 271 (1986)). Thus, the Court finds that Defendants are entitled to qualified immunity on the false arrest and malicious prosecution charges. 399 F.Supp.2d at 159-60 (emphases added). Zellner, in his Rule 59(a) motion for a new trial, argued principally that the jury should have been instructed that if it found in his favor on the false arrest claim, it must also find in his favor on the exees-sive-force-during-arrest claim, because if the arrest was unlawful no force whatever could be justified. For that proposition, Zellner relied on Atkins v. New York City, 143 F.3d 100 (2d Cir.1998). The district court denied this motion for three reasons. First, Zellner had not requested such an instruction. Second, the court concluded that Atkins was not intended to be so read. Third, the court stated that defendants would in any event be entitled to qualified immunity on the excessive force claim as well. See 399 F.Supp.2d at 163-65. A new final judgment was entered dismissing all of Zellner’s claims against Weber and Summerlin. This appeal followed. II. DISCUSSION On appeal, Zellner contends principally that, in ruling that defendants are entitled to judgment as a matter of law on the basis of qualified immunity with respect to his false arrest and malicious prosecution claims, the district court impermissibly made findings of fact and ignored facts found by the jury. He also contends that the court should have granted his motion for a new trial with respect to his excessive force claim, on the theory that the jury should have been instructed that if his arrest was unauthorized, the use of any force by the officers was excessive as a matter of law. Defendants contend, inter alia, that the entry of judgment as a matter of law in their favor should be upheld on the ground that they had either actual or “arguable” probable cause to arrest Zellner for disorderly conduct in violation of § 240.20(5) of the New York Penal Law as charged, or to arrest him under subsections (6) and (7) of that section or under N.Y. Penal Law § 195.05 (McKinney 1999) (see Defendants’ brief on appeal at 29-31). They state that “the question here is whether the evidence establishes that, despite the jury’s conclusion that Defendants lacked probable cause to arrest Zellner for disorderly conduct or resisting arrest, it was nonetheless reasonable for Defendants to believe they had probable cause to arrest Zellner for any charge.” (Defendants’ brief on appeal at 29 (emphasis in original).) As to the false arrest and malicious prosecution claims, we conclude that, in light of the jury’s findings and the principles (a) that factual disputes are to be resolved by the jury, and (b) that on a motion for judgment as a matter of law the record must be viewed in the light most favorable to the party opposing the motion, the granting of judgment as a matter of law in favor of defendants was error. As to the excessive force claim, we see no error in the district court’s denial of Zell-ner’s motion for a new trial. A. Judgment as a Matter of Lato on the Basis of Qualified Immunity 1. Qualified Immunity Qualified immunity shields government officials performing discretionary functions “from liability for civil damages insofar as their conduct does not violate clearly established statutory or constitutional rights of which a reasonable person would have known.” Harlow v. Fitzgerald, 457 U.S. 800, 818, 102 S.Ct. 2727, 73 L.Ed.2d 396 (1982); see, e.g., Mitchell v. Forsyth, 472 U.S. 511, 524, 105 S.Ct. 2806, 86 L.Ed.2d 411 (1985); Coons v. Casabella, 284 F.3d 437, 440-41 (2d Cir.2002) (“Coons”); Cerrone v. Brown, 246 F.3d 194, 199 (2d Cir.2001) (“Cerrone ”). Where the right at issue in the circumstances confronting police officers—here, the right not to be subjected to a warrant-less arrest without probable cause—was clearly established but was violated, the officers will nonetheless be entitled to qualified immunity “if ... it was objectively reasonable for them to believe their acts did not violate those rights.” Oliveira v. Mayer, 23 F.3d 642, 648 (2d Cir.1994) (“Oliveira”), cert. denied, 513 U.S. 1076, 115 S.Ct. 721, 130 L.Ed.2d 627 (1995); see, e.g., Anderson v. Creighton, 483 U.S. 635, 639-40, 107 S.Ct. 3034, 97 L.Ed.2d 523 (1987). The qualified immunity test is an objective one. “[I]f officers of reasonable competence could disagree” as to whether probable cause existed, “immunity should be recognized.” Malley v. Briggs, 475 U.S. 335, 341, 106 S.Ct. 1092, 89 L.Ed.2d 271 (1986). But “if, on an objective basis, it is obvious that no reasonably competent officer would have concluded that” probable cause existed, “[defendants will not be immune ....” Id. Whether a defendant officer’s conduct was objectively reasonable is a mixed question of law and fact. See, e.g., Kerman v. City of New York, 374 F.3d 93, 109 (2d Cir.2004) (“Kerman ”); Lennon v. Miller, 66 F.3d 416, 420-21 (2d Cir.1995) (“Lennon”); Oliveira, 23 F.3d at 649-50; Warren v. Dwyer, 906 F.2d 70, 76 (2d Cir.) (“Warren ”), cert. denied, 498 U.S. 967, 111 S.Ct. 431, 112 L.Ed.2d 414 (1990). The ultimate question of whether it was objectively reasonable for the officer to believe that his conduct did not violate a clearly established right, i.e., whether officers of reasonable competence could disagree as to the lawfulness of such conduct, is to be decided by the court. However, “[a] contention that—notwithstanding a clear delineation of the rights and duties of the respective parties at the time of the acts complained of—it was objectively reasonable for the official to believe that his acts did not viola