Full opinion text
STAHL, Circuit Judge. Appellant F. William Sawyer appeals his convictions for mail and wire fraud, interstate travel to commit bribery, and conspiraey to commit those offenses. The district court imposed a $10,000 fine, and sentenced him to imprisonment for twelve months and one day. In this appeal, Sawyer claims that the district court erred in its jury instructions and in evidentiary rulings, and that the evidence was insufficient to establish his guilt beyond a reasonable doubt. For the reasons that follow, we vacate the convictions and remand for further proceedings. L Facts Viewing the record in the light most favorable to the verdict, United States v. Wihbey, 75 F.3d 761, 764 (1st Cir.1996), a rational jury could have found the following facts from the trial evidence. During the indictment period, 1986 to March 1993, the John Hancock Mutual Life Insurance Company (“Hancock”) employed the defendant-appellant, F. William Sawyer, as a senior lobbyist within its Government Relations Department. As the largest life insurance company in Massachusetts, Hancock had a continuing and abiding interest in the state’s insurance laws. Sawyer’s job was to lobby the Massachusetts Legislature on Hancock’s behalf. In particular, his job description required him to: research and develop Hancock’s position on pertinent legislation; communicate relevant information to representative government officials in order to effect a favorable outcome and to protect the Company’s interests; and establish and maintain relationships with legislators as well as with members of industry associations. A principal focus of Sawyer’s lobbying activities was the Legislature’s Joint Insurance Committee (“Insurance Committee”), composed of state representatives and senators. The Insurance Committee has the ability to impact life insurance regulations more than any other legislative committee. To this end, it reviews approximately 300 bills per year, about fifty of which affect the life insurance industry. During each year of the indictment period, Massachusetts life insurance companies actively sought the passage of about five bills, most of which made it successfully through the Insurance Committee “in some form or another.” Robert J. Smith, a research analyst and director for the Committee, testified that, during the indictment period, Sawyer was one of three lobbyists who appeared most often to lobby for bills sought by the life insurance industry. The Insurance Committee is eo-ehaired by a senate and house member, each with equal control over the fate of bills assigned to the Committee. The Chairs have the ability to schedule hearings, assign bills to the hearing calendar and subsequent executive sessions, advocate bills at executive sessions, and take other action to advance them through the Committee. Each Chair could “carry” a bill, i.e., actively guide it through the Legislature as a whole; alternatively, a Chair could send it to the “Study Committee” which usually shelved it. During the indictment period, Sawyer focused his lobbying activities on the house members of the Insurance Committee, some of whom took action that directly or indirectly affected Hancock’s interests. Representative Francis H. Woodward was the House Chair of the Insurance Committee from 1986 to' 1990. Research analyst Smith identified Sawyer as the lobbyist he saw most often with Representative Woodward during Woodward’s tenure as the Committee’s House Chair. During this time, the Insurance Committee never rejected Woodward’s recommendations on bills affecting the life insurance industry and Woodward “carried” most of the bills sought by the industry. Representative Frank Emilio, a member from 1986 to 1990, sponsored a September 1990 bill on behalf of Hancock. Representative John F. Cox sponsored bills that Hancock supported in November 1990 and December 1991. In addition, Representatives Walsh, Mara, and Driscoll sponsored legislation sought by the life insurance industry. “Legislative Reports” issued by the Hancock Government Relations Department to senior Hancock officers, and signed by Sawyer, outlined specific lobbying efforts and proceedings in the Massachusetts Legislature pertinent to Hancock’s interests. In July 1990, Sawyer wrote a memorandum to Hancock’s Management Committee summarizing the successful efforts of Hancock lobbyists, including himself, in excluding Hancock from a bill that would have subjected it to a $100-million tax liability. In a September 1990 memorandum to the Management Committee, Sawyer referred to a 1990 bill, filed by Representative Emilio, that allowed Hancock to assess and report its real estate advantageously. A November 1990 letter from Ralph F. Scott, Hancock’s Assistant Legislative Counsel, to Representative Cox indicated that Sawyer and Scott planned to work with Cox in obtaining favorable action on a specific bill that he had sponsored for Hancock. During the indictment period, Sawyer paid for numerous meals, rounds of golf, and other entertainment for and with Massachusetts legislators, including many members of the Insurance Committee. Although Sawyer initially paid for most of these activities himself, they were treated as business expenses and reimbursed by Hancock (hereinafter “expenditures”). In accordance with Hancock’s procedures, Sawyer would complete monthly expense vouchers, attaching receipts and a handwritten calendar that identified the recipients of the expenses. Sawyer’s supervisor, Raeburn B. Hathaway, the head of Hancock’s Government Relations Department, reviewed Sawyer’s expense vouchers and approved them for reimbursement. Hathaway’s secretary would then detach the detailed calendars from the vouchers, keeping the calendars within the Government Relations Department, and forward the voucher, alone, to the accounting department for payment. Analysis of Sawyer’s expense vouchers and calendars during the indictment period revealed that the top three recipients of his expenditures were: Representative Woodward, who received more than $8,000 worth of expenditures during his tenure as Insurance Committee House Chair; Robert Howarth, an Insurance Committee member from 1986 to 1992 (over $3,000); and Representative Emilio (over $2,500). After these three legislators left office, Sawyer, on behalf of Hancock, expended practically nothing on entertaining them (Woodward, $0; Howarth, $8.33; and Emilio, $85.65). Specifically, Sawyer’s expenditures included thousands of dollars for golf — in and out of state — with various Massachusetts legislators including Representative Francis Mara, Woodward’s 1991 successor as Insurance Committee House Chair. Sawyer also hosted dinners for legislators and their families. In September 1992, Sawyer provided Representative Mara and his wife tickets for a show in Hancock’s private box at the Wang Center and ordered an accompanying dinner. The apparent catalyst for this prosecution was a December 1992 trip to Puerto Rico where Sawyer, other lobbyists, and a group of legislators, including Representative Mara, travelled for a legislative conference. The group did not stay at the conference site, but instead went to a different resort where Sawyer paid for many of the legislators’ meals, transportation, and golf. Hancock reimbursed Sawyer for some $4,000 of entertainment expenses from the Puerto Rican trip. Both Sawyer and his supervisor, Hathaway, had reason to believe that these expenditures could or did violate certain state laws. In his office, Sawyer kept internal Hancock memoranda, newspaper articles, and opinions of the Massachusetts Ethics Commission, all explaining or reporting on Massachusetts ethics-in-lobbying. While some of the documents varied in their interpretations, they nonetheless advised on compliance with laws regarding gratuities, gifts, and lobbying expenditures. In April 1993, a reporter from the Boston Globe newspaper queried Richard Bevilacqua, Hancock’s Director of Employee and Customer Communications, about Sawyer’s entertainment of legislators during the 1992 Puerto Rico trip and about Hancock’s legislative agenda during that period. Bevilacqua, in turn, asked Sawyer about the trip, and Sawyer opined, “it’s difficult to take anyone out to lunch or dinner these days without going over [the] amount [permitted by law].” This set of events prompted Hancock to begin an internal investigation into Sawyer’s legislative expenditures. Bruce A. Skrine, vice president, corporate counsel and secretary for Hancock, asked Sawyer for his expense records. Contemporaneous with Sawyer’s production of the records, Sawyer told Skrine that the expenses were “consistent with the way ... things were done on Beacon Hill.” Sawyer also told Skrine that his reason for making the expenditures was “to get to know” the legislators and to develop “a certain relationship so that you could turn to them”; he farther indicated that he made these expenditures to “build and maintain relationships,” gain “access to legislators,” and get legislators to “return his calls as a result of [the expenditures].” Sawyer caused the mailing of items related to the expenditures on legislators, including golf bills, reimbursement requests, and credit card bills. Sawyer also caused the making of interstate telephone calls to arrange for some of the entertainment. Following a nine-day trial, the jury convicted Sawyer of fifteen counts of mail fraud, nine counts of wire fraud, eight counts of interstate travel to commit bribery, and one count of conspiracy. The jury acquitted Sawyer of two additional mail fraud counts. II. Mail and Wire Fraud Counts The government charged that Sawyer and his unindicted co-conspirator — his Hancock supervisor, Hathaway — engaged in a scheme to deprive the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and its citizens of the right to the honest services of their state legislators, and used the mails and interstate telephone wires in furtherance of the scheme, in violation of 18 U.S.C. §§ 1341, and 1343. Sawyer contends that his convictions impermissibly involve the federal government in setting standards of good government for local and state officials. He argues that this case is exemplary of the “dangers of standardless federal criminal enforcement and unbridled prosecutorial discretion long-recognized under the mail fraud statute.” We have already considered and rejected these arguments, however. See United States v. Silvano, 812 F.2d 754, 758-59 (1st Cir.1987). Congress may protect the integrity of the interstate mails and wires by forbidding their use in furtherance of schemes to defraud a state and its citizens, whether or not it can forbid the scheme itself. See id. at 758 (citing Badders v. United States, 240 U.S. 391, 393, 36 S.Ct. 367, 367-68, 60 L.Ed. 706 (1916)); United States v. Rendini, 738 F.2d 530, 533 (1st Cir.1984). Sawyer also contends that the government has failed to establish that he committed “honest services” mail and wire fraud (“honest services fraud”) within the meaning of the statutes. To explain our resolution of this issue, we provide a brief overview of the law of honest services fraud. The ultimate issue is whether or not the “scheme” presented at trial actually targeted the Massachusetts’ citizens’ right to “honest services” within the meaning of the mail fraud statute. To prove mail and wire fraud, the government must prove, beyond a reasonable doubt: (1) the defendant’s knowing and willing participation in a scheme or artifice to defraud with the specific intent to defraud, and (2) the use of the mails or interstate wire communications in furtherance of the scheme. United States v. Montminy, 936 F.2d 626, 627 (1st Cir.1991) (listing mail fraud elements); United States v. Cassiere, 4 F.3d 1006, 1011 (1st Cir.1993) (listing wire fraud elements). Because the relevant language in both the mail and wire fraud statutes is the same, we analyze both offenses together for the purposes of this ease and, for simplicity, we refer only to mail fraud. See United States v. Boots, 80 F.3d 580, 586 n. 11 (1st Cir.1996). Traditionally, the mail fraud statute reached schemes that deprived the fraud victim of property or some other item of economic value. See generally, United States v. Grandmaison, 77 F.3d 555, 565-66 (1st Cir.1996). Some courts later expanded the scope of the statutes to encompass schemes intended to defraud citizens of their intangible, non-property right to the honest services of their public officials. See generally, W. Robert Gray, Comment, The Intangible-Rights Doctrine and Political-Corruption Prosecutions Under the Federal Mail Fraud Statute, 47 U. Chi. L.Rev. 562, 563 (1980) and cases cited therein. Those courts rationalized that a public official “acts as ‘trustee for the citizens and the State ... and thus owes the normal fiduciary duties of a trustee, e.g., honesty and loyalty' to them.” Silvano, 812 F.2d at 759 (quoting United States v. Mandel, 591 F.2d 1347, 1363 (4th Cir.), aff'd in relevant part en banc, 602 F.2d 653, 653 (4th Cir.1979), cert. denied, 445 U.S. 961, 100 S.Ct. 1647, 64 L.Ed.2d 236 (1980)). In 1987, the United States Supreme Court held, contrary to every circuit court that had decided the issue, that the mail fraud statute did not prohibit schemes to defraud citizens of their intangible, non-property right to honest and impartial government. McNally v. United States, 483 U.S. 350, 359, 107 S.Ct. 2875, 2881, 97 L.Ed.2d 292 (1987); see United States v. Ochs, 842 F.2d 515, 521 (1st Cir.1988) (noting Court’s unexpected decision), cert. denied, 498 U.S. 895, 111 S.Ct. 245, 112 L.Ed.2d 204 (1990). Congress quickly reacted to the McNally decision by enacting 18 U.S.C. § 1346, which provides that, for the purposes of, inter alia, the mail and wire fraud statutes, “the term ‘scheme or artifice to defraud’ includes a scheme or artifice to deprive another of the intangible right of honest services.” We have recognized that § 1346 was intended to overturn McNal ly and reinstate the reasoning of pre-McNally case law holding that the mail fraud statute reached schemes to defraud individuals of the intangible right to honest services of government officials. See Grandmaison, 77 F.3d at 565-66. The concept of governmental “honest services” in this context eludes easy definition. As Judge Winter has aptly noted: One searches in vain for even the vaguest contours of the legal obligations created beyond the obligation to conduct governmental affairs “honestly” or “impartially,” to ensure one’s “honest and faithful participation” in government and to obey “accepted standards of moral uprightness, fundamental honesty, fair play and right dealing” ____ (citation omitted) [T]he quest for legal standards is not furthered by reference to “the right to good government” and the duty “to act in a disinterested manner.” United States v. Margiotta, 688 F.2d 108, 142-143 (2d Cir.1982) (Winter, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part) (quoting Mandel, 591 F.2d at 1361), cert. denied, 461 U.S. 913, 103 S.Ct. 1891, 77 L.Ed.2d 282 (1983). The cases in which a deprivation of an official’s honest services is found typically involve either bribery of the official or her failure to disclose a conflict of interest, resulting in personal gain. In a leading ease involving the bribery of a state governor on legislative matters, the Fourth Circuit explained how bribery of an official can constitute honest services fraud: [T]he fraud involved in the bribery of a public official lies in the fact that the public official is not exercising his independent judgment in passing on official matters____ When a public official has been bribed, he breaches his duty of honest, faithful and disinterested service____ [T]he official has been paid for his decisions, perhaps without even considering the merits of the matter. Thus, the public is not receiving what it expects and is entitled to, the public official’s honest and faithful service. Mandel, 591 F.2d at 1362; see also, Boots, 80 F.3d at 592-94 (involving scheme to bribe Native-American police chief in exercise of his border patrol duties); United States v. Holzer, 816 F.2d 304, 308 (7th Cir.) (judge’s systematic receipt of bribes and “loans” to influence official actions), vacated, 484 U.S. 807, 108 S.Ct. 53, 98 L.Ed.2d 18 (1987) (ordering reconsideration in light of McNally); United States v. Isaacs, 493 F.2d 1124, 1149-51 (7th Cir.) (public officials received bribes intended to induce special favors and preferential treatment for certain racing interests), cert. denied, 417 U.S. 976, 94 S.Ct. 3183, 41 L.Ed.2d 1146 (1974). A public official has an affirmative duty to disclose material information to the public employer. See Silvano 812 F.2d at 759. When an official fails to disclose a personal interest in a matter over which she has decision-making power, the public is deprived of its right either to disinterested decision making itself or, as the case may be, to full disclosure as to the official’s potential motivation behind an official act. See id. (upholding conviction of city fiduciary who failed to disclose material information about unnecessary spending of city money for secret enrichment of fiduciary’s friend). Thus, undisclosed, biased decision making for personal gain, whether or not tangible loss to the public is shown, constitutes a deprivation of honest services. See e.g., Grandmaison, 77 F.3d at 567 (city board member took secret action to influence award of public contract to official’s private construction-business interest); United States v. Waymer, 55 F.3d 564 (11th Cir.1995) (board of education member received secret commissions from companies contracting with school system), cert. denied, — U.S. -, 116 S.Ct. 1350, 134 L.Ed.2d 519 (1996). The broad scope of the mail fraud statute, however, does not encompass every instance of official misconduct that results in the official’s personal gain. For example, in United States v. McNeive, 536 F.2d 1245, 1246 (8th Cir.1976), a city plumbing inspector repeatedly accepted unsolicited gratuities in connection with his non-diseretionary, administrative duty to issue plumbing permits. Although McNeive may have violated a city ordinance banning the acceptance of gratuities by city officials, the court found his conduct beyond the reach of the mail fraud statute because there was no evidence that the gratuities disadvantaged the city in any respect or that they deterred McNeive from otherwise conscientiously performing his duties. Id. at 1251. In short, the “scheme” was shown to neither involve nor contemplate the deprivation of McNeive’s honest services to the city or public. Likewise, in United States v. Rabbitt, 583 F.2d 1014, 1026 (8th Cir.1978), cert. denied, 439 U.S. 1116, 99 S.Ct. 1022, 59 L.Ed.2d 75 (1979), the Eighth Circuit reversed the mail fraud convictions of Rabbitt, a state representative. Rabbitt had offered to introduce a friend’s architectural firm to certain public officials responsible for awarding state architectural contracts, in return for a ten percent commission on any work awarded. Id. at 1020. The government charged that his receipt of the resulting, undisclosed commissions defrauded the citizens of Rabbitt’s honest services. Id. at 1025. The evidence showed, however, that the officials who awarded the architectural contracts did so on merit alone and Rabbitt played no role in the selection of the firm. Id. at 1026. Because Rabbitt did not control the awarding of the contracts, or otherwise fail to fulfill his official duties, his conduct did not deprive the citizens of his honest services. Id. (noting case’s resemblance to McNeive, 536 F.2d at 1251-52). The court also observed that the government failed to cite any applicable standard requiring Rabbit to disclose his interest in the contracts, and thus, the citizens were not deprived of any right to such disclosure. Id. at 1026. The McNeive and Rabbitt cases illustrate that although a public official might engage in reprehensible misconduct related to an official position, the conviction of that official for honest-services fraud cannot stand where the conduct does not actually deprive the public of its right to her honest services, and it is not shown to intend that result. Similarly, if a non-public-official is prosecuted for scheming to defraud the public of an official’s honest services, the government must prove that the target of the scheme is the deprivation of the official’s honest services. If the “scheme” does not, as its necessary outcome, deprive the public of honest services, then independent evidence of the intent to deprive another of those services must be presented. See United States v. D’Amato, 39 F.3d, 1249, 1257 (2d Cir.1994) (“Where the scheme does not cause injury to the alleged victim as its necessary result, the government must produce evidence independent of the alleged scheme to show the defendant’s fraudulent intent.”); United States v. Von Barta, 635 F.2d 999, 1005-1006 n. 14 (2d Cir.1980) (noting that “the prosecution must prove that some actual harm or injury was at least contemplated”), cert. denied, 450 U.S. 998, 101 S.Ct. 1703, 68 L.Ed.2d 199 (1981). With this background, we consider the facts of this case. A Scheme to Defraud Here, the government did not prosecute Sawyer on the theory that he, as a lobbyist, directly owed a duty of honest services to the Commonwealth or its citizens. Rather, the government sought to prove that Sawyer engaged in conduct intended to cause state legislators to violate their duty to the public. The government sought to establish this scheme by proving that Sawyer intentionally violated, or caused members of the legislature to violate, two Massachusetts statutes. Briefly, these two Massachusetts statutes, discussed more fully infra, are: (1) Mass. Gen. L. ch. 268B, § 6 (the “gift” statute), which prohibits — under threat of civil penalties—a “legislative agent” from offering or giving to a public official (or an official’s acceptance of) “gifts” aggregating $100 or more per year; and (2) Mass. Gen. L. ch. 268A, § 3 (the “gratuity” statute), which prohibits—under threat of civil and criminal penalties—anyone from giving to a legislator (or a legislator from soliciting or accepting) anything of “substantial value ... for or because of any official act performed or to be performed” by that person. Through the violation of these laws, the government contended, Sawyer stole the honest services of the legislators. In general, proof of a state law violation is not required for conviction of honest services fraud. See Silvano, 812 F.2d at 759. Indeed, the incorporation of a state law violation in such a prosecution may cause complications. See United States v. Washington, 688 F.2d 953, 958 (5th Cir.1982) (reversing mail fraud conviction where jury should have been instructed that the defendant “should not be found guilty of the federal offense merely because he violated state law”). Here, however, the parties agree that the indictment, as structured, required it to prove that Sawyer violated at least one state law. Thus, the state laws in question had to be correctly charged as a matter of state law, and the violation of at least one had to be proven. Sawyer appeals various aspects of the court’s jury instructions on the state statutes and their role in the alleged scheme to defraud. To determine whether the court’s instructions adequately explained the law or whether they “tended to confuse or mislead the jury,” United States v. Alzanki, 54 F.3d 994, 1001 (1st Cir.1995) (internal quotations and citation omitted), cert. denied, — U.S. -, 116 S.Ct. 909, 133 L.Ed.2d 841 (1996), we review the entire charge pertaining to the role of the state statutes in this honest services fraud prosecution: In this case the government has charged Mr. Sawyer with devising a scheme or artifice; that is, a plan, to deprive the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and its citizens of their right to the honest services of members of the Massachusetts Legislature by giving or offering to those legislators gifts of free travel, lodging, golf, meals, and other entertainment. I instruct you that under the mail and wire fraud statutes, a scheme to defraud can be a plan to deprive the public of its right to the honest services of members of the Massachusetts Legislature. Elected public officials, such as members of the Massachusetts Legislature, owe certain duties to the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and to its citizens. One of those duties is the duty to act honestly. The government charges that by violating and causing legislators to violate certain state statutes, Mr. Sawyer deprived the public of its right to the honest services of members of the Massachusetts Legislature and, therefore devised a scheme to defraud. In other words, the government alleges that the defendant violated federal laws, mail fraud and wire fraud, by intentionally violating or causing Massachusetts legislators to violate certain state laws. Accordingly, in order to prove the first element of the mail fraud and/or wire fraud, that the defendant devised a scheme to defraud, the government must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant intentionally violated or caused members of the Massachusetts Legislature to violate at least one of the following two state laws____(emphasis added). After describing the two statutes, the court continued: If you find beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant devised or created a scheme to defraud in which he intentionally violated or caused a violation of at least one of the laws that I have just described, then you may find that the government has proved the first element of mail fraud and wire fraud. These instructions permitted the jury to find the requisite scheme to defraud upon proof that Sawyer violated, or caused legislators to violate, either one of the state statutes. In other words, the jury was allowed to find that a violation of either statute, without more, constituted the deprivation of honest services. At oral argument before this court, the government affirmed that it chose the state law violations as “the sole vehicle to prove the scheme or artifice to defraud” in order to “narrow the issues of intent and good faith.” Thus, we analyze both state statutes in light of the law of honest services, set forth above, to determine whether the court’s instructions erroneously permitted a conviction for conduct not within the reach of the mail fraud statute. 1. The Gift Statute The first Massachusetts statute on which the alleged scheme to defraud was based is ch. 268B, § 6 (the “gift statute”), which provides: Ño legislative agent shall knowingly and wilfully offer or give to a public official or public employee or a member of such person’s immediate family, and no public official or public employee or member of such person’s immediate family shall knowingly and wilfully solicit or accept from any legislative agent, gifts with an aggregate value of one hundred dollars or more in a calendar year. Mass. Gen. L. ch. 268B, § 6. We discuss Sawyer’s challenges to the court’s instructions on the statutory definitions before turning to the statute’s relation to the scheme to defraud. a. “Legislative Agent” The court instructed the jury that, under the statute, a legislative agent cannot give or offer gifts aggregating $100 or more to a legislator or member of the legislator’s family. It further instructed that a “legislative agent” is “any person who, for compensation or reward, does any act to promote, oppose or influence legislation.” See Mass. Gen. L. ch. 268B, § 1(g). Sawyer argues that this instruction failed to reflect his assertion that a person is a “legislative agent” only when he is so registered with the Secretary of State or he is actually engaging in lobbying activity at the time he gave the alleged gifts. The court instructed that a legislative agent is one who is paid to “promote, oppose or influence legislation,” i.e., to lobby, and that such agents are forbidden to give or offer certain “gifts.” The instruction, as a whole, adequately conveyed the idea that such gifts are forbidden only when given by those who, at the time of the gifts, are paid to actually lobby. While there may be a person with the job title “lobbyist” who does not actually engage in lobbying, there was ample evidence here that Sawyer lobbied at the time he gave the alleged “gifts.” Moreover, the fact that he had an obligation to register with the Secretary of State, see Mass. Gen. L. ch. 3, §§ 40, 41, does not alter the definition. No further instruction was required. b. Shared Meals as “Gifts” The court instructed the jury that “gifts,” under the relevant Massachusetts law, are “a payment, entertainment, subscription, advance, services or anything of value, unless consideration of equal or greater value is received.” See Mass. Gen. L. ch. 268B, § 1(g). Much of the evidence offered to prove Sawyer’s violations of the gift statute was his payment for shared meals and entertainment with the legislators. Sawyer contends that his payment for “shared hospitality” does not constitute a “gift” within the meaning of the statute. The issue turns out to be potentially complicated and involves somewhat convoluted analysis of the statutory history of a comparable law set forth at Mass. Gen. L. ch. 3, § 43. We have carefully reviewed the arguments on both sides, and for the reasons set forth in the district court’s ruling, see Sawyer, 878 F.Supp. at 282-84, we conclude that Sawyer’s shared meals could, if the jury so found, fit within the gift definition’s term “entertainment” and/or the very broad phrase, “anything of value.” c. Relation to Scheme to Defraud As explained above, under the court’s jury instructions regarding the scheme to defraud, Sawyer’s intentional violations of the gift statute, by their very occurrence (or ipso facto), must deprive the public of their legislators’ honest services. Sawyer challenges this legal premise, arguing that such violations do not necessarily deprive the public of those services. For the reasons that follow, we agree. The gift statute, which forbids a legislative agent from “knowingly and wilfully” giving a “public official ... gifts with an aggregated value of one hundred dollars or more in a calendar year,” Mass. Gen. L. ch. 268B, § 6, simply limits, by a dollar-amount, the gift-giving by lobbyists to legislators. It is a prophylactic civil prohibition that addresses appearances of—but not actual—corruption. A violation of the Massachusetts gift statute does not necessarily entail any improper motive to influence, or otherwise affect, the official duties of the recipient. It is possible for a lobbyist to give a legislator items falling within the statute’s definition of “gift,” or for a legislator to accept such gifts, without an accompanying intent to cause the legislator to deviate from the honest performance of official duties. While such gifts would constitute a gift-statute violation, not every such circumstance would necessarily amount to a deviation from the official’s performance of honest services to the public. Thus, unlike the honest services fraud cases, noted above, in which an official was bribed or took official action based on a secret conflict of interest, a gift statute violation, even if intentional, does not in itself amount to honest services fraud. While the Massachusetts’ citizenry expects their legislators to comply with laws pertaining to their official capacity, the presence of such illegal conduct, even though it relates to public office, does not by itself (or, per se) establish honest services fraud. Cf. See United States v. Dowling, 739 F.2d 1445, 1449-50 (9th Cir.1984) (rejecting government’s suggestion that “the presence of illegal conduct alone may constitute the basis of the ‘fraud’ element of a mail fraud prosecution” and stating that “to hold otherwise ... would have the potential of bringing almost any illegal act within the province of the mail fraud statute”), rev’d on other grounds, 473 U.S. 207, 105 S.Ct. 3127, 87 L.Ed.2d 152 (1985); United States v. Gallant, 570 F.Supp. 303, 309 and n. 7 (S.D.N.Y.1983) (noting that Congress forbade the use of the mails in furtherance of “any scheme or artifice to defraud” and not in furtherance of “any crime”). To allow every transgression of state governmental obligations to amount to mail fraud would effectively turn every such violation into a federal felony; this cannot be countenanced. Because the court’s instructions allowed the jury to equate a gift statute violation with the deprivation of honest services, it also permitted the jury to find an “intent to defraud” from the intent to violate the statute, without more. To establish the scheme to defraud through these violations, however, it must also have been charged and shown that the intent behind the violations was the deprivation of honest services. See D’Amato, 39 F.3d at 1257 (explaining that where harm is not the necessary result of the scheme, independent evidence of fraudulent intent is required). Thus, this case required a separate instruction that, to prove the intent to commit honest services fraud, the jury had to find that Sawyer intended to influence or otherwise improperly affect the official’s performance of duties, not merely that he intended to violate the state statute. Allowing the jury to find that Sawyer intended to defraud the public of its right to honest services based on proof of gift statute violations alone constituted reversible error. See United States v. Doherty, 867 F.2d 47, 57 (1st Cir.), cert. denied, 492 U.S. 918, 109 S.Ct. 3243, 106 L.Ed.2d 590 (1989) (observing that reversal of convictions is required if instructions “could have led the jury to convict for conduct outside the proscription of the mail fraud statute”). 2. The Gratuity Statute The second Massachusetts statute upon which the convictions for honest-services mail fraud rely, is ch. 268A, § 3 (the “gratuity statute”), which provides, in part: (a) Whoever, otherwise than as provided by law for the proper discharge of official duty, directly or indirectly gives, offers or promises anything of substantial value to any present or former state ... employee ... for or because of any official act performed or to be performed by such an employee (d) ... shall be punished by a fine of not more than three thousand dollars or by imprisonment for not more than two years, or both. Mass. Gen. L. ch. 268A, § 3. The centerpiece of the gratuity statute is the giving of an item of “substantial value” (the “gratuity”), to an official, “for or because of any official act performed or to be performed” by the official. Because this language entails some connection between the gift and the performance of official duties, a gratuity statute violation — unlike a gift statute violation — may itself be sufficient to implicate the duty of honest services in a given case. As with the gift statute, however, not every violation of the gratuity statute automatically encompasses an intent to induce the public official to alter or deviate from the performance of honest and impartial services. We explain. A Massachusetts gratuity offense does not require a finding of corrupt intent, i.e., improper intent to influence official decision making. See Commonwealth v. Dutney, 4 Mass.App.Ct. 363, 348 N.E.2d 812, 821 (1976) (finding gratuity offense to be a lesser included offense of Massachusetts bribery statute, Mass. Gen. L. ch. 268A, § 2, which adds the element of “corrupt intent” i.e., intent to influence); cf. United States v. Mariano, 983 F.2d 1150, 1159 (1st Cir.1993) (observing that gratuity offense, unlike bribery, does not involve a “corrupt purpose”). Rather, only some lesser intent need be shown. A jury might be charged to find a bribery or gratuity offense in the alternative, thus allowing it to convict for a gratuity offense if it is convinced that the defendant gave something to a public official because of an official act, but is not persuaded that the defendant had a corrupt intent to influence that act. See, e.g., Dutney, 348 N.E.2d at 821. As the word “gratuity” implies, the intent most often associated with the offense is the intent to “reward” an official for an act taken in the past or to be taken in the future. See Mariano, 983 F.2d at 1159 (noting that, unlike one who bribes, the gratuity offender “gives the gift without attaching any strings, intending it instead as a reward for actions the public official has already taken or is already committed to take”). The official act might otherwise be properly motivated; and the gratuity, though unlawful, might not be intended to influence the official’s mindset with regard to that particular action. In some cases, such as a reward for long-past official action, the intent to influence could not possibly exist. A finding of honest services fraud, however, requires, in connection with the gratuity, the intent to cause an official to deviate from the honest performance of services. Thus, as with the gift statute, proof of a violation of the Massachusetts gratuity statute, without more, does not establish an intent to commit honest services fraud. The government must prove that the conduct was accompanied by the requisite intent. This intent could be shown in a number of ways. For example, a bribery-like, corrupt intent to influence official action necessarily is an intent to deprive the public of an official’s honest services. A person might not, however, give an unlawful gratuity with the intent to effect a specific quid pro quo. Rather, as the government contends here, a person with continuing and long-term interests before an official might engage in a pattern of repeated, intentional gratuity offenses in order to coax ongoing favorable official action in derogation of the public’s right to impartial official services. Such conduct would be akin to (although not a classic case of) the conflict of interest cases noted above. See, e.g., Grandmaison, 77 F.3d at 567; Silvano, 812 F.2d at 759. Here, for example, while Sawyer may not have provided the legislators with direct kickbacks or commissions arising out of the specific official action, he may have intended the legislators generally to treat preferentially Hancock’s interests, knowing that the free meals, entertainment, and golf would continue so long as favorable official acts were, at some point, taken. In this case, the district court did not, in fact, instruct the jury on a true “gratuity” offense. Instead, it instructed the jury that, to establish a gratuity offense, the government must prove that Sawyer “gave something of substantial value to a legislator with the intent to influence an official act of that legislator.” While this instruction erroneously added an intent-to-influence element to the gratuity offense, it also had the effect of charging the jury to find the requisite intent for honest services fraud. 3. Conclusion: Scheme to Depñve of Honest Services The jury was permitted to find the first element of mail and wire fraud, the scheme to defraud, upon proof that either the gift statute or the gratuity statute was violated. The gift statute as charged, however, was a legally insufficient basis upon which to find the scheme to defraud. Although the gratuity statute was properly instructed in terms of honest services mail fraud, we cannot tell if the convictions were based on that statute or the insufficiently charged gift statute. When a jury has been presented with several bases for conviction, one of which is legally erroneous, and it is impossible to tell which ground the jury convicted upon, the conviction cannot stand. United States v. Nieves-Burgos, 62 F.3d 431, 435-36 (1st Cir.1995). The government contends that if we find error with respect to the gift statute, we should affirm the convictions because the jury found that Sawyer committed gratuity offenses within the Travel Act convictions, discussed infra. We cannot assume from the Travel Act convictions, however, that the jury based its mail and wire fraud convictions on the gratuity statute. The court charged the jury to consider each offense as separate bases for the mail and wire fraud charges. Accordingly, the possibility exists that, when convicting on the mail and wire fraud charges, the jury focused on violations of the gift statute, alone. See Boots, 80 F.3d at 589 (declining to affirm conviction where it was possible that the jury focused its verdict on erroneous basis). Thus, for the foregoing reasons, Sawyer’s mail and wire fraud convictions must be reversed. Sawyer contends that the evidence was insufficient to prove an intent to influence the legislators’ official acts and that therefore his conviction should be reversed without the possibility of retrial. We cannot agree. At trial, there was evidence that Sawyer intentionally and repeatedly provided legislators with valuable gifts of entertainment for the purpose of obtaining “greater access” to, and of developing a “certain relationship with,” legislators. A jury could credit Sawyer’s defense that he thought his expenditures were lawful and that they were meant only for goodwill entertaining. Taking the evidence in the light most favorable to the prosecution, however, see United States v. Olbres, 61 F.3d 967, 970 (1st Cir.), cert. denied, — U.S. -, 116 S.Ct. 522, 133 L.Ed.2d 430 (1995), a jury could also rationally infer, beyond a reasonable doubt that Sawyer intended that his repeated gifts and gratuities would induce legislators to perform official acts to benefit Hancock’s interests regardless of, or at the expense of, the public interest. Hence, retrial is not precluded. See Boots, 80 F.3d at 589-90 (reversing because of legal error in instructions but remanding for possible retrial because the evidence was sufficient for proper conviction); United States v. Ochs, 842 F.2d 515, 529 (1st Cir.1988) (same). In view of the possibility that the government may choose to retry this case, we think it is useful to add a cautionary word concerning the relationship between state and federal law in cases such as this one. Our comments are addressed primarily to the mail fraud statute but apply in some measure to the Travel Act charge, discussed infra, as well. Two problems are of specific concern to us. First, concerning the theft of honest services jury instruction, an overemphasis on what state law forbids may lead the jury to believe that state rather than federal law defines the crime, or more specifically, that any violation of a state law or regulation concerning lobbying or related matters amounts to honest services fraud. Wire and mail fraud are federal offenses; and while state violations may play a role, the jury should not be allowed to slip into the misunderstanding that any violation of proliferating state laws and regulations controlling this area automatically amounts to a federal crime. In a similar vein, we think there exists a risk in this case — particularly in view of the prosecutor’s closing argument with its repeated emphasis on permissible dollar limits in lobbying — that the jury could wrongly believe that any expenditure in excess of that allowed by state statute or regulation by itself constitutes the federal offense. The district court has ample authority under Federal Rule of Evidence 403 to limit evidence concerning state law requirements where that evidence is substantially more prejudicial than probative. And, in all events, jury instructions need to make clear that for the federal honest services fraud to be proven, the defendant must have the intent to affect a legislator’s performance of an official act and not merely to make payments in excess of some state specified limitations. B. Intent to Deceive Whether or not a new trial on the mail and wire fraud counts is allowable requires us to reach Sawyer’s additional contention that the evidence was insufficient to establish his intent to deceive the public. To this end, Sawyer contends that because the government did not establish that he had a duty to disclose his illegal gifts and gratuities to the public, his intent to deceive the public had to be shown through affirmative acts of deception, which he claims are absent here. To establish mail fraud — in cases involving honest services fraud and otherwise — the alleged scheme must involve deception in the deprivation of money, property, or the right to honest services. See McEvoy Travel Bureau, Inc. v. Heritage Travel, Inc., 904 F.2d 786, 791 (1st Cir.) (“[N]ot every use of the mails or wires in furtherance of an unlawful scheme to deprive another of property constitutes mail or wire fraud.... Rather, the scheme must be intended to deceive another, by means of false or fraudulent pretenses, representations, promises or other deceptive conduct.”) (citations omitted), cert. denied, 498 U.S. 992, 111 S.Ct. 536, 112 L.Ed.2d 546 (1990); see also Grandmaison, 77 F.3d at 567 (finding that public official’s conduct of secretly delivering gratuities to other officials for favorable action, “without disclosing his actions to other [officials],” falls within purview of honest services mail fraud) (citing McEvoy Travel, 904 F.2d at 791); United States v. Bush, 522 F.2d 641, 648 (7th Cir.1975), cert. denied, 424 U.S. 977, 96 S.Ct. 1484, 47 L.Ed.2d 748 (1976). While a misrepresentation of fact is not required to establish mail fraud, McEvoy Travel, 904 F.2d at 791, a demonstrated intent to deceive is required. When the conduct of a government official is involved, “the affirmative duty to disclose material information arises out of [the] official’s fiduciary relationship to [the public].” Silvano, 812 F.2d at 758; see id. at 760 (“Although not all dishonest or disloyal conduct by an employee violates the mail fraud statute, an employee’s breach of a fiduciary duty falls within the strictures of the statute when it encompasses the breach of a duty to disclose material information to the employer.”). Thus, an official’s intentional violation of the duty to disclose provides the requisite “deceit.” See id. at 760 (noting that failure to disclose “under circumstances where the non-disclosure could or does result in harm to the employer is a violation of the mail fraud statute”) (citation, and internal quotations omitted). Here, although the issue has not been clearly presented by the parties, it appears that the requisite intent to deceive could have been shown either through Sawyer’s own acts of deception toward the public with respect to the gift/gratuity statute violations, or through his efforts <to ensure that the legislators deceived the public with respect to the violations. The latter requires evidence only that Sawyer intended to cause the legislators intentionally to fail to disclose material information about the violations, although evidence that he intended the legislators to affirmatively misrepresent themselves in this regard would also suffice. At bottom, the evidence must be sufficient to establish Sawyer’s intent that, in the end, the public be deceived with respect to his unlawful gifts and gratuities. Therefore, we must determine if the admissible evidence, viewed in light most favorable to the jury’s verdict, is sufficient for a rational jury to find that Sawyer intended that the public be deceived. See United States v. Kaplan, 832 F.2d 676, 679 (1st Cir.1987), cert. denied, 485 U.S. 907, 108 S.Ct. 1080, 99 L.Ed.2d 239 (1988). The evidence need not compel an intent-to-deceive finding; rather, it is only required that a reasonable jury could be persuaded, beyond a reasonable doubt, that Sawyer had such intent. See United States v. O’Brien, 14 F.3d 703, 706-707 (1st Cir.1994). And we are mindful that a jury may choose among the reasonable alternatives posed by the evidence. United States v. Olbres, 61 F.3d 967, 973 (1st Cir.1995), cert. denied, — U.S. -, 116 S.Ct. 522, 133 L.Ed.2d 430 (1995). Finally, the specific intent to deceive may be proven (and usually is) by indirect and circumstantial evidence. See O’Brien, 14 F.3d at 706 (observing that fraud crimes “by their very nature, often yield little in the way of direct proof’); Kaplan, 832 F.2d at 679; see also United States v. Nivica, 887 F.2d 1110, 1113 (1st Cir.1989) (opining that “factual circumstances may signal fraudulent intent in ways as diverse as the manifestations of fraud itself’), cert. denied, 494 U.S. 1005, 110 S.Ct. 1300, 108 L.Ed.2d 477 (1990). At first blush, it may appear that bribery of a public official necessarily incorporates a finding that the offender intended to “trick” or “deceive” the public into thinking that the official was acting independently when, in fact, the official was actually motivated by the bribe. While we have little doubt that bribes are usually given in secrecy, see Holzer, 816 F.2d at 309 (observing that “no public official in the United States takes bribes openly”), bribery and gratuity statutes generally, as here, do not require a separate element of deception. Ostensibly, a person could offer an illegal bribe to a public official and not be concerned with its secrecy. Thus, the evidence presented must permit a finding that Sawyer not only gave the unlawful gifts or gratuities with the intent to deprive the public of honest services, but that he also intended to deceive the public about that conduct. See Bush, 522 F.2d at 648. Here, the government presented evidence that Sawyer gave the unlawful gifts and gratuities during the seven years of the indictment period until the Boston Globe exposed the practice in May 1993. Much of his entertainment of lobbyists took place out-of-state — usually at industry and legislative conferences — where members of the Massachusetts citizenry generally would not observe the questionable activities. Unlike his acts of “non-public” entertainment, Sawyer ensured compliance with state ethical standards for a 1993 Boston Marathon brunch, potentially a high profile event. In his office, Sawyer kept newspaper articles reporting legislators’ activities with lobbyists, and in particular, the ethical ramifications of such relationships. In one article, Representative Mara (a recipient of Sawyer’s unlawful gifts or gratuities) is quoted as saying, “Everyone picks up their own tabs at [legislative] conferences____ These conferences have become almost nonexistent.” These articles were kept in notebooks with other materials regarding lobbying laws. A jury rationally could infer that Sawyer was cognizant of his ethical obligations in lobbying, knew of the public awareness of lobbying activity, and repeatedly gave hidden unlawful gifts and gratuities until he was publicly exposed. While not overwhelming, the combined evidence is sufficient to permit a reasonable jury to find, beyond a reasonable doubt, that Sawyer intended to deceive the public about his unlawful expenditures on legislators. See United States v. Ortiz, 966 F.2d 707, 711 (1st Cir.1992) (explaining that “juries are not required to examine the evidence in isolation, for ‘individual pieces of evidence, insufficient in themselves to prove a point, may in cumulation prove it. The sum of an evidentiary presentation may well be greater than its constituent parts.’”) (quoting Bourjaily v. United States, 483 U.S. 171, 179-80, 107 S.Ct. 2775, 2781, 97 L.Ed.2d 144 (1987)), cert. denied, 506 U.S. 1063, 113 S.Ct. 1005, 122 L.Ed.2d 154 (1993); United States v. Montminy, 936 F.2d 626, 627-28 (1st Cir.1991). For the foregoing reasons, Sawyer’s mail and wire fraud convictions must be vacated and remanded for a possible new trial. III. Travel Act Counts The government charged Sawyer with knowingly and wilfully travelling and causing others to travel in interstate commerce with the intent to promote, carry on and facilitate the promotion and carrying on of unlawful activity, to wit, illegal gratuities in violation of Mass. Gen. L. eh. 268A, § 3, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1952 (the “Travel Act”). The government asserted that Sawyer violated the Massachusetts gratuity statute subsequent to interstate travel to the following destinations: Tulsa, Oklahoma; Orlando, Florida; Savannah, Georgia; Scottsdale, Arizona; Key Largo, Florida; Charleston, South Carolina; Amelia Island, Florida; and Puerto Rico. Sawyer argues that his Travel Act convictions must be reversed because: (1) the court erroneously instructed the jury on the gratuity statute; (2) the evidence was insufficient to establish the gratuity offenses; (3) the court barred him from presenting evidence crucial to his defense; and (4) the court improperly admitted summary evidence introduced by the government. Although we discuss and reject each of these arguments in turn, we nonetheless reverse his conviction on these counts because the district court’s instructions on the meaning of “bribery,” for the purposes of the Travel Act, were fatally flawed. A Gratuity Statute Jury Instructions Because the Travel Act convictions rely upon violations of the Massachusetts gratuity statute, we now address an additional state-law aspect of the gratuity statute about which the parties disagree. The gratuity statute requires that the item of “substantial value” be given “for or because of any official act performed or to be performed.” Mass. Gen. L. ch. 268A, § 3(a). An “official act” is defined as: “any decision or action in a particular matter or in the enactment of legislation.” Mass. Gen. L. ch. 268A, § 1(h). Here, Sawyer allegedly bestowed gratuities upon legislators who were members of the Insurance Committee. Thus, for purposes of this discussion, we proceed on the theory that the government had to prove that Sawyer gave the gratuities “for or because of ... any decision or action in the enactment of legislation.” See Mass. Gen. L. ch. 268A, §§ 3(a), 1(h). The parties’ interpretations of the gratuity statute differ with respect to the scope and character of the connection required between the gratuity and the official act. Sawyer contends that the gratuity must be linked to a specific, identifiable official act. The government argues that it is sufficient to prove that the gratuity would not have been given but for the legislator’s ability to take official action favorable to Sawyer. In a pretrial ruling on Sawyer’s motions to dismiss, the district court agreed with the government’s interpretation, and instructed as such. No Massachusetts court decision has yet interpreted the operative “for or because of any official act” lánguage in eh. 268A, § 3(a). To support their respective positions, the parties present differing arguments regarding the statutory language, legislative history, comparable statutes, and State Ethics Commission rulings. We consider these sources separately. 1. Statutory Language The gratuity statute prohibits the giving of gratuities “for or because of any official act performed or to be performed.” Mass. Gen. L. ch. 268A, § 3. The statute does not read “for or because of the official’s position.” Rather, it forbids gratuities motivated by “any official act” and further defines, rather meticulously, “official act.” See Mass. Gen. L. ch. 268A, §§ 1(h) & (k). Thus, on the face of the statute, it does not appear that the unlawfulness of the gratuity could be established by proof that it was motivated solely by the official’s position. In other words, proof of the offense requires something more than a simple showing that “but for” the official’s authority, the gratuity would not have been given. This observation, however, does not lead to the conclusion that the gratuity must be shown to be motivated by a specifically identified official act. As noted supra, a gratuity offense is essentially a bribery offense without proof of “corrupt intent.” The concern behind the gratuity statute, like the bribery statute, is the potential undermining of official integrity. A gratuity does not compromise this integrity because of its possible effect on the official's “position”; rather, the danger is in its ability to affect the official’s performance of duties, i.e., “official acts.” It is not surprising, then, that the statute proscribes gratuities motivated by “official acts” rather than “official position.” Thus, the use of the term “official act” appears to ensure that the gratuity would be deemed unlawful only when the giving of an item of “substantial value” is linked to the official’s performance of duties. The connection between the gratuity and the performance of official duties, however, does not necessarily require the identification of a specific official act, and we find nothing in the statutory language to require such a demonstration. 2. Legislative History The gratuity statute was based, in part, upon a bill drafted by a 1962 Massachusetts Special Commission on Code of Ethics. See Report of the Special Commission on Code of Ethics, 1962 House Doc. No. 3650, p. 8. Nothing in the Commission’s Report, however, assists us in resolving the instant question. It states only: “It should be noted that to constitute a criminal act, the giving or receiving of the item of such ‘substantial value’ must be ‘for or because of an official act.” Id. at 11; see Commonwealth v. Famigletti, 4 Mass.App.Ct. 584, 354 N.E.2d 890, 893 (1976) (noting same language in the report). The Report neither parses out what these terms mean, nor gives examples of what was intended. From this we discern only that the Commission was concerned that “innocent” gifts to officials would not fall within the gratuity statute’s purview. The Commission’s report does tell us that “[m]uch of the language of the proposed legislation is taken and adapted from [a proposed federal bribery/gratuity bill].” Report of Special Commission, supra at 8; see Dutney, 348 N.E.2d at 822 n. 16. As discussed below, however, the comparable federal gratuity statute, 18 U.S.C. § 201(c), is also unhelpful in resolving the question before us. 8. Comparable Statutes In support of its position, the government relies on the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court’s interpretation of a different statute in Commonwealth v. Lapham, 156 Mass. 480, 31 N.E. 638 (Mass.1892), and on federal cases interpreting the federal gratuity statute, 18 U.S.C. § 201(c). Lapham involved a milk dealer who attempted to bribe a city milk inspector and was convicted under a statute punishing anyone who: corruptly gives, offers or promises to any executive, legislative ... or judicial officer ... any gift or gratuity whatever, with intent to influence his act, vote, opinion, decision, or judgment on any matter, question, cause, or proceeding, which may be then pending, or may by law come or be brought before him in his official capacity. Mass. Pub. St. ch. 205, § 9 (Ch. 349 Revised May 21, 1891); see Lapham, 31 N.E. at 638-39. The milk dealer argued that the indictment was insufficient because it did not aver a particular matter to be influenced. Id. The Supreme Judicial Court disagreed, reasoning as follows: Nor is it necessary in an indictment under [ch. 205, § 9] to aver that the corrupt intention to influence the act, opinion, decision or judgment of the inspector was in relation to any specific and particular matter then pending before him, or which was then expected to come before him. It is enough to aver a corrupt intention so to influence him in any matter which may then be pending, or which may by law come or be brought before him. If for example an executive, legislative or judicial officer is bribed corruptly to favor a particular person in any and all matters affecting that person which may come before such officer, without specification or knowledge of the particular matters likely to come up, the statute is broad enough to include such a case. A narrower construction of a similar statute has been adopted in Alabama, but we cannot follow it