Full opinion text
OPINION PER CURIAM: For the third time, we are called upon to assess the legality of the President’s efforts to bar over 150 million nationals of six designated countries from entering the United States or being issued immigrant visas that they would ordinarily be qualified to receive. To do so, we must consider the statutory and constitutional limits of the President’s power to curtail entry of foreign nationals in this appeal of the district court’s order preliminarily enjoining portions of § 2 of Proclamation 9645 entitled “Enhancing Vetting Capabilities and Processes for Detecting Attempted Entry Into the United States by Terrorists or Other Public-Safety Threats” (the “Proclamation”). The Proclamation, like its predecessor executive orders, relies on the premise that the Immigration and Nationality Act (“INA”), 8 U.S.C. § 1101 et seq., vests the President with broad powers to regulate the entry of aliens. Those powers, however, are not without limit. We conclude that the President’s issuance of the Proclamation once again exceeds the scope of his delegated authority. The Government’s interpretation of 8 U.S.C. § 1182(f) not only upends the carefully crafted immigration scheme Congress has enacted through the INA, but it deviates from the text of the statute, legislative history, and prior executive practice as well. Further, the President did not satisfy the critical prerequisite Congress attached to his suspension authority: before blocking entry, he must first make a legally sufficient finding that the entry of the specified individuals would be “detrimental to the interests of the United States.” 8 U.S.C. § 1182(f). The Proclamation once again conflicts with the INA’s prohibition on nationality-based discrimination in the issuance of immigrant visas. Lastly, the President is without a separate source of constitutional authority to issue the Proclamation. On these statutory bases, we affirm the district court’s order enjoining enforcement of the Proclamation’s §§ 2(a), (b), (c), (e), (g), and (h). We limit the scope of the preliminary injunction, however, to foreign nationals who have a bona fide relationship with a person or entity in the United States. I. Background A. Prior Executive Orders and Initial Litigation On January 27, 2017, one week after his inauguration, President Donald J. Trump signed an Executive Order entitled “Protecting the Nation From Foreign Terrorist Entry into the United States.” Exec. Order 13,769, 82 Fed. Reg. 8977 (Jan. 27, 2017) (“EO-1”). EO-l’s stated purpose was to “protect the American people from terrorist attacks by foreign nationals admitted to the United States.” Id. EO-1 took effect immediately and was challenged in several venues shortly after it was issued. On February 3, 2017, a federal district court in the State of Washington enjoined the enforcement of EO-1. See Washington v. Trump, No. C17-0141JLR, 2017 WL 462040 (W.D. Wash. Feb. 3, 2017). The Government filed an emergency motion seeking a stay of the injunction, which we denied. See Washington v. Trump, 847 F.3d 1151, 1161-64 (9th Cir. 2017) (per curiam), reh’g en banc denied, 853 F.3d 933 (9th Cir. 2017). The Government later voluntarily dismissed its appeal of the EO-1 injunction. On March 6, 2017,' the President issued Executive Order 13,780, which was given the same title as EO-1 and was set to take effect on March 16, 2017. 82 Fed. Reg. 13,209 (Mar. 6, 2017) (“EO-2”). EO-2 directed the Secretary of Homeland Security to conduct a global review to determine whether foreign governments were providing adequate information about their nationals seeking entry into the United States. See EO-2 § 2(a). EO-2 also directed the Secretary of Homeland Security to report those findings to the President; following the Secretary’s report, nations identified as providing inadequate information were to be given an opportunity to alter their practices before the Secretary would recommend entry restrictions for. nationals of noncompliant countries. Id. §§ 2(b), (d)-(f). During this global review, EO-2 imposed a 90-day suspension oh the entry of certain foreign nationals from six Muslim-majority countries; Iran, Libya, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, and Yemen. Id. § 2(c). That 90-day suspension was challenged in multiple courts and was preliminarily enjoined by federal district courts in Hawai’i and Maryland. . See Hawai’i v. Trump, 245 F.Supp.3d 1227 (D. Haw. 2017); Int’l Refugee Assistance Project ("IRAP”) v. Trump, 241 F.Supp.3d 539 (D. Md. 2017). Those injunctions were affirmed by the Ninth and Fourth Circuits, respectively. See Hawai'i v. Trump (Hawai’i I), 859 F.3d 741 (9th Cir. 2017) (per curiam); IRAP v. Trump, 857 F.3d 554 (4th Cir. 2017) (en banc), as amended (May 31, •2017). The Supreme Court granted a writ of certiorari in both cases and left the injunctions in place pending its review, except as to foreign nationals who lacked a “credible claim of a bona fide relationship with .a person or entity in the United States.” Trump v. IRAP, — U.S. —, 137 S.Ct. 2080, 2088, 198 L.Ed.2d 643 (2017). On September 24, 2017, the President issued the Proclamation, which indefinitely suspends immigration by nationals of seven countries and imposes restrictions on the issuance of certain nonimmigrant visas for. nationals of eight countries. 82 Fed. Reg! .45,161, 45,164-67 (Sept. 24, 2017). The entry restrictions were immediately effective for foreign nationals who 1) were subject to EO-2’s restrictions, and 2) lack a credible claim of a bona, fide relationship with a person or entity in the United States. Id. at 45,171. For all other affected persons, the Proclamation was slated to take effect on October 18, 2017. Id: On October 10, 2017, the Supreme Court vacated the Fourth Circuit’s opinion in IRAP v. Trump as moot. See Trump v. IRAP, No. 16-1436, 2017 WL 4518553, — U.S. —, 138 S,Ct. 353, 199 L.Ed.2d 203 (U.S. Oct. 10, 2017). On October 24, 2017, the Supreme Court vacated our opinion in Hawai’i I on the same grounds. See Trump v. Hawai’i, No. 16-1540, 2017 WL 4782860, — U.S.—, 138 S.Ct. 377, 199 L.Ed.2d 275 (U.S. Oct. 24, 2017). In vacating our prior decision as moot, the Supreme Court explicitly .noted that it expressed no view on the merits of the case. See id. B. Plaintiffs’ Third Amended Complaint On October 10, 2017, Plaintiffs sought to amend their complaint to include allegations related to the Proclamation. The third amended complaint includes statutory claims for violations of the INA, the Religious Freedom Restoration Act, and .the Administrative Procedure Act, as well as constitutional claims for violations of the Establishment and Free Exercise Clauses of the First Amendment and the equal protection guarantees of the Fifth Amendment’s Due Process Clause. Plaintiffs also moved for a temporary restraining order; after expedited briefing, the district court granted the motion on October 17, 2017. Hawai’i TRO, 2017 WL 4639560, at *1. Relying on our now-vacated opinion in Ha-wai’i I, the district court found that the Proclamation suffered from the same deficiencies as EO-2. Id. at *1, *9-13. At the parties’ request, the district court converted the temporary restraining order into a preliminary injunction on October 20, 2017, rendering it an appealable order. Hawai’i v. Trump, No. CV17-00050 DKW-KSC (D. Haw. Oct. 20, 2017), EOF No. 390 (order entering preliminary injunction). The Government timely appealed. During the pendency of this appeal, we partially, stayed the district court’s preliminary injunction “except as to foreign nationals who have a credible claim of a bona fide relationship with a person or entity in the United States.” Hawai’i v. Trump, No. 17-17168, 2017 WL 5343014 (9th Cir. Nov. 13, 2017). On December 4, 2017, the Supreme Court granted the Government’s request for a complete stay pending review of the district court’s preliminary injunction. Trump v. Hawai’i, No. 17A650, 138 S.Ct. 377 (Dec. 4, 2017). C. The Proclamation The Proclamation derives its purpose from the President’s belief that he “must act to protect the security and interests of the United States.” 82 Fed. Reg. at 45,-161. In furtherance of this goal, the Proclamation imposes indefinite.and significant restrictions and limitations on entry of nationals from eight countries whose information-sharing and identity-management protocols have been deemed “inadequate.” Id. at 45,162-67. The Proclamation notes that screening and vetting protocols and procedures play a critical role in preventing terrorist attacks and other public safety threats by enhancing the Government’s ability to “detect foreign nationals who may commit, aid, or support acts of terrorism.” Id. at 45,162. Thus, the Proclamation concludes, “absent-the measures set forth in th[e] proclamation, the immigrant and nonimmigrant entry into the United States of persons described in section 2 of th[e] proclamation [will] be detrimental to the interests of the United States.” Id. at-45,161-62. The President selected eight countries for inclusion in the Proclamation based on-a “worldwide review” conducted under the orders of EO-2. Id. at 45,161, 45,163-64. As part of that review, the Secretary of the Department of Homeland Security established global requirements for information sharing “in support of immigration screening and yetting” that included a comprehensive set of criteria on the information-sharing practices, policies, and capabilities of foreign governments. Id. at 45,161-63. The Secretary of State then “engaged with the countries reviewed in an effort to address deficiencies and achieve improvements.” Id. at 45,161. The Secretary of Homeland Security, after consultation with the Secretary of State and the Attorney General, ultimately identified 16 countries as “inadequate” based on “an analysis of their identity-management protocols, information-sharing practices, and risk factors.” Id, at 46,163. An additional 31 countries were deemed “at risk” of becoming “inadequate.” Id. Countries were classified as “inadequate” based on whether .they met the “baseline” developed by the Secretary of Homeland Security, in consultation with the Secretary of'State and the Director of National' Intelligence. Id. at 45,162. The baseline incorporated three categories of criteria: 1) identity-management information; 2) national security and public-safety information; and 3) national security and public-safety risk assessment. Id. Identity-management information ensures that foreign nationals seeking to enter the United States are who they claim to be. Id. This category “focuses on the integrity of documents required for travel to the United States,” including whether the country issues passports with embedded data to confirm identity, reports lost and stolen passports, and provides additional identity-related information when requested. Id. National security and public-safety information includes whether the country “makes available, directly or indirectly, known or suspected terrorist and criminal-history information upon request,” whether it provides identity document exemplars, and whether the country “impedes the United States Government’s receipt of information about passengers and crew traveling to the United States.” Id. Finally, national security and public-safety risk assessment focuses on whether the country is “a known or potential terrorist safe haven,” whether the country participates in the Visa Waiver Program, and whether the country “regularly fails to receive its nationals” following their removal from the United States. Id. at 45,162-63. After a “50-day engagement period to encourage all foreign governments ... to improve their performance,” the Secretary of Homeland Security ultimately determined that Chad, Iran, Libya, North Korea, Syria, Venezuela, and Yemen continued to be “inadequate” based on their identity-management protocols, information-sharing practices, and risk factors. Id. at 45,163. The Secretary of Homeland Security also determined that Iraq did not meet the baseline requirements, but concluded that entry restrictions and limitations were not warranted because of the “close cooperative relationship between the United States and the democratically elected government of Iraq, the strong United States diplomatic presence in Iraq, the significant presence of United States forces in Iraq, and Iraq’s commitment to combating the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS).” Id. On September 15, 2017, the Secretary of Homeland Security submitted a report to the President recommending entry restrictions for nationals from seven countries “determined to be ‘inadequate’ in providing such [requested] information and in light of the other factors discussed in the report.” Id. After consultation with “appropriate Assistants to the President and members of the Cabinet, including the Secretaries of State, Defense, and Homeland Security, and the Attorney General” and “accounting for the foreign policy, national security, and counterterrorism objectives of the United States,” the President decided to “restrict and limit the entry of nationals of 7 countries found to be ‘inadequate’ Chad, Iran, Libya, North Korea, Syria, Venezuela, and Yemen. Id. at 45,164. And although Somalia “generally satisfies” the information-sharing requirements of the baseline, the President also imposed entry restrictions and limitations on Somalia nationals because of “its government’s inability to effectively and consistently cooperate, combined with the terrorist threat that emanates from its territory.” Id. The President restricted entry of all immigrants from seven- of the eight countries, and adopted “a more tailored approach” to the entry of nonimmi-grants. Id. at 45,164-65. Section 2’s challenged country restrictions and proffered rationales are as follows: Chadian nationals may not enter as immigrants or nonimmigrants on business, tourist, or business/tourist visas because, although Chad is “an important and valuable counterterrorism partner of the United States, and .... has shown a clear willingness to improve,” it “does not adequately share public-safety and terrorism-related information,” and several terrorist groups are active within Chad or the surrounding region. Id. at 45,165. Iranian nationals may not enter as immigrants or nonimmigrants except under valid student and exchange visitor visas, and such visas are subject to “enhanced screening and vetting.” Id. The Proclamation notes that “Iran regularly fails to cooperate with the United States Government in identifying security risks, fails to satisfy at least one key risk criterion, is the source of significant terrorist threats, and fails to receive its nationals” following final orders of removal from the United States. Id. The entry of Libyan nationals as immigrants and as nonimmigrants on business, tourist, or business/tourist visas is suspended because, although Libya “is an important and valuable counterterrorism partner,” it “faces significant challenges in sharing several types of information, including public-safety and terrorism-related information,” “has significant deficiencies in its identity-management protocols,” does not “satisfy at least one key risk criterion,” has not been “fully cooperative” in receiving its nationals after their removal from the United States, and has a “substantial terrorist presence” within its territory. Id. at 45,165-66. The entry of all Syrian nationals—on immigrant and non-immigrant visas alike—is suspended because “Syria regularly fails to cooperate with the United States Government in identifying security risks, is the source of significant terrorist threats, and has been designated by the Department of State as a state sponsor of terrorism.” Id. at 45,166. Syria also has “significant inadequacies in identity-management protocols, fails to share public-safety and terrorism information, and fails to satisfy at least one key risk criterion.” Id. Yemeni nationals may not enter the United States as immigrants or nonimmi-grants on business, tourist, or business/tourist visas because despite being “an important and valuable counterterrorism partner,” Yemen “faces significant identity-management challenges, which are amplified by the notable terrorist presence within its territory.” Id. at 45,166-67. Somali nationals may not' enter the United States as immigrants, and all nonimmigrant visa adjudications and entry decisions for Somali nationals are subject to “additional scrutiny.” Id. at 45,167. Although Somalia satisfies information-sharing requirements, it “has significant identity-management deficiencies” and a “persistent terrorist threat also emanates from Somalia’s territory.” Id. These restrictions apply to foreign nationals of the affected countries outside the United States who do not hold valid visas as of the effective date and who do not qualify for a visa under § 6(d) of the Proclamation. Id. Suspension of entry , does not apply to lawful permanent residents of the United States; foreign nationals who are admitted, paroled, or have a non-visa document permitting them to travel to the United States and seek entry valid or issued on or after the effective date of the Proclamation; any dual national traveling on a passport issued by a non-designated country; any foreign national qn a diplomatic visa; any refugee already admitted to the United States; or any individual granted asylum, withholding of removal, advance parole, or Convention Against Torture protection. Id. at 45,167-68. Further, á consular officer, the Commissioner of U.S. Customs and Border Protection, or the Commissioner’s designee “may, in their discretion, grant waivers on a case-by-case basis to permit the entry of foreign nationals for whom entry is otherwise suspended or limited if such foreign nationals demonstrate that waivers would be appropriate and consistent” with certain specified guidelines. Id. at 45,168. II. Justiciability We first address several of the samé justiciability arguments that we found unpersuasive in Washington v. Trump and Hawai’i I. Once more, we reject the Government’s contentions. The Proclamation cannot properly evade judicial review. A. Ripeness The Government argues that Plaintiffs’ claims are speculative and not ripe for adjudication until a specific applicant is denied a visa. We reject this argument. We conclude that the issues in this case are “fit for review,” and that significant hardship to Plaintiffs would result from “withholding court consideration” at this point. Nat’l Park Hosp. Ass’n v. Dep’t of Interior, 538 U.S. 803, 808, 812, 123 S.Ct. 2026, 155 L.Ed.2d 1017 (2003). “Ripeness is peculiarly a question of timing, designed to prevent the courts, through avoidance of premature adjudication, ;from entangling themselves in abstract disagreements.’’ Stormans, Inc. v. Selecky, 586 F.3d 1109, 1122 (9th Cir. 2009) (alteration and internal quotation marks omitted) (quoting Thomas v. Anchorage Equal Rights Comm’n, 220 F.3d 1134, 1138 (9th Cir. 2000)). This case does not concern mere abstract disagreements. Instead, Plaintiffs challenge the Proclamation as implemented by the Department of State and the Department of Homeland Security. That is permissible. Under the traditional “pragmatic” approach to finality, an order may be immediately renewable even.if no “particular action [has been] brought against a particular [entity].” U.S. Army Corps of Eng’rs v. Hawkes Co., — U.S. —, 136 S.Ct. 1807, 1815, 195 L.Éd.2d 77 (2016) (quoting Abbott Labs. v. Gardner, 387 U.S. 136, 150, 87 S.Ct. 1507, 18 L.Ed.2d 681 (1967)). Moreover, contrary to the Government’s position, the Proclamation’s waiver provisions are not a “sufficient safety valve” and do not mitigate the substantial hardships Plaintiffs have already suffered and will continue to suffer due to the Proclamation., Washington, 847 F.3d at 1168-69. Plaintiff Muslim Association of Hawaii, for example, has already lost members as a result of the Proclamation and its predecessors, and expects to lose more. The mere possibility of a discretionary waiver does not render Plaintiffs’ injuries “contingent [on] future events that may not occur.” Texas v. United States, 523 U.S. 296, 300, 118 S.Ct. 1257, 140 L.Ed.2d 406 (1998) (internal quotation marks omitted) (quoting Thomas v. Union Carbide Agric. Prods. Co., 473 U.S. 568, 580-81, 105 S.Ct. 3325, 87 L.Ed.2d 409 (1985)). “[Withholding court consideration” at this juncture would undoubtedly result in further hardship to Plaintiffs. See Nat’l Park Hosp. Ass’n, 538 U.S. at 808, 123 S.Ct. 2026. We therefore conclude that Plaintiffs’ claims are ripe for review. B. Doctrine of Consular Nonreyiewability As in the litigation over EO-1 and EO-2, the Government contends that we are precluded from reviewing the Proclamation by the consular nonreviewability doctrine. Under that doctrine, “the consular official’s decision'to issue or withhold a visa is not subject either to administrative or judicial review.” Li Hing of Hong Kong, Inc. v. Levin, 800 F.2d 970, 971 (9th Cir. 1986). In other words, “it is not within the province of arty court, unless expressly authorized by law, to review the determination of the political branch of the Government to exclude a given alien.” U.S. ex rel. Knauff v. Shaughnessy, 338 U.S. 537, 543, 70 S.Ct. 309, 94 L.Ed. 317 (1950) (emphasis added). Although the political branches’ power to exclude aliens is “largely immune from judicial control,” ,it is not entirely immune; such decisions are still subject to “narrow judicial -review.” Fiallo v. Bell, 430 U.S. 787, 792, 97 S.Ct. 1473, 52 L.Ed.2d 50 (1977) (citations omitted). Moreover, this case is not about individual visa denials, but instead concerns “the President’s promulgation of sweeping immigration policy.” Washington, 847 F.3d at 1162. Reviewing the latter “is a familiar judicial exercise,” Zivotofsky ex rel. Zivotofsky v. Clinton, 566 U.S. 189, 196, 132 S.Ct. 1421, 182 L.Ed.2d 423 (2012); courts do not hesitate to reach “challenges to the substance and implementation of immigration policy.” Washington, 847 F.3d at 1163. Although “[t]he Executive has broad discretion over the admission and exclusion of aliens, [ ] that discretion is not boundless. It extends only as far as the statutory authority conferred by Congress and may not transgress constitutional limitations. It is the duty of the courts, in cases properly before them, to say where those statutory and constitutional boundaries lie.” Abourezk v. Reagan, 785 F.2d 1043, 1061 (D.C. Cir. 1986), aff'd by an equally divided court, 484 U.S. 1, 108 S.Ct. 252, 98 L.Ed.2d 1 (1987). The Government’s arguments to the contrary are foreclosed by Sale v. Haitian Ctrs. Council, Inc., 509 U.S. 155, 187-88, 113 S.Ct. 2549, 125 L.Ed.2d 128 (1993). In Sate,-the Supreme Court reviewed on the merits whether the President had violated the INA and the United States’ treaty obligations by invoking his authority under 8 U.S.C. § 1182(f) to “suspend[ ] the entry of undocumented aliens from the high seas.” Id, at 160, 113 S.Ct. 2549. By reaching the merits, Sale necessarily first decided that the Court had jurisdiction to review whether the President’s orders under the color of § 1182(f) were ultra vires. See id. at 187-88, 113 S.Ct; 2549. As.in Sale, here we determine whether the Proclamation goes beyond the limits of-the President’s power to restrict alien entry. Because Sale did not address the Court’s jurisdiction explicitly, the Government speculates that the Supreme Court “could have decided it was unnecessary to” reach this issue, “given that the Court agreed with the government on the merits.” We disagree. Instead, the argument “that a court may decide [questions on the merits] before resolving Article III jurisdiction” is “readily refuted.” Steel Co. v. Citizens for a Better Env’t, 523 U.S. 83, 95, 118 S.Ct. 1003, 140 L.Ed.2d 210 (1998). “Without jurisdiction the court cannot proceed at all in any cause.” Id. at 94, 118 S.Ct. 1003 (quoting Ex parte McCardle, 7 Wall. 506, 514, 74 U.S. 506, 19 L.Ed. 264 (1868)). “On every writ of error or appeal, the first and fundamental question is that of jurisdiction .Id. (quoting Great S. Fire Proof Hotel Co. v. Jones, 177 U.S. 449, 453, 20 S.Ct. 690, 44 L.Ed. 842 (1900)). While it is true that “drive-by jurisdictional rulings ... have no precedential effect,” Sale was not a case where jurisdiction “had been assumed by the parties” and so went unaddressed. Id. at 91, 118 S.Ct. 1003. To the contrary, as the Government concedes, the parties in Sale thoroughly briefed and debated this issue. See U.S. Br. 13-18 (No. 92-344); Resp. Br. 50-58 (No. 92-344); Reply Br. 1-4 (No. 92-344). Judicial review of the legality of the Proclamation respects our constitutional structure and the limits on presidential power. The consular nonreviewability doctrine arose to honor Congress’s choices in setting immigration policy—not the President’s. See Sing v. United States, 158 U.S. 538, 547, 15 S.Ct. 967, 39 L.Ed. 1082 (1895). This doctrine shields from judicial review only the enforcement “through executive officers” of Congress’s “declared [immigration] policy,” id., not the President’s rival attempt to set policy. The notion that the Proclamation is unreviewable “runs contrary to the fundamental structure of our constitutional democracy.” Washington, 847 F.3d at 1161. We have jurisdiction to review such an action, and we do so here. C. Cause of Action and Statutory Standing The Government also contends that Plaintiffs’ statutory claims are unreviewable for lack of a cause of action and lack of statutory standing. We disagree. 1. APA Cause of Action We begin first by examining whether Plaintiffs’ claims are reviewable under the Administrative Procedure Act (“APA”), 5 U.S.C. § 701 et seq. Although the President’s actions fall outside the scope of direct review, see Franklin v. Massachusetts, 505 U.S. 788, 800-01, 112 S.Ct. 2767, 120 L.Ed.2d 636 (1992), “Review of the legality of Presidential action can ordinarily be obtained in a suit seeking to enjoin the officers who attempt to enforce the President’s directive,” id. at 828, 112 S.Ct. 2767 (Scalia, J., concurring); see also Chamber of Commerce v. Reich, 74 F.3d 1322, 1324, 1328 (D.C. Cir. 1996) (holding that the court could review whether an executive order conflicted with a federal statute where plaintiffs had sought to enjoin executive branch officials implementing the order). Here, Plaintiffs bring suit not just against the President, but also against the entities charged with carrying out his instructions: the Department of State and the Department of Homeland Security. Further, because these agencies have “consummat[ed]” their implementation of the Proclamation, from which “legal consequences will flow,” their actions are “final” and therefore reviewable under the APA. Bennett v. Spear, 520 U.S. 154, 177-78, 117 S.Ct. 1154, 137 L.Ed.2d 281 (1997) (citation and internal quotation marks omitted). Finally, the Government argues that the APA precludes review of actions committed to “agency discretion by law,”' 5 U.S.C. § 701(a)(2), and that the Proclamation is such an action. Plaintiffs counter that the Proclamation is not an unreviewable discretionary action, but rather is cab-ined by discernible constitutional and statutory limits. We are not persuaded by the Government’s characterization of the Proclamation as an action committed to the Executive’s discretion. This exception to the presumption of judicial review is “very narrow,” applying only where “statutes are drawn in such broad terms that ... there is no law to apply.” Heckler v. Chaney, 470 U.S. 821, 830, 105 S.Ct. 1649, 84 L.Ed.2d 714 (1985) (quoting Citizens to Preserve Overton Park v. Volpe, 401 U.S. 402, 410, 91 S.Ct. 814, 28 L.Ed.2d 136 (1971)). It does not apply where, as here, a court is tasked with reviewing whether an executive action has exceeded statutory authority. See Assiniboine & Sioux Tribes v. Bd. of Oil & Gas Conservation, 792 F.2d 782, 791-92 (9th Cir. 1986) (collecting cases). 2. Zone of Interests The Government additionally argues that even if an APA cause of action exists, Plaintiffs cannot avail themselves of it because they do not fall within the INA’s zone of interests. Once again, we are tasked with determining whether Plaintiffs’ interests “fall within the zone of interests protected by the law invoked.” Lexmark Int’l, Inc. v. Static Control Components, Inc., — U.S. —, 134 S.Ct. 1377, 1388, 188 L.Ed.2d 392 (2014) (quoting Allen v. Wright, 468 U.S. 737, 751, 104 S.Ct. 3315, 82 L.Ed.2d 556 (1984)). We conclude that Dr. Elshikh’s challenge to the Proclamation falls within the INA’s zone of interests. He asserts that the Proclamation prevents his brothers-in-law from reuniting with his family. See Legal Assistance for Vietnamese Asylum Seekers v. Dep’t of State, 45 F.3d 469, 471-72 (D.C. Cir. 1995) (“The INA authorizes the immigration of family members of United States citizens and permanent resident aliens. In originally enacting the INA, Congress implemented the underlying intention of our immigration laws regarding the preservation of the family unit. Given the nature and purpose of the statute, the resident appellants fall well within the zone of interest Congress intended to protect.” (internal citations and alterations omitted)), vacated on other grounds, 519 U.S. 1, 117 S.Ct. 378, 136 L.Ed.2d 1 (1996). John Does 1 and 2 fall within the same zone of interest, alleging that they will be separated from family members—a son-in-law and a mother, respectively. The Government maintains that these interests are inadequate because a relative of an alien seeking admission has no right to participate in visa proceedings. Yet the Supreme Court has reviewed the merits of cases brought by U.S. residents with a specific interest in the entry of a foreigner, as have we. See, e.g., Kerry v. Din, — U.S. —, 135 S.Ct. 2128, 2131, 192 L.Ed.2d 183 (2015) (involving a challenge by U.S. citizen to denial of her husband’s visa); Kleindienst v. Mandel, 408 U.S. 753, 756-60, 92 S.Ct. 2576, 33 L.Ed.2d 683 (1972) (arising from a challenge by American professors to denial of visa to journalist invited to speak at academic events); Cardenas v. United States, 826 F.3d 1164, 1167 (9th Cir. 2016) (addressing a U.S. citizen’s challenge to denial of husband’s visa). In a case similar to the one before us, Legal Assistance for Vietnamese Asylum Seekers v. Department of State, the D.C. Circuit found that visa sponsors had standing to sue when they alleged that the State Department’s refusal to process visa applications resulted in an injury to the sponsors. 45 F.3d at 471-73. Likewise, Hawaii’s “efforts to enroll students and hire faculty members who are nationals from the six designated countries fall within the zone of interests of the INA.” Hawai’i I, 859 F.3d at 766. The INA clearly provides for the admission of nonimmigrant students into the United States. See 8 U.S.C. § 1101(a)(15)(F) (identifying students qualified to pursue a full course of study); 8 C.F.R. § -214.2(f) (providing the requirements for nonimmigrant students, including those in colleges and universities). The INA also provides that nonimmigrant scholars and teachers may be admitted into the United States. See, e.g., 8 U.S.C. § 1101(a)(15)(J) (identifying students, scholars, trainees, and professors in fields of specialized knowledge or skill, among others); id. § 1101(a)(15)(H) (identifying aliens working in specialty occupations); id. § 1101(a)(15)(O) (identifying aliens with extraordinary abilities in the sciences, arts, education, business, or athletics). As we have said before, “[t]he INA leaves no doubt” that Hawai’i’s interests in “student- and employment-based visa petitions .for its students and faculty are related to the basic purposes of the INA.” Hawai’i I, 859 F.3d at 766. Further, the Muslim Association of Ha-wai’i (the “Association”) alleges that its members will suffer, harms such as separation from their families, and that the Association itself will suffer the loss of its members if it is not granted a preliminary injunction. Once again, we conclude that “Plaintiffs’ claims of injury as a result of the alleged statutory violations are, at the least, ‘arguably, within the zone , of interests’ that the. INA protects” and therefore judicially reviewable. Id. at 767 (quoting Bank of Am. Corp. v. City of Miami, — U.S.—, 137 S.Ct. 1296, 1303, 197 L.Ed.2d 678 (2017) (citation omitted) (emphasis added)). 3. Equitable Cause of Action Even if there were no “final agency action” review under the APA, courts have also permitted judicial review of presidential orders ' implemented through the actions of other federal- officials. This cause of action, which exists outside of the APA, allows courts to review ultra vires actions by the President that go beyond the scope of the President’s statutory authority. See Reich, 74 F.3d at 1327-28 (citing Am. Sch. of Magnetic Healing v. McAnnulty, 187 U.S. 94, 108, 110, 23 S.Ct. 33, 47 L.Ed. 90 (1902) and Leedom v. Kyne, 358 U.S. 184, 188-89, 79 S.Ct. 180, 3 L.Ed.2d 210 (1958)) (permitting challenge to an Executive Order promulgated by the president and implemented by the Secretary of Labor, despite the lack of a final agency action under the APA); see also Duncan v. Muzyn, 833 F.3d 567, 577-79 (6th Cir. 2016); R.I. Dep’t Envtl. Mgmt. v. United States, 304 F.3d 31, 40-43 (1st Cir. 2002); cf. Armstrong v. Exceptional Child Ctr., Inc.,— U.S. —, 135 S.Ct. 1378, 1384, 191 L.Ed.2d 471 (2015) (citing McAnnulty for the proposition. that federal courts may enjoin “violations of federal law by federal officials”). When, as here, Plaintiffs challenge the President’s statutory authority to issue the Proclamation, we are provided with an additional avenue by which to review these claims. Haying concluded that Plaintiffs’ claims are justiciable, we now turn to the district court’s preliminary injunction. III. The Preliminary Injunction A preliminary injunction is “an extraordinary remedy that may only be awarded upon a clear showing that the plaintiff is entitled to such relief.” Winter v. Nat. Res. Def. Council, Inc., 555 U.S. 7, 22, 129 S.Ct. 365, 172 L.Ed.2d 249 (2008). “A plaintiff seeking a preliminary injunction must establish [1] that he is likely to succeed on the merits, [2] that he is likely to suffer irreparable harm in the absence of preliminary relief, [3] that the balance of equities tips in his favor, and [4] that an injunction is in the public interest.” Id. at 20, 129 S.Ct. 365. We may affirm the district court’s entry of the preliminary, injunction “on any ground supported by the record.” Enyart v. Nat’l Conference of Bar Exam’rs, Inc., 630 F.3d 1153, 1159 (9th Cir. 2011). A. Likelihood of Success on the Merits We consider first whether Plaintiffs are likely to succeed on the merits. In so doing, we consider four arguments advanced by Plaintiffs: (1) the President has exceeded his congressionally delegated authority under 8 U.S.C. § 1182(f); (2) the President has failed to .satisfy § 1182(f)’s requirement that prior to suspending entry, the President must find that entry of the affected aliens would be detrimental to the interests of the United States; .(3) the Proclamation's bah on immigration from the designated countries violates 8 U.S.C. § 1152(a)(l)(A)’s prohibition on nationality-based discrimination; and (4) the President'lacks the authority to issue.the Proclamation in the absence of ■ a statutory grant. We address each in turn. ' 1. Scope of Authority under § 1182(f) In determining whether the President has the statutory authority to issue the Proclamation under 8 U.S.C. § 1182(f), we begin with the text: See Sale, 509 U.S. at 171, 113 S.Ct. 2549; Haig v. Agee, 453 U.S. 280, 289-90, 101 S.Ct. 2766, 69 L.Ed.2d 640 (1981). But our inquiry does not end there. See FDA v. Brown, & Williamson Tobacco Corp„ 529 U.S. 120, 132-33, 120 S.Ct. 1291, 146 L.Ed.2d 121 (2000); see also United States v. Witkovich, 353 U.S. 194, 199, 77 S.Ct. 779, 1 L.Ed.2d 765 (1957) (declining to “read in isolation and literally” an immigration statute that “appealed] to-confer upon the Attorney General unbounded authority”). In Brown & Williamson, the Court looked beyond the “particular statutory provision in isolation,” - and interpreted the statute to create a “symmetrical and coherent regulatory scheme.” 529 U.S. at 132-33, 120 S.Ct. 1291. The Court thus undertook a holistic review, which entailed ½amining the statute’s legislative history, see id. at 146-47, 120 S.Ct. 1291, “congressional policy,” id. at 139, 120 S.Ct. 1291, and “common sense as to the manner in which Congress is likely to delegate a policy decision of such economic and political magnitude,” id. at 133, 120 S.Ct. 1291. Taking guidance from the Court’s instructions in Brown & Williamson to look beyond the challenged “provision in isolation,” id. at 132, 120 S.Ct. 1291, we conclude that the Proclamation is inconsistent not just with the text of § 1182(f), but with the statutory framework as a whole, legislative history, and prior executive practice. Although no single factor may be disposi-tive, these four factors taken together strongly suggest that Plaintiffs are likely to succeed on their claim that the President has exceeded his delegated authority under section 1182(f). We discuss each factor in greater detail below. a. Statutory Text We turn first to the text of § 1182(f). The INA grants the President the power to “suspend the entry of ... any class of aliens” “for such period as he shall deem necessary.” 8 U.S.C. § 1182(f) (emphasis added). We note at the outset that broad though the provision may be, the text does not grant the President an unlimited exclusion power. Congress’s choice of words is suggestive, at least, of its hesitation in permitting the President to impose entry suspensions of unlimited and indefinite duration. “The word ‘suspend’ connotes a temporary deferral.” Hoffman ex rel. N.L.R.B. v. Beer Drivers & Salesmen’s Local Union No. 888, 536 F.2d 1268, 1277 (9th Cir. 1976) (citing Webster’s Third New International Dictionary (1966) and Bouvier’s Law Dictionary (3d ed. 1914)). “[T]he word ‘period,’ ” in turn, “connotes a stated interval of time commonly thought of in terms of years, months, and days.” United States v. Updike, 281 U.S. 489, 495, 50 S.Ct. 367, 74 L.Ed. 984 (1930). This construction of the term “period” is reinforced by the requirement that it be “necessary.” § 1182(f). At argument, the Government contended that the indefinite duration of the Proclamation’s entry restrictions is consistent with the text of § 1182(f). United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, 17-17168 State of Hawaii v. Donald Trump, YouTube (Dec. 7, 2017) at 22:45-23:15. Citing to § 4 of the Proclamation, which provides for a review of the restrictions every 180 days, the Government argued that because the suspensions will be “revisited” twice a year, the Proclamation is less indefinite than President Reagan’s and President Carter’s orders regarding Cubans and Iranians, respectively. Id. at 23:04-23:14. This argument is unpersuasive. The Government has repeatedly emphasized that the travel restrictions are necessary to incentivize and pressure foreign governments into improving their information-sharing and identity-management practices. This creates a peculiar situation where the restrictions may persist ad infi-nitum. To paraphrase a well-known adage, the Proclamation’s review process mandates that the restrictions will continue until practices improve. The Proclamation’s duration can be considered definite only to the extent one presumes that the restrictions will, indeed, incentivize countries to improve their practices. Where, as here, there is little evidence to support such an assumption, the Proclamation risks producing a virtually perpetual restriction—a result that the plain text of § 1182(f) heavily disfavors for such a far-reaching order. b. Statutory Framework We next examine the statutory framework of the INA. Brown & Williamson, 529 U.S. at 133, 120 S.Ct. 1291. We first note that the Constitution gives Congress the primary, if not exclusive, authority to set immigration policy. See Arizona v. United States, 567 U.S. 387, 409, 132 S.Ct. 2492, 183 L.Ed.2d 351 (2012) (citing Galvan v. Press, 347 U.S. 522, 531, 74 S.Ct. 737, 98 L.Ed. 911 (1954)); see also Fiallo, 430 U.S. at 792, 97 S.Ct. 1473 (“[0]ver no conceivable subject is the legislative power of Congress more complete than it is over the admission of aliens.” (citation and internal quotation marks omitted)); Oceanic Steam Nav. Co. v. Stranahan, 214 U.S. 320, 340, 29 S.Ct. 671, 53 L.Ed. 1013 (1909) (“[T]he authority of Congress over the right to bring aliens into the United States embraces every conceivable aspect of that subject .... ”). Congress has delegated substantial power in this area to the Executive Branch, but the Executive may not exercise that power in a manner that conflicts with the INA’s finely reticulated regulatory scheme governing the admission of foreign nationals. In line with this principle, the D.C. Circuit has held that the Executive cannot use general exclusionary powers conferred by Congress to circumvent a specific INA provision without showing a threat to public interest, welfare, safety or security that was independent of the specific provision. Abourezk, 785 F.2d at 1057-58. The Abourezk court reasoned that the Executive’s use of the general exclusionary provision to deny entry to members of groups proscribed in the specific provision would “rob [the general provision] of its independent scope and meaning,” render the specific provision superfluous, and conflict with limits that Congress imposed on the use of the specific provision. Id. at 1057. We agree with the D.C. Circuit’s approach and apply it to § 1182(f). We conclude that the Proclamation conflicts with the statutory framework of the INA by indefinitely nullifying Congress’s considered judgments on matters of immigration. The Proclamation’s stated purposes are to prevent entry of terrorists and persons posing a threat to public safety, as well as to enhance vetting capabilities and processes to achieve that goal. See 82 Fed. Reg. at 45,161. Yet Congress has already acted to effectuate these purposes. As for the prevention of entry of terrorists and persons likely to pose public-safety threats, Congress has considered these concerns, and enacted legislation to restrict entry of persons on those specific grounds. Under 8 U.S.C. § 1182(a)(3)(B), any alien who has “engaged in a terrorist activity” is inadmissible, unless the Secretary of State determines in his unreviewable discretion that the alien qualifies for a waiver.' See id. § 1182(d)(3)(B). With regard to public safety, Congress has created numerous inadmissibility grounds, including an array of crime-related grounds. See, e.g., id. § 1182(a)(2)(A) (crime of moral turpitude or drug offense); § 1182(a)(2)(B) (two or more offenses for which the aggregate sentences were five years or more); § 1182(a)(2)(C) (drug trafficking or benefitting from a relative who recently trafficked drags); § 1182(a)(2)(D) (prostitution or “commercialized vice”); § 1182(a)(2)(H) (human trafficking); § 1182(a)(2)(I) (money laundering); § 1182(a)(3) (“Security and related grounds”). With respect to the enhancement of vetting capabilities and processes, we likewise conclude that Congress has considered the reality that foreign countries vary with respect to information-sharing and identity-management practices, as well as terrorism risk. In fact, Congress addressed those concerns in a neighboring section, 8 U.S.C. § 1187 (the Visa Waiver Program or “VWP”), which was amended as recently as 2015 to address the heightened risk of terrorism in certain countries. See Visa Waiver Program Improvement and Terrorist Travel Prevention Act of 2015, Pub. L. No. 114-113, § 203, 129 Stat. 2242, 2989-91. Significantly, many of the criteria used to determine whether a foreign national’s country of origin qualifies for VWP treatment are replicated in the Proclamation’s list of baseline criteria. This includes that the countries use electronic passports, § 1187(a)(3)(B), report lost or stolen passports, § 1187(c)(2)(D), and not provide safe haven for terrorists, § 1187(a)(12)(D)(iii). See 82 Fed. Reg. 45,162. The Proclamation even makes participation in the Visa Waiver Program part of its criteria for evaluating countries. Id, at 45,162-63. The Government argues 'that the 'Visa Waiver ■ Program is irrelevant because its “specific purpose” is the “facilitation of travel,” and therefore it does not foreclose the President from addressing the “separate issue of what to do about a country that fails so many criteria that its information-sharing practices and other risk factors are collectively inadequate.” This argument falls short. The Visa Waiver Program’s travel facilitation purpose is notable, but not for the reason advanced by the Government. As we explained above, the Visa Waiver Program utilizes many of the same criteria relied upon by the Proclamation. Congress thus expressly considered the reality that countries vary with respect to information-sharing and identity-management practices, as well as terrorism risk. In response to that reality, Congress could have enacted measures restricting travel from countries with inadequate risk factors, taken no -action, or enacted provisions facilitating travel from low-risk countries. In creating the ■ Visa Waiver Program, Congress -chose the third approach. In so doing, Congress necessarily -determined that the interests- of the United- States would be better served by facilitating more travel, not less. By heavily restricting travel from the affected countries, the Proclamation thus conflicts with the purpose of the Visa Waiver Program. More broadly, the Government contends that Plaintiffs’ reliance on the statutory framework is misplaced because § 1182(f) empowers, the President to issue “swpple- mental” admission restrictions when he finds that the national interest so warrants. Although true, this merely begs the question of whether the restrictions at issue here are “supplemental.”, We conclude that the indefinite suspension of entry of all nationals from multiple countries, absent wartime or exigent circumstances, nullifies rather than “supplements” the existing statutory scheme., The President is not foreclosed from acting to enhance vetting capabilities and other practices, in order to strengthen existing immigration law, but must do so in a manner consistent with Congress’s intent. Put another way, the President cannot effectively abrogate existing immigration law while purporting to merely strengthen it; the cure cannot be worse than the disease. Here, the President has used his § 1182(f) and § 1185(a) powers to nullify numerous specific provisions of the INA indefinitely with regard to all nationals of six countries, and has overridden Congress’s legislative responses to the same concerns the Proclamation aims to áddress. The Executive cannot without assent of Congress supplant its statutory scheme with one stroke of a presidential pen. c. Legislative History The legislative history suggests further limitations on § 1182(f)’s broad grant of authority. Prior to passing the INA, which included § 1182(f), the House of Representatives debated an amendment that would have continued to restrict the President’s authority to suspend immigration only “[w]hen the United States is at war or during the existence of a national emergency proclaimed by the President.” 98 ■Cong. Rec. 4423 (statement of Rep. Mul-ter). Speaking in opposition to the ultimately unsuccessful amendment, the sponsor of the bill urged that § 1182(f)’s broad language was “absolutely essential,” because : ■ [W]hen there is an outbreak of an epidemic in. some .country,, whence these people are coming, it is impossible for Congress to act. People might conceivably in large numbers come to the United States and bring all sorts of communicable diseases with them. More than that, suppose we have a period of great unemployment? In the judgment of the committee, it is advisable at such times to permit the President to say that for a certain time we are not going to aggravate that situation.' Id. (statement of Rep. Walter) (emphasis added). Although Representative Walter and the bill’s supporters did not “intend! ] [their] list of examples to be exhaustive,” Pension Benefit Guaranty Corp. v. LTV Corp., 496 U.S. 633, 649, 110 S.Ct. 2668, 110 L.Ed.2d 579 (1990), “it is significant that the example[s] Congress did give” all share the common trait of exigency. Moran v. London Records, Ltd., 827 F.2d 180, 183 (7th Cir. 1987). Proponents of § 1182(f) deliberately pinned the provision to examples where it would be difficult, if not impossible, for Congress to react in a timely manner, thus necessitating swift presidential action. The legislative history, then, suggests that despite § 1182(f)’s facially broad grant of power, the Proclamation—which cites to no exigencies, national or otherwise, and does not respond to a situation Congress would be ill-equipped to address—falls outside of the boundaries Congress set. d. Prior Executive Practice Notwithstanding the aforementioned factors, the Government argues that “historical practice confirms the breadth of, and deference owed to, the President’s exercise of authority under Sections 1182(f) and 1185(a)(1).” We pass no judgment on the legality or appropriateness of the Executive’s past practice, but we consider such practice to the extent it bears on congressional acquiescence. See Abour-ezk, 785 F.2d at 1055 (“[E]vidence of congressional acquiescence (or the lack thereof) in an administrative construction of the statutory language during the thirty-four years since the current act was passed could be telling.”); see also Zemel v. Rusk, 381 U.S. 1, 17-18, 85 S.Ct. 1271, 14 L.Ed.2d 179 (1965) (“We have held ... and reaffirm today, that the 1926 [Passport] Act must take its content from history: it authorizes only those passport refusals and restrictions ‘which it could fairly be argued were adopted by Congress in light of prior administrative practice.’ ” (quoting Kent v. Dulles, 357 U.S. 116, 128, 78 S.Ct. 1113, 2 L.Ed.2d 1204 (1958))). The Government is correct that presidents have suspended the entry of foreign nationals in various foreign policy and national security settings, but we nevertheless conclude that the Proclamation and its immediate predecessors, EO-1 and EO-2, stand apart in crucial respects. First, out of the forty-three proclamations or orders issued under § 1182(f) prior to EO-1, forty-two targeted only government officials or aliens who engaged in specific conduct and their associates or relatives. See Kate M. Manuel, Cong. Research Serv., R44743, Executive Authority to Exclude Aliens: In Brief 6-10, (2017) (listing prior § 1182(f) proclamations and orders). Only one § 1182(f) proclamation suspended entry of all nationals of a foreign country. Proclamation 5517, issued in 1986, suspended entry of Cuban nationals as immigrants in response to the Cuba government’s own suspension of “all types of procedures regarding the execution” of an immigration agreement between the United States and Cuba. 51 Fed. Reg. 30,470 (Aug. 22,1986). In addition, President Carter delegated authority under § 1185(a) to the Secretary of State and the Attorney General to prescribe limitations governing the entry of Iranian nationals, but did not ban Iranian immigrants outright. See Exec. Order 12172, 44 Fed. Reg. 67,947 (Nov. 26, 1979), amended by Exec. Order 12206, 45 Fed. Reg. 24,101 (Apr. 7, 1980). These isolated instances, which applied to a single country each and were never passed on by a court, cannot sustain the weight placed on them by the Government. See Solid Waste Agency of N. Cook Cty. v. U.S. Army Corps of Eng’rs, 531 U.S. 159, 169, 121 S.Ct. 675, 148 L.Ed.2d 576 (2001) (“Although we have recognized congressional acquiescence to administrative interpretations of a statute in some situations, we have done so with extreme care.”). Moreover, unlike the Proclamation, the Cuba and Iran orders were intended to address specific foreign policy concerns distinct from general immigration concerns already addressed by Congress. The same holds true for the vast majority of prior § 1182(f) suspensions. See, e.g., Executive Order 13606, 77 Fed. Reg. 24,571 (Apr. 22, 2012) (suspending entry of persons who facilitated cyber-attacks and human rights abuses by the Syrian or Iranian governments); Proclamation 6925, 61 Fed. Reg. 52,233 (Oct. 3, 1996) (suspending entry of persons “who formulate, implement, or benefit from policies that impede Burma’s transition to democracy, and the immediate family members of such persons”); Proclamation 6569, 58 Fed. Reg. 31,897 (June 3, 1993) (suspending entry of persons “who formulate, implement, or benefit from policies that impede the progress of the negotiations designed to restore constitutional government to Haiti, and the immediate family members of such persons”). The only prior entry suspension lacking a foreign policy or national security purpose distinct from general immigration concerns is found in President Reagan’s High Seas Interdiction Proclamation and its implementing executive orders. That Proclamation suspended “entry of undocumented aliens from the high seas” and ordered that such entry “be prevented by the interdiction of certain vessels carrying such aliens.” Proclamation 4865, 46 Fed. Reg. 48,107 (Sep. 29, 1981). Consequently, Proclamation 4865 and its implementing executive orders, unlike the present Proclamation, applied by their terms almost entirely to aliens who were already statutorily inadmissible. See id.; Exec. Order 12324, 46 Fed. Reg. 48,109 (Sep. 29,1981); Exec. Order 12807, 57 Fed. Reg. 23,133 (May 24,1992). We recognize that presidents ordinarily may use—and have used—§ 1182(f) to suspend the entry of aliens who might otherwise be admissible under the INA. But when, as here, a presidential proclamation addresses only matters of immigration already passed upon by Congress, the President’s § 1182(f) authority is at its nadir. The High Seas Interdiction suspensions are consistent with this principle because they apply predominantly to. otherwise inadmissible aliens. In contrast, by suspending entry of a class of 150 million potentially admissible aliens, the Proclamation, sweeps broader than any past entry suspension and indefinitely nullifies existing immigration law as to multiple countries. The Proclamation does so in the name of addressing general public-safety and terrorism threats, and what it deems to be foreign countries’ inadequate immigration-related practices—concerns that Congress, has already addressed. We conclude • that, the Executive’s past practice does not support the Government’s position. Instead, such practice merely confirms that the Proclamation, like EO-2, “is unprecedented in its scope, purpose, and breadth.” Hawai’i I,,859 F.3d at 779. e. Constitutional Avoidance and Separation of Powers Principles of separation of powers further compel our conclusion that the Proclamation exceeds the scope of authority delegated to the President under § 1182(f). It is a bedrock principle of statutory interpretation that “where an otherwise acceptable construction of a statute would raise serious constitutional problems, the Court will construe the statute to avoid such problems unless such construction is plainly contrary to the intent of Congress.” Edward J. DeBartolo Corp. v. Fla. Gulf Coast Bldg. & Constr. Trades Council, 485 U.S. 568, 575, 108 S.Ct. 1392, 99 L.Ed.2d 645 (1988); see also INS v. St. Cyr, 553 U.S. 289, 300 (2001) (“[W]e are obligated to. construe the statute to avoid [serious constitutional] problems.”). Here, a conclusion that the Proclamation does not exceed the President’s delegated authority under § 1182(f) would raise “serious constitutional problems”. and should thus be avoided. See. DeBartolo, 485 U.S. at 575, 108 S.Ct. 1392. Reading § 1182(f) to permit the. Proclamation’s sweeping ex-, ercise of authority would effectively render the statute void of a requisite “intelligible principle” delineating the “general policy” to be applied and “the boundaries of th[e] delegated authority,” Mistretta v. United States, 488 U.S. 361, 372-73, 109 S.Ct. 647, 102 L.Ed.2d 714 (1989). Without any meaningful limiting principles, the statute would constitute an invalid delegation of Congress’s “exclusive[ ]”■ authority, Galvan, 347 U.S. at 531, 74 S.Ct. 737, to formulate policies regarding the. entry of aliens. As discussed above, the Proclamation functions as an executive override of broad swaths of immigration laws that Congress has used its considered judgment to enact. If the Proclamation is—as the Government contends—authorized under § 1182(f), then § 1182(f) upends the normal functioning of separation, of powers. Even Congress is prohibited from’ enabling “unilateral Presidential action that either repeals or amends parts of duly enacted statutes.” Clinton v. City of New York, 524 U.S. 417, 439, 118 S.Ct. 2091, 141 L.Ed.2d 393 (1998). This is true even when the executive actions respond to issues of “first importance,” issues that potentially, place the country’s “Constitution and its survival in peril.” Id, at 449,118 S.Ct. 2091 (Kennedy, J,, concurring). In addressing such critical issues, the political branches still do not “have a somewhat free hand to reallocate their own authority,” as the “Constitution’s structure requires a stability which transcends the convenience of, the moment” and was crafted iij recognition that “[c]on-centration of power in the hands of a single branch is a threat to liberty.” Id, at 449-50,118 S.Ct. 2091. And the Proclamation’s sweeping assertion of authority is fundamentally legislative in nature. Where an action “ha[s] the purpose and effect of .altering the legal rights, duties and relations of persons, including the Attorney General, Executive Branch officials and [an alien], all outside the legislative branch,” the Supreme Court has held that the action is “essentially legislative in purpose and effect” and thus cannot bypass the “single, finely wrought and exhaustively considered, procedure” for enacting legislation. INS v. Chadha, 462 U.S. 919, 951-52, 103 S.Ct. 2764, 77 L.Ed.2d 317 (1983). Here, the Proclamation does not merely alter the “legal rights, duties and relations” of a -single alien, id. at 952,103 S.Ct. 2764, but rather affects the rights, duties and relations of countless American citizens and" lawful permanent residents whose ability to be reunified with, and receive visits from, their family members'is inhibited by the Proclamation; the Proclamation also significantly affects numerous officials within the Department of Homeland Security-and Department of State.’ Whereas the House’s action in Chadha “operated ... to overrule the Attorney General,” id., here the Proclamation would operate to overrule Congress’s “extensive and complex” scheme of immigration laws, Arizona, 567 U.S; at 395, 132 S.Ct. 2492, as. they pertain to. the eight affected countries and the over 150 million affected individuals. Decades ’ of. Supreme Court precedent support reading meáningful limitations into § 1182(f) in order to avoid striking down the statute itself as an unconstitutional delegation. For' exainple, in Zemel v. Rusk, the Court opted to read in limiting principles despite statutory language that, on its face, appeared to grant the Executive complete discretion: “The Secretary of State may grant and issue passports under such rules as the President shall designate and prescribe for arid on behalf of thÁ United States.” 381 U.S. at 7-8, 17, 85 S.Ct. 1271. By so doing, the Court saved the statute fr